Search Results for “art in iran”

• ART IN IRAN

  Multiple Authors

  The history of art in Iran and Iranian lands.

• ART IN IRAN ix. SAFAVID To Qajar Periods

  A. Welch

  The arts of the Safavid period show a far more unitary development than in any other period of Iranian art. 

• ART IN IRAN iv. PARTHIAN Art

  S. B. Downey

  monuments generally included in discussions of Parthian art come from the periphery of the Parthian world—Syria, Mesopotamia, the edges of the Iranian plateau.

• ART IN IRAN x.2 Qajar Painting

  B. W. Robinson

  The unsettled political situation following the death of Karīm Khan left little opportunity for schools of painting to flourish and develop. But even before their rise to supreme power the Qajars had captured the services of at least one painter who set a high standard for the first generation of their rule.

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• ART IN IRAN xii. IRANIAN PRE-ISLAMIC ELEMENTS IN ISLAMIC ART

  Maria Vittoria Fontana

  Iranian pre-Islamic elements contributed to the formation and development of Islamic art, and they can be easily recognized in various contexts.

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• ART IN IRAN vi. PRE-ISLAMIC EASTERN IRAN AND CENTRAL ASIA

  G. Azarpay

  Monumental works of art of the pre-Islamic age are there evidenced only from the early medieval period that corresponds with the Parthian and Sasanian dynasties in Iran.

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• ART IN IRAN i. NEOLITHIC TO MEDIAN

  E. Porada

  An important element of the art of Iran is the presence of composite beings. One type, here called demon, is a combination of man and animal walking on two legs. An example is the demon with the head of a mountain goat or a moufflon.

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• ART IN IRAN viii. ISLAMIC CENTRAL ASIA

  G. A. Pugachenkova

  Under Islam the sculpture and mural painting previously displayed in Central Asia almost completely disappeared, and ornament took pride of place.

• ART IN IRAN iii. Achaemenid Art and Architecture

  P. Calmeyer

  No work of architecture or art can be attributed with certainty to an Achaemenid earlier than Cyrus the Great. Only a cylinder seal, now lost, but several times used on later bullae at Persepolis, can possibly have belonged to an older member of the family.

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• ART IN IRAN x.1 Art and Architecture of the Qajar Period

  J. M. Scarce

  Qajar art is characterized by an exuberant style and flamboyant use of color, which became more emphatic as the 19th century progressed; here Persian art may be compared with developments in 19th-century Europe.

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• ART IN IRAN v. SASANIAN ART

  P. O. Harper

  There are major remains of many different types: monumental rock reliefs, silver vessels, stucco architectural decoration, and seals.

• ART IN IRAN xi. POST-QAJAR

  K. Emāmī

  About the mid-1950s, Iranian modernists started to receive official encouragement via the Department General of Fine Arts (later to become the Ministry of Arts and Culture).

• ART IN IRAN vii. ISLAMIC PRE-SAFAVID

  P. Soucek

  Of especial importance for the development of art in Islamic Iran was the cultural and artistic legacy of the immediate past.

• ART IN IRAN ii. Median Art and Architecture

  P. Calmeyer

  We know that Medes were mentioned in neo Assyrian annals from the year 836 B.C. onwards; as late as in King Esarhaddon’s vassal treaties (672 B.C.) they are represented by petty princes: central kingship had not yet been established, the foundation of which was later ascribed to the legendary judge, Deïokes.

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• Tajnis

  music sample

• MAʿRUFI, Jawād

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi and EIr

  Persian composer and pianist (1915-1993).

• JAWĀHER AL-ʿAJĀYEB

  Maria Szuppe

  a short, rare kind of taḏkera in Persian, containing biographies of female poets and specimens of their verses (mostly in Persian, some in Chaghatay Turkish).

• BAGA

  H. W. Bailey, N. Sims-Williams, St. Zimmer

  an Old Iranian term for “god,” sometimes designating a specific god. i. General. ii. In Old and Middle Iranian. iii. The use of baga in names.

• DOLICHĒ

  Erich Kettenhofen

  city in the Roman province of Syria conquered together with the surrounding area by Šāpūr I  during his second campaign against Rome in 252 or 253.

• DĀŠ ĀKOL

  SOHILA SAREMI

  a story in the first collection of short stories by Sadeq Hedayat.

• MOḴTĀR-NĀMA

  Daniela Meneghini

  a wide-ranging collection of quatrains (2,088 in number) attributed to the mystic poet Farid-al-Din ʿAṭṭār (d. ca. 1221).

