Table of Contents
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ʿAṬR
F. Aubaile-Sallenave
“perfume” (Arabic ʿeṭr, plur. ʿoṭūr; in Persian also ʿaṭrīyāt, perfumes), a Semitic term also attested in Syriac and Amharic.
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ATRAK
C. E. Bosworth
river of northern Khorasan, flowing first northwest, and then southwest into the Caspian Sea.
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ĀΘRAVAN-
M. Boyce
(Avestan) “priest” regularly used to designate the priests as a social “class,” one of the three into which ancient Iranian society was theoretically divided.
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ĀTRƎVAXŠ
W. W. Malandra
(Mid. Pers ādurwaxš), one of the eight Zoroastrian priests (ratu) necessary for performance of the yasna ritual.
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ATROPATENE
Cross-Reference
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ATROPATES
M. L. CHAUMONT
the satrap of Media, commander of the troops from Media, Albania, and Sacasene at the battle of Gaugamela in 331 B.C.
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ATRUŠAN
J. R. Russell
the Armenian word for “fire temple,” a loan-word from Parthian.
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ATSÏZ B. ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN
Cross-Reference
See ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN ATSÏZ.
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ATSÏZ ḠARČAʾĪ
C. E. Bosworth
ruler of Ḵᵛārazm with the traditional title Ḵᵛārazmšāh, 521 or 522/1127 or 1128 to 551/1156.
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ATTABI
E. Sims
one of many names for cloth used by medieval Islamic writers.
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AṬṬĀR, FARĪD-AL-DĪN
B. Reinert
(1145 or 46-1221) Persian poet, Sufi, theoretician of mysticism, and hagiographer, was born and died in Nīšāpūr.
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ʿAṬṬĀŠ
J. van Ess
Ismaʿili leader during the time of Sultan Barkīāroq (Berk-yaruq, d. 498/1104).
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ATTAŠAMA
M. Mayrhofer
personal name in the Nuzi texts.
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ĀTUR
Cross-Reference
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AΘURĀ
Cross-Reference
Achaemenid province. See ASSYRIA.
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ĀΘVIYA
cross-reference
in the Avestan Hōm Yast (Y. 9.7) the second mortal to press the haoma and the father of Θraētaona (Ferīdūn).
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AUBERGINE
Cross-Reference
See BĀDENJĀN.
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AUDH
Cross-Reference
See AVADH.
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AUGUSTINE
G. Widengren
prominent Christian theologian and philosopher, born 354 in Thagaste, Numidia.
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AURELIUS VICTOR
M. L. Chaumont
born in Africa ca. 325/330, held high positions under Julian and Theodosius.
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AUSTRIA i. Relations with Persia
Helmut Slaby
Diplomatic and commercial relations between Austria and Persia have a long history, stretching back to the sixteenth century.
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AUSTRIA ii. IRANIAN STUDIES
X. Tremblay and N. Rastegar
The present entry is intended as a synthetic history of the organization of Iranian studies (1) up to 1918 in all the Habsburg “hereditary countries,” which included the present Czech Republic and Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia, also parts of Poland, Romania, and Ukraine, and (2) since 1918 in the Republic of Austria exclusively.
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AUTIYĀRA
R. Schmitt
name of a district of the satrapy Armina of the Achaemenid empire.
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AUTOPHRADATES
M. A. Dandamayev
name of several Achaemenid officials, especially the satrap of Lydia under the Artaxerxes II, from 391 B.C. until the late 350s.
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AVA
C. E. Bosworth
the basic modern form of the name of two small towns of northern Persia, normally written Āba in medieval Islamic sources.
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AVADĀNA
R. E. Emmerick
Sanskrit term for a category of Buddhist narrative literature.
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AVADH
R. B. Barnett
an ancient cultural and administrative region lying between the Himalayas and the Ganges in North India, named after Ayodhyā, the setting of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana.
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AVALOKITEŚVARA-DHĀRAṆĪ
R. E. Emmerick
name given by H. W. Bailey to a Buddhist text written in archaizing Late Khotanese, ending with a dhāraṇī (Skt. “spell, sacred formula”) preceded by homage to the bodhisattvas.
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AVARAYR
R. Hewsen
a village in Armenia in the principality of Artaz southeast of the Iranian town of Mākū.
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ĀVĀZ
G. Tsuge
Āvāz as a musical term has three basic meanings: (1) The classical vocal style of Iran, which is based on the elaborate modal system called dastgāh and sung mainly to classical Persian verses. (2) “Tune.” This term is used to denote an auxiliary mode in the dastgāh system.
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AVERY, PETER
David Blow
The most important part of Avery’s published works consists of translations of Persian poetry, in particular the ghazals (ḡazal) of Hafez, the Persian poet for whom he felt a special empathy. He began translating some of the ghazals while still a student at SOAS.
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AVESTA
Multiple Authors
the holy book of the Zoroastrians.
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AVESTA i. Survey of the history and contents of the book
J. Kellens
“Avesta” is the name the Mazdean (Mazdayasnian) religious tradition gives to the collection of its sacred texts. The etymology and the exact meaning of the name (Pahlavi ʾp(y)stʾk/abestāg) can not be considered established.
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AVESTA ii. Middle Persian Translations
Alberto Cantera
The ritual Avestan texts belonging to the great rituals are transmitted through two different kinds of manuscripts: the Sāde manuscripts, containing only the Avestan text, and the so-called Pahlavi manuscripts, which include the Pahlavi translations.
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AVESTAN GEOGRAPHY
G. Gnoli
Geographical references in the Avesta are limited to the regions on the eastern Iranian plateau and on the Indo-Iranian border.
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AVESTAN LANGUAGE I-III
K. Hoffmann
The Avestan script is based on the Pahlavi script in its cursive form. The earliest