Search Results for “farah”

• FARĀH

  Daniel Balland

  Farāh has retained practically the same name since the first millennium B.C.E. At the end of the first century B.C.E, the “very great city” of Phra in Aria was reckoned as a major stage on the overland route between the Levant and India.

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• FARĀHRŪD

  Daniel Balland

  river in southwestern Afghanistan, rising at about 3,300 meters above sea level in the Band-e Bayān, and, after a course of 712 km in a south-western direction, ending in the Hāmūn-e Ṣāberī (Sīstān) at an altitude of 475 m.

• FARĀHĪ, ABŪ NAṢR BADR-al-DĪN MASʿŪD

  Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī

  or Moḥammad, Maḥmūd; b. Abī Bakr b. Ḥosayn b. Jaʿfar Farāhī (fl. 13th century), poet and litterateur.

• FARĀHĀNĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ṢĀDEQ

  Cross-Reference

  See ADĪB-AL-MAMĀLEK FARĀHĀNĪ.

• FARAḤĀBĀD

  Wolfram Kleiss

  common place name throughout Persia, without any cultural or historical significance. The three best-known locales with this name are a city quarter of Tehran, the remains of a palace complext near Isfahan, and an Abbasid pleasure palace on the Caspian sea.

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• FARĀHĀNĪ, MĪRZĀ MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN

  Hafez Farmayan

  (1847-1913) Persian diplomat and author of a travelogue (safar-nāma) intended to show how a Shiʿite pilgrim could successfully undertake the journey to Mecca. In it one learns much about Arabia, the Ottoman empire, and the Sunnis in general.

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• FARAHVAŠI, Bahrām

  Mahnaz Moazami

  Bahrām Farahvaši was born into a family with a long tradition of literary and scholarly pursuits.  His father, ʿAli Moḥammad Farahvaši (1875-1968), was one of the pioneers of education reform in the early 20th century and established modern schools in Tehran, Zanjan, and Azerbaijan.

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• FARĀHĀN

  Reżā Reżāzāda Langarūdī

  a district (baḵš) in Tafreš subprovince (šahrestān) of the Central (Markazī) province.

• BONGĀH-E ḤEMĀYAT-E MĀDARĀN O KŪDAKĀN

  EIr

  (Institute for the protection of mothers and infants), founded 16 December 1940 on the order of Reżā Shah, originally funded by charitable contributions.

• AḤMAD SOLṬĀN AFŠĀR

  R. M. Savory

  Qizilbāš amir in the Safavid service.  

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN i. Establishment of Kanun

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  Kanun’s goal was to produce and offer support and services for children in better settings than the grim and austere school classrooms.

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• ASFEZĀR

  C. E. Bosworth

  (or ASFŌZAR), designation of a district (kūra) and later its chief town in the Herat quarter of Khorasan.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  an institute with a wide range of cultural, artistic, and educational activities for children and adolescents, founded in December 1965.

• ABDĀLĪ

  C. M. Kieffer

  ancient name of a large tribe, or more particularly of a group of Afghan tribes, better known by the name of Dorrānī since the reign of Aḥmad Šāh Dorrānī (1747-72). 

• ČAḴĀNSŪR

  Daniel Balland

  principal town of the large Ḵāšrūd delta oasis in northeastern Sīstān.

• EBN ḤAWŠAB, ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤASAN

  Heinz Halm

  b. Faraj (or Faraḥ) b. Ḥawšab b. Zāḏān Najjār Kūfī, known also as Manṣūr al-Yaman (d. 914), Ismaʿili dāʿī and founder of the Ismaʿili community in northern Yemen.

• BAKWĀ, DAŠT-E

  D. Balland

  an extensive piedmont alluvial plain in the southwest of Afghanistan, drained by one of the Sīstān rivers, the Ḵospāsrūd. In past times it enjoyed a measure of prosperity based on qanāt irrigation.

• ʿANBARĪ, ABU’L-ʿABBĀS

  C. E. Bosworth

  4th-5th/10th-11th century poet and prose stylist of Khorasan and statesman in the service of the Qarakhanids.