• ḤEFẒ AL-ṢEḤḤA

  Nasseredin Parvin

  the first Iranian medical journal, published as a  monthly during 1906.

• AMĪR LAŠKAR

  J. Calmard

  (AMĪR-E LAŠKAR) military rank equivalent to general granted during Reżā Khan’s rise to power.

• CANDLESTICKS

  Linda Komaroff

  from the late 6th/12th through the early 10th/16th century one of the most common types of implement produced as a luxury metalware in Iran. Their form, decoration, and epigraphic program reflect contemporary trends in Iranian metalwork.

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• BIBLE v. Sogdian Translations

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  The following manuscripts containing biblical texts in Sogdian have been made known. None of them survives in anything like complete form, and some are mere fragments.

• KHARG ISLAND i. Geography

  Habib Borjian

  situated in Persian Gulf at about 30 miles northwest of the port of Bušehr and 20 miles west of the port of Ganāva, stretches about 5 miles longitudinally and half of that at its widest point.

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• FOLK POETRY

  Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  in Iranian languages. The term ‘folk poetry’ can be properly used for texts which have some characteristics marking them as poetry and belong to the tradition of the common people, as against the dominant ‘polite’ literary cult

• JOURNALISM iii. Post-Revolution Era

  Hossein Shahidi

  At the time of the 1978-79 Revolution, there were about 100 newspapers in Iran, of which twenty-three were dailies. Within two years of the revolution, 700 new titles had appeared.

• BAHMANŠĪR

  X. de Planhol

  the name of the distributary which branches off the left bank of the Kārūn river in the Ḵūzestān plain a short distance above Ḵorramšahr, and of a dehestān near this town.

• DUCK

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  technically any species of the family Anatidae but in Persian popular usage including similar waterfowl from other families, particularly some geese and grebes.

• MOḠĀN

  Richard Tapper

  (or Dašt-e Moḡān, also Muqān), a lowland steppe in Azerbaijan.

• KIMIĀ

  Pierre Lory

  “Alchemy.” Externally, the purpose of alchemy was the conversion of base metals like lead into silver or gold by means of long and complicated operations leading to the production of a mysterious substance, the ‘philosopher’s stone,’ able to operate the transmutation. 

• HERMITAGE MUSEUM ii. COLLECTION OF THE ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Anatol Ivanov

  Persian art from the advent of Islam until the beginning of the 20th century is well represented in the State Hermitage Museum. However, not all periods in this 1400-year time-span are represented equally well, because of the way the collection developed.

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• ANDARZGAR

  J. P. Asmussen

  Mid. Pers. term, “counselor, teacher.”

• CASES

  Gernot L. Windfuhr

  term "case" used on at least three linguistic levels: 1. semantic role of a noun (phrase), such as agent, patient, experiencer, and possessor; 2. syntactic function, such as subject, direct object, and indirect object; 3. morphological means, such as nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive.

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• CERAMICS vii. The Bronze Age in Northwestern, Western, and Southwestern Persia

  Robert C. Henrickson

  During the 3rd millennium BCE there were two major ceramic traditions in northwestern Persia, shifting ceramic traditions in central western Persia, and polychrome ware  in northern Susiana.

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• EAST SYRIAN MONASTERIES IN SASANIAN IRAN

  Florence Jullien

  Traces of monastic foundations in Sasanian Iran can be found in the sources as early as the 4th century CE. In the present review of the main East Syrian monasteries, emphasis is on the reformed monastic settlements of the 6th-7th centuries.

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• FRANCE xii(b). IRANIAN STUDIES IN FRANCE: PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Philippe Gignoux

  The French contribution to pre-Islamic Iranian studies, both in philological studies and archeology, has been considerable.

• JULFA ii. THE 18TH AND THE 19TH CENTURY

  Vazken S. Ghougassian

  The Afghan occupation of Isfahan between 1722 and 1729 struck a most devastating blow to the Armenians of New Julfa, although the city was spared total destruction and massive killings of its population.Nāder Shah Afšār (d. 1747) was even more brutal. Karim Khan Zand (d. 1779) treated the Armenian community fairly well and tried to encourage the return of expatriate Julfan merchants.

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• SACRIFICE i. IN ZOROASTRIANISM

  William W. Malandra

  At least since the publication of the seminal essay by Henri Hubert and Marcel Mauss much of the discussion has been devoted to a search for what essentially defines sacrifice.

• EBN ZĪĀD, ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH

  Jean Calmard

  (b. ca. 648), Omayyad governor responsible for the death of the Imam Ḥosayn b. ʿAlī.

• KASMĀʾI, MIRZĀ ḤOSAYN

  Pezhmann Dailami

  (1862-1921), a constitutionalist active in the revolutionary movement in Gilan (1915-20), led by Mirzā Kuček Khan Jangali.

• SYKES, Percy Molesworth

  Denis Wright

  (1867-1945), Sir, soldier, diplomat, traveler, and writer who wrote extensively on Iran. 

• ḤOJJATIYA

  Mahmoud Sadri

  a Shiʿite religious lay association founded in 1953 by the charismatic cleric Shaikh Maḥmud Ḥalabi to defend Islam against the Bahai missionary activities.

• ANṢĀRĪ, SHAIKH MORTAŻĀ

  S. Murata

  B. MOḤAMMAD AMĪN (1799-1864), 1799-1864), important author of works on feqh.

• CENSUS

  Firuz Tawfiq, Daniel Balland

  (Pers. sar-šomārī). No census for the purpose of ascertaining the population and acquiring statistical data was taken in Persia until the present century.

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• CITIES i. Geographical Introduction

  Xavier De Planhol

  There is a long history of settlement on Persian territory, where urban life was firmly established in antiquity, and cities continued to proliferate, though, owing to fluctuations in the population, they were highly unstable.

• FARROḴI

  Habib Borjian

  a township on the southern edge of the Great Desert, in Ḵur-Biābānak Sub-province, Isfahan Province.

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• ḠAFFĀRĪ, NEẒĀM-AL-DĪN

  Kambiz Eslami

  (1844-1915), Qajar minister and engineer. In his later years, Ḡaffārī held several important positions, including the minister of mines, the minister of public services, and minister of education.

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• ĀBĀDA

  C. E. Bosworth

  Name of (1) a small town in northern Fārs province, and (2) a medieval town near the northern shore of Lake Baḵtegān in Fārs.

• BAND-E BAHMAN

  K. Afsar

  an ancient dam built on the Qara Āḡāj river nearly sixty km south of Shiraz, attributed to the legendary king Bahman son of Esfandīār.

• EDUCATION xi. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL GROUPS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk

  After the Constitutional Revolution some of these schools were closed, and the others were brought under state management. During the next fifteen years several more private schools were founded.

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• KASHMIR i. INTRODUCTION

  Siegfried Weber

  Iranian influence in and beyond the region of Kashmir is a long-term phenomenon. Inscriptions in Sogdian, Parthian, and Middle Persian demonstrate pre-Islamic contacts there with Iranian-speakers.

• ZABĀN-E ZANĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a newspaper and a magazine published in Isfahan and Tehran, respectively, by Ṣeddiqa Dawlatābādi (1883-1961), a pioneer advocate of women’s rights in Iran (18 July, 1919 to 1 January, 1921, a total of 57 issues).

• ḤOSAYN KHAN KAMĀNČAKAŠ

  Ameneh Youssefzadeh

  a famous musician and a master of the kamānča, the chief traditional Persian string instrument played with a bow (d. 1934).

• ʿARAB

  Multiple Authors

  As two of the most prominent ethnic elements in the Middle East, Arabs and Iranians have been in contact with each other, and at times have had their fortunes intertwined, for some three millennia. 

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS

  Multiple Authors

  This series of articles deals with Chinese-Iranian relations spanning from Pre-Islamic times to the Constitutional Revolution in Iran.

• COMMERCE vi. In the Safavid and Qajar periods

  Willem Floor

  The Dutch and English East Indies companies were the first well-capitalized trading partners established in Persia, initially providing a much-needed source of cash for the shahs. In return the companies demanded and obtained treaties (in 1617 and 1623) granting them freedom of trade.

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• Bahrām II

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  the fifth Sasanian king (r. 274-291), succeeding his father Bahrām I. In his reign,  Sasanian art achieved a high degree of excellence especially in the representations of the king and his courtiers.

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• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD, vii, viii

  Wilferd Madelung

  vii. Ḡazālī and the Bāṭenīs, viii. Impact on Islamic thought.

• ʿABD-AL-QAYS

  P. Oberling

  an eastern Arabian tribe.

• BARAŠNOM

  M. Boyce

  the chief Zoroastrian purification rite, consisting of a triple cleansing, with gōmēz (cow’s urine), dust, and water, followed by nine nights’ seclusion.