• MOḤSENI, Akbar

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi

  (1912-1995) composer and prominent performer of the Ud (lute).

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN ii. Libraries

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  an institute with a wide range of cultural, artistic, and educational activities for children and adolescents, founded under the patronage of Queen (Shahbanou) Farah Pahlavi in December 1965.

• JOVAYN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  name of three historical localities: a village in Fārs, a fortress o the northeast of Lake Zereh in Sistān, and especially the district of that name in Khorasan.

• HELMAND RIVER ii. IN ZOROASTRIAN TRADITION

  Gherardo Gnoli

  According to Avestan geography, the region of the Haētumant River extends in a southwest direction from the point of confluence of the Arḡandāb with the Helmand.

• IRAQ xii. PERSIAN SCHOOLS IN IRAQ

  Eqbal Yaghmaʾi

  At the time of the 1905-11 Constitutional Revolution in Persia, local committees in Iraq created Persian-language schools with the backing of the leading, progressive religious scholars.

• ASFEZĀRĪ, ABŪ ḤĀTEM

  D. Pingree

  5th/12th-century astronomer, of whose life almost nothing is known.

• BADĪʿ-AL-ZAMĀN

  M. E. Subtelny

  (d. ca. 1514), Timurid prince, who rebelled against his father,  Sultan Ḥosayn Bāyqarā (r. Herat 1469-1506).

• LAYARD, Austen Henry

  John Curtis

  Layard is chiefly known for his excavations in northern Iraq between 1845 and 1851. He worked at the Assyrian sites of Nimrud and Nineveh, the North-West Palace of Assurnasirpal II and South-West Palace of Sennacherib, where he found stone bas-reliefs and figures as well as cuneiform tablets and small objects in bronze, glass, and ivory.

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• MANJIL

  Marcel Bazin

  town in the Rudbār district, Gilān province. Located at lat 36°44′ N, long 49°24′ E, where the Qezel-owzan (Kızıl-uzun) and Šāhrud rivers unite into the Safidrud.

• HOMĀYUN

  Jean During

  (lit. “auspicious”), an important modal system (dastgāh) in traditional Persian music.

• KĀBOLI

  Rawan Farhadi and J. R. Perry

  the colloquial Persian spoken in the capital of Afghanistan, Kabul, and its environs. It has been a common and prestigious vernacular for several centuries, since Kabul was long ruled by dynasts of Iran (the Safavids) or India (the Mughals) for whom Persian was the language of culture and administration.

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• ḴĀLEDI, Mehdi

  E. Naḵjavāni

  Persian violinist and songwriter (1919-1990). As a violinist, Ḵāledi was known for his command of traditional Persian music and its innovative interpretation. As a composer, he was admired for the range of his rhythmically varied and elegiac songs.

• CROWN v. In the Qajar and Pahlavi periods

  Yaḥyā Ḏokāʾ

  Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah (r. 1797-1834) ordered the cre­ation of a tall, jeweled crown with eight peaks on a red velvet cap, the Kayānī crown. From that time on all Qajar kings wore this crown, which is now kept in the Bānk-e markazī-e Īrān (Central bank of Iran).

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• SISTĀNI, MIRZĀ ŠĀH-ḤOSAYN

  Kioumars Ghereghlou

  (1571-after 1627), Persian historian, poet, and bureaucrat whose works include a local history of Sistān, a biographical dictionary of poets, and two maṯnawis.

• CITIES v. Modern Urbanization and Modernization in Afghanistan

  Erwin Grötzbach

  Since 1359 Š./1980 the flight of millions of Afghans, not only out of the country but also to relatively secure cities like Kabul and Mazār-e Šarīf, has been reflected in a sharp increase in the level of urbanization.

• AFGHANISTAN i. Geography

  J. F. Shroder, Jr.

  Afghanistan has an extreme continental, arid climate which is characterized by desert, steppe, and highland temperature and precipitation regimes.

• ENTEẒĀM, ʿABD-ALLĀH and NAṢR-ALLĀH

  Fakhreddin Azimi

  two brothers active in 20th-century Persian politics. ʿAbd-Allāh (1895-1983), as a career diplomat, served in various posts, including minister of foreign affairs. Naṣr-Allāh (1899-1980) held a series of ministerial posts under Moḥammad Reżā Shah, including the ambassadorship to the United States.