• ELM

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  any of several species of hardy deciduous ornamental or forest trees of the genus Ulmus L. (fam. Ulmaceae), typically called nārvan in Persian.

• ṬUBĀ VA MAʿNĀ-YE ŠAB

  Houra Yavari

  novel (1987) by Shahrnush Parsipur, fiction writer and essayist, generally regarded as one the first instances of magical realism in modern Iran. The novel’s creative use of magical realism is colored by a distinctly mystical tone and has borrowed much of its flavor from Iran’s Illuminationist Philosophy.

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• DUMÉZIL, Georges

  Bruce Lincoln

   (1898-1986), French comparatist philologist and religious studies scholar. Among the most significant later modifications in Dumézil's views was his decision to abandon the claim that Indo-European society was originally divided into three functional groupings.

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• HYENA

  Steven C. Anderson

  Hyaena hyaena (Linnaeus, 1758), Pers. kaftār. The striped hyena is the only current Asian representative of the mammalian family Hyaenidae. Principal threats to hyena populations today are vehicular traffic (since they scavenge road kills at night), wanton shooting, and secondary poisoning. The hyena is a protected species in Iran.

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• ARDAKĀN-E YAZD

  C. E. Bosworth

  a town of central Persia on the present Yazd-Ardestān-Kāšān road along the southern edge of the Dašt-e Kavīr, forty miles northwest of Yazd.

• CLOQUET, LOUIS-ANDRÉ-ERNEST

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  (1818-1855), French anatomist and French minister to the court at Tehran 1846-55, serving as personal physician to Moḥammad Shah (r. 1834-48) and Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qājār (r. 1848-96).

• COURTS AND COURTIERS x. Court poetry

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  Until modern times there were strong incentives to patronize poets and other writers wherever the seat of power was renowned as a center of culture.

• MALARIA

  Mohammad Hossein Azizi

  According to the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2013, Iran, after several decades of fighting against the disease, has now entered the pre-eliminated stage of malaria control; it is anticipated that, by 2025, malaria will be completely eradicated in Iran.

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• GEREŠK

  Daniel Balland

  a small oasis-city on the right bank of the Helmand river in Southern Afghanistan, the headquarters of the district (woloswālī) of Nahr-e Serāj within the province of Helmand.

• ABNĀʾ

  C. E. Bosworth

  "sons," term for the offspring of Persian soldiers and officials in the Yemen and of Arab mothers.

• BARTHOLD, VASILIĭ VLADIMIROVICH

  Yu. Bregel

  Russian orientalist (1869-1930). He was the first who put the study of the history of Central Asia on a firm scholarly basis and actually founded this branch of Oriental studies. But he never studied Central Asia in isolation.

• EPIPHANIUS

  Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin

  (b. Eleutheropolis, Judaea, ca. 315; d. Constantia, Cyprus), bishop of Constantia on Cyprus, founded on the remains of Salamis.

• ḴᵛĀJANURI, EBRĀHIM B. ḤABIB-ALLĀH

  Majdoddin Keyvani

  lawyer, politician, author, translator, journalist, psychologist, and founder of the popular psychoanalytical center of Panā[h] in Tehran.

• QODDUS

  Nosrat Mohammad-Hosseini

  (1822-1849), spiritual title of Moḥammad-ʿAli Bārforuši, a prominent Bābi figure.

• INDIA xxi. INDIAN INFLUENCES ON PERSIAN PAINTING

  Barbara Schmitz

  During the 17th century, the flow of artistic influences between Persia and India reversed. Paintings and drawings in the developed Mughal style of the first quarter of the century were imported to the courts and bazaars of Isfahan.

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• ARRAJĀN

  H. Gaube

  medieval city and province in southwestern Iran between Ḵūzestān and Fārs.

• COOKING

  Multiple Authors

  i. In ancient Iran. ii. In Pahlavi literature. iii. Principles and ingredients of modern Persian cooking. iv. In Afghanistan.

• ETHNOGRAPHY (Bibliography)

  Brian Spooner

  For cited works not given in detail, see “Short References.” Priority has been given to coverage of ethnographic data based on long-term participant observation, but other  ethnographically significant sources are also listed, including some based on shorter works, some by travelers from before the emergence of professional ethnography, and some from scholars trained in related fields such as folklore, linguistics and cultural geography.

• JACOBS, SAMUEL AIWAZ

  Eden Naby

  (1890-1971), Assyrian intellectual and publisher. In New York, he created fonts for Syriac typography, designed books for major literary publishers, and at his own press produced artistic and surprising limited-editions, most often of poetry. He is best remembered for his typography of E. E. Cummings’ books of verse.

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• GĪLĀN iii. Archeology

  Ezat O. Negahban

  The archeology of Gīlān, particularly in the pre-Islamic period, is usually studied in the wider context of the entire south Caspian region, including Mazandarān and Gorgān. Articles on three important locations, Marlik Tepe, Amlaš, and Deylamān, illustrate the perennial difficulties faced by archeological research in Persia.

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• ABŪ KĀLĪJĀR GARŠĀSP (I)

  C. E. Bosworth

  second son of the Kakuyid amir of Jebāl, ʿAlāʾ-al-dawla Moḥammad b. Došmanzīār, ruled in Hamadān and parts of what are now Kurdistan and Luristan, 433-37/1041-42 to 1045, d. 443/1051-52.

• BĀYBŪRTLŪ

  P. Oberling

  (also Bāybūrdlū), a Turkic tribe of northwestern Iran whose only vestiges seem to be the names of a few historical personalities.

• ESFANDĪĀR (2)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  one of the seven great clans of Parthian and Sasanian times.

• F~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the letter F entries.

• PADERY, ETIENNE

  Anne-Marie Touzard

  (b. 1674; fl 1714-1725), Ottoman Greek who served as a translator to the French embassy at Istanbul, and as a French consul at Shiraz.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 2)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Formation of local dynasties. The Taherids (821-73). The first of these dynasties came into being when Ṭāher b. Ḥosayn was appointed the governor of Khorasan with full power.

• ARTSRUNI

  C. Toumanoff

  one of the most important princely families of Armenia, an offshoot of the Orontids, Achaemenian satraps and subsequently kings of Armenia, but claiming descent from Sennacherib of Assyria.

• CRYSTAL

  Layla S. Diba

  originally a type of fine glass developed in England in the 17th century and owing its special clarity and brilliance to the high refractive index of lead oxide in the metal; the term is often applied to fine glass in general.

• CARPETS ix. Safavid Period

  Daniel Walker

  The high point in Persian carpet design and manufacture was attained under the Safavid dynasty (1501-1739). It was the result of a unique conjunction of historical factors, such as royal patronage and influence of court designers at all levels of artistic production.

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• ḴĀVARĀN-NĀMA i. The Epic Poem

  Julia Rubanovich

  (ḴĀVAR-NĀMA) a Persian religious epic poem composed by Ebn Ḥosām Ḵᵛāfi or Ḵusfi.

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• GOLČIN MAʿĀNI, AḤMAD

  Iraj Afshar

  (b. Tehran, 1916; d. Mašhad, 2000), literary scholar, bibliographer, and poet. He held various administrative and judicial posts in the Ministry of Justice (1934-59). His considerable knowledge of literary manuscripts was later put to good use when he was transferred to the Majles Library, where he catalogued the Persian and Arabic manuscripts.

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• ACHAEMENID RELIGION

  M. Boyce

  Greek writings establish with all reasonable clarity that the later Achaemenids were Zoroastrians; but the religion of the early kings has been much debated.

• BEECH

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  Fagus L. Modern Iranian botanists tend to refer to this tree as rāš. Its timber is used more than any other wood for making doors, windows, inexpensive furni­ture, and tools.

• DEZFUL ii. Population, 1956-2011

  Mohammad Hossein Nejatian

  This article deals with the following population characteristics of Dezful: population growth from 1956 to 2011, age structure, average household size, literacy rate, and economic activity status.

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• MEHRAJĀN

  Habib Borjian

  oasis and the seat of Naḵlestān district in Ḵur-Biābānak sub-province, Isfahan province.

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• IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (5) Indo-Iranian

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  Several important linguistic changes took place between Indo-European and Indo-Iranian, the reconstructed common ancestor of Iranian and Indian.

• IRAN viii. PERSIAN LITERATURE (1) Pre-Islamic

  Philip Huyse

  Iranian “literature” was for a long time essentially of oral nature as far as composition, performance, and transmission are concerned.

• ĀSĪĀ (or āsīāb, Mill)

  M. Harverson

  or āsīāb, "mill." Before World War II most grain ground to produce flour for the staple in the Iranian diet, bread, was processed by traditionally powered mills, principally watermills. Except in remote areas they have been replaced by diesel or electrically-driven mills, and old machinery has fallen derelict.

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