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• EDUCATION xiv. SPECIAL SCHOOLS

  Samineh Baghchehban-Pirnazar

  Until 1968 responsibility for children with special educational needs had fallen on the individual schools. In that year the National Organization for Special Education  was established as a general directorate under a deputy minister of education.

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• ČANG

  Ḥosayn-ʿAlī Mallāḥ

  In Persian literature, particularly in poetry, the harp kept an important place. In the Pahlavi text on King Ḵosrow and his page the čang player is listed among the finest of musicians. The harp was also one of the instruments played by the inmates of the harem.

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• ʿAWFĪ, SADĪD-AL-DĪN

  J. Matīnī

  an important Persian writer of the late 6th/12th and early 7th/13th centuries.

• AYMĀQ

  A. Janata

  (Turk. Oymaq), a term designating tribal peoples in Khorasan and Afghanistan, mostly semi-nomadic or semi-sedentary, in contrast to the fully sedentary, non-tribal population of the area.

• HERAT ii. HISTORY, PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  W. J. Vogelsang

  The present town of Herat dates back to ancient times, but its exact age remains unknown. In Achaemenid times (ca. 550-330 BCE), the surrounding district was known as Haraiva.

• GEREŠK

  Daniel Balland

  a small oasis-city on the right bank of the Helmand river in Southern Afghanistan, the headquarters of the district (woloswālī) of Nahr-e Serāj within the province of Helmand.

• DAWLATĀBĀD

  Daniel Balland

  name of several localities in Afghanistan that have grown up around civil or military government buildings.

• KAJAKAY DAM

  Siddieq Noorzoy

  dam built on the Helmand River as a part of the multi-faceted projects aimed at the development of the Helmand Valley.

• CENTRAL ASIA viii. Relations with Persia in the 19th Century

  Abbas Amanat

  The question of Central Asia in the 13th/19th century, from the Persian point of view, was a promi­nent one not only because of Persian territorial claims over Marv, Ḵīva, Saraḵs, and other peripheral regions, but also because of the threat of the Turkmen frontier tribes of Tekka, Yomūt, and Gūklān to the security of Khorasan, Astarābād, and Māzandarān.

• BAZAR iv. In Afghanistan

  E. F. Grötzbach

  In Afghanistan a bāzār is a collection of shops and workshops forming a topographic unit. As regards size and layout, however, there can be great differences.

• B~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the letter B entries. 

• EDUCATION xvii. HIGHER EDUCATION

  David Menashri

  Initially Reżā Shah’s government, like the Qajar government before it, encouraged aspiring professionals to study abroad, but, while urging them to absorb practical elements of Western culture, he also warned them to reject “harmful” influences and preserve their own national identity.

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• RUDBĀR

  Marcel Bazin and Christian Bromberger

  town and district in southwestern Gilān. Rudbār is located on both banks of the Safidrud river at lat 36°51′ N, long 49°25′ E, at an average altitude of 300 m.

• CONGRATULATIONS

  Žāla Āmūzgār

  the custom of conveying congratulations on such happy occasions as the birth of a child, a birthday anniversary, a marriage, a coronation, or a national or religious festival.

• CHRISTIANITY iii. In Central Asia And Chinese Turkestan

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  By the late 3rd century the Syrian church was strongly established in the western Persian empire. The Nestorian church of Persia (“Church of the East”) conducted the most significant and endur­ing missionary work in Transoxania and beyond.

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• DAF(F) AND DAYERA

  Jean During, Veronica Doubleday

  terms applied to types of frame drum common in both the art music and popular traditions of Persia. Such drums have long been known throughout Asia in various forms and under different names.  The term dāyera originally referred to the flat, circular drums of pre-­Islamic Arabia.

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• MUSIC HISTORY i. Pre-Islamic Iran

  Bo Lawergren

  The documentation is largely archeological with a sprinkling of textual sources, and some evidence is here assembled to outline Iran’s pre-Islamic music history.

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• ACKERMAN, PHYLLIS

  Cornelia Montgomery

  (b. Oakland, California, 1893; d. Shiraz, 25 January 1977), author, editor, teacher and translator in the fields of Persian textiles, European tapestries, Chinese bronzes, iconography, and symbolism.

• WOMEN iii. In Shiʿism

  Moojan Momen

  In theory, Shiʿism has a more favorable attitude towards women than Sunni Islam. These favorable differences are largely annulled, however, by some specific Shiʿite practices as well as the social realities of women’s lives in Shiʿite communities. 

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN vii. Visual Arts Training Center

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  The Visual Arts Training Center became a real entity long after each artistic training program was created and was in operation.

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• M~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the letter M entries.

• GHAFFARY, FARROKH

  Michele Epinette

  (1922-2006), Iranian artist and one of the founders of the National Archives of Iranian Cinema; he served as one of the directors of the National Iranian Radio-Television, worked as the chief organizer of the Shiraz Festival of Arts.

• SHIRAZ ARTS FESTIVAL

  Hormoz Farhat

  For eleven consecutive years, beginning in 1967, a festival of arts, known in Persian as Jašn-e honar, took place in Shiraz and the nearby remains of the ancient imperial city of Persepolis. Its purpose was to be a meeting place of the performing arts of the Eastern world with those of the West.

• KALĀNTARI, PARVIZ

  Nojan Madinei

  (b. Zanjān, 22 March 1931; d. Tehran, 20 May 2016), painter, graphic designer, writer, and a pioneering illustrator of Iranian children’s books.

• EARTHQUAKES

  Daniel Balland, Habib Borjian, Xavier de Planhol, Manuel Berberian

  in Persia and Afghanistan. Both countries lie on the great alpine belt that extends from the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean through the Indonesian archipelago and forms the world’s longest collision boundary, between the Eurasian plate in the north and several former Gondwanan blocks in the south, including the so-called “Iranian plates” and “Afghan plates.”

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• Great Britain viii. British Archeological Excavations

  St. J. Simpson

  excavations began in Persia before the so-called “French monopoly” on archeological excavations.

• HARP

  Bo Lawergren

  (čang), a string instrument which flourished in Persia in many forms from its introduction, about 3000 BCE, until the 17th century.

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• ANGLO-PERSIAN WAR (1856-57)

  J. Calmard

  Following their defeat in the Russo-Persian wars of 1219-28/1804-13 and 1242-44/1826-28, the Qajars, tried to compensate for their losses by reasserting Persia’s control over western Afghanistan.

• PILARAM, FARAMARZ

  Hengameh Fouladvand

  (1937-1983), a modernist artist, educator and among the founders of the Saqqā-ḵāna School of Art.

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• ELAM vi. Elamite religion

  F. Vallat

  The information furnished by archeological excavations in Persia and by cuneiform documents permit a summary description of some aspects of Elamite religion from the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. until the Achaemenid period.

• INSTITUT PASTEUR

  Amir A. Afkhami

  the institute for bacteriology and vaccination founded by the Persian government in 1921 as a branch of Institut Pasteur of Paris. The idea of establishing an institute for microbiological research and immunology in Iran was conceived in the aftermath of the 1918-19 influenza pandemic in Persia.

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• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS v. Diplomatic and Commercial Relations, 1949-90

  Parviz Mohajer

  There were three distinct periods in Chinese-Persian diplomatic relations: 1328-49 Š./1949-70, 1350-57 Š./ 1971-78, and 1358-69 Š./1979-90.

• DECORATIONS

  Yaḥyā Šahīdī

  In Persia there were no orders in the Western sense, but only decorations and medals. The practice of awarding such honors was initiated by Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah, who introduced the Lion and Sun (nešān-e šīr o ḵoršīd) in 1808, apparently inspired by the Red Crescent adopted by the Ottoman sultan Salīm III.

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• GOLHĀ, BARNĀMA-YE

  Daryush Pirnia with Erik Nakjavani

  lit. “Flowers Program”; a series of radio programs on music and poetry, on the air for almost twenty-three years (March 1956 to February 1979), which aimed at illustrating the perennial thematic and aesthetic relationships between poetry and traditional music in Persian culture.

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• CHILDREN vii. Children's Literature

  EIr

  Up to the Constitutional movement the standard curriculum of traditional Persian elementary schools (maktabs), which were pri­vately operated, included the alphabet, the Koran, selec­tions from popular Persian poetry and prose, and the traditional sciences. 

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• HYDROLOGY

  Multiple Authors

  i. Iranian plateau. ĀB. ii. Southwestern Persia. iii. Afghanistan. From a hydrological perspective, southwestern Persia must be considered as part of the Persian Gulf drainage region. Extending over an area of more than 350,000 km², its main drainage area covers the central and southwestern Zagros mountain areas with their extremely complex geomorphology.

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• BLOOD TRANSFUSION SERVICES IN IRAN

  Ali Ameri

  A centralized, state-funded organization was established in 1974 for the recruitment of safe, voluntary, non-remunerated blood donors and the subsequent collection, testing, processing, and distribution of blood and blood products to hospitals.

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• DAWR (2)

  Jean During

  (Ar. and Pers. “circle”), term applied to scales and also to rhythmic cycles, both commonly diagramed as circles in classical musicology of Persian, Arab, and Turkish groups. Such diagrams are appropriate for representing both the cyclical nature of the scales and the periodic nature of rhythmic formulas.

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• AFŠĀR

  P. Oberling

  one of the 24 original Ḡuz Turkic tribes.

• CROWN JEWELS of Persia

  Patricia Jellicoe

  the assemblage of jewels collected by the kings of Persia, kept now in the Bānk-e markazī-e Īrān (Central bank of Iran) in Tehran.

• NADERPOUR, NADER

  Houra Yavari

  Naderpour received his primary education in Tehran and in 1942 was enrolled at Irānšahr high school. As was the case with a good number of his peers, he developed an interest in politics, and joined the nationalist Pan-Iranist Party for a short period of time. He later joined the Youth Organization of the Tudeh Party.

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• BUDDHISM ii. In Islamic Times

  Asadullah Souren Melikian-Chirvani

  The Muslim conquerors of eastern Iran, Afghanistan, and Transoxania in the mid-8th century found Buddhism flourishing in a series of prosperous trading communities along the old caravan routes to India and China.

• HOVEYDA, AMIR-ABBAS

  Abbas Milani

  (Amir ʿAbbās Hoveydā; 1919-1979), the longest serving prime minister in the modern history of Iran (1964-1977). His tenure  can be divided into two phases. In the 1960s, he was full of optimism and energy; in the 1970s he was characterized by cynicism, a clinging attachment to power and its perks, and an almost despondent air of resignation. What remained the same were his economic policies.

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• GRIGORIAN, Marcos

  Hengameh Fouladvand

  (Mārcos [better known as Marco] Grigoriān, b. Kropotkin, Russia, 5 December 1925; d. Yerevan, 27 August 2007), Iranian-Armenian artist, actor, teacher, gallery owner, and collector who played a pioneering role in the development of Iranian modern art.

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• ĀSĪĀ (or āsīāb, Mill)

  M. Harverson

  or āsīāb, "mill." Before World War II most grain ground to produce flour for the staple in the Iranian diet, bread, was processed by traditionally powered mills, principally watermills. Except in remote areas they have been replaced by diesel or electrically-driven mills, and old machinery has fallen derelict.

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• K~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the letter K entries.

• CUNEIFORM SCRIPT

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  the conventional name for a system of writing ultimately derived from the pictographic script developed by the Sumerians in southern Mesopotamia (Uruk) around 3000 B.C.E. Cuneiform was written with a reed stylus, which left wedge-shaped impressions on soft clay tablets.

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• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (4) Index of Proper Names

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Index of proper names that occur in the chronological table.

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD, ii, iii

  W. Montgomery Watt

  ii. The Eḥyāʾ ʿolum al-dīn, iii. The Kīmīā-ye saʿādat. 

• AFGHANISTAN v. Languages

  Ch. M. Kieffer

  Best represented are the Iranian languages, followed by Turkish languages of recent import, and Indian languages which are either native (Nūrestānī and Dardic) or imported (New Indian).

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• AFGHANISTAN iv. Ethnography

  L. Dupree

  In their ethnolinguistic and physical variety the people of Afghanistan are as diverse as their country is in topography. Except in rural areas off the main lines of communications, few peoples maintain racial homogeneity.

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• ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

  Eskandar Firouz, Daniel Balland

  efforts to protect natural resources, wildlife, and ecosystems and to control pollution. In Persia conservation consciousness began, as it so often does, with concern for wildlife.

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• ART IN IRAN xi. POST-QAJAR

  K. Emāmī

  About the mid-1950s, Iranian modernists started to receive official encouragement via the Department General of Fine Arts (later to become the Ministry of Arts and Culture).

• SAQQĀ-ḴĀNA SCHOOL OF ART

  Hamid Keshmirshekan

  a contemporary art movement in Iran in 1962. The term was initially applied to painting and sculpture which used existing elements from votive Shiʿite art. It gradually came to be applied more widely to art works that used traditional-decorative elements.

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• HERAT vi. THE HERAT QUESTION

  Abbas Amanat

  From the middle of the 18th century, following Nāder Shah’s assassination in 1747, Herat became the focus of a century-long power struggle and regional rivalry.

• HERAT iv. TOPOGRAPHY AND URBANISM

  Maria Szuppe

  In the medieval period, Herat, together with Nišāpur, Marv, and Balḵ, was one of the four main urban centers of the eastern Iranian world. In contrast to some other ancient towns, Herat has existed on the same location since its foundation.

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• IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (2) Pre-Islamic

  C. J. Brunner

  This survey focuses on the early phase of the Iranian-speaking peoples’ presence on the plateau, during the early state-building phase.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY xi. AFGHANISTAN

  Christine Noelle-Karimi

  The historiography of the day not only bears witness to the perceptions current at the time but also was subject to reinterpretation as new historical predilections arose. The available historical accounts may thus be read on several levels.

• ELAM ii. The archeology of Elam

  Elizabeth Carter

  The archeological use of the term “Elam” is based on a loose unity recognizable in the material cultures of the period 3400-525 BCE at Susa in Ḵūzestān, at Anshan in Fārs, and at sites in adjacent areas of the Zagros mountains. Text-based definitions often lead to interpretations that are at odds with those derived from the study of material culture.

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• CRAFTS

  compiled from personal observations and reports by Carole Bier, Mehdī Ebrāhīmīān, Iran Ala Firouz, and Jay Gluck.

  Although crafts have always played a predominant role in the artistic history of Persia, in this century new market forces and social currents have interacted with deeply rooted traditions to produce new types of objects, as well as variations on more familiar ones.

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• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES vi. THE PAHLAVI ERA (1925-1979)

  Orly R. Rahimiyan

  Zionist institutions in London and the Iranian Foreign Ministry engaged in heated arguments over the total ban on emigration to Palestine and on the use of Iranian soil by Russian Jews as a transit station on their way to Palestine.

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• ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS iii. Pahlavi period

  R. W. Ferrier

  For most of the 20th century relations have been dominated politically by the modernization and revival of Iran under the stimulus of Reżā Shah and his son and successor Moḥammad Reżā Shah, strategically by Iran’s proximity to the Soviet Union, and economically by Iranian oil.

• COMMERCE vi. In the Safavid and Qajar periods

  Willem Floor

  The Dutch and English East Indies companies were the first well-capitalized trading partners established in Persia, initially providing a much-needed source of cash for the shahs. In return the companies demanded and obtained treaties (in 1617 and 1623) granting them freedom of trade.

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• BALUCHISTAN i. Geography, History and Ethnography (cont.)

  Brian Spooner

  appears to have been divided throughout history between Iranian (highland) and Indian (lowland) spheres of influence, and since 1870 it has been formally divided among Afghanistan, Iran, and India (later Pakistan). Parts 8-11.

• ANTHROPOLOGY

  B. Spooner

  (Persian mardomšenāsī), social and cultural, in Iran and Afghanistan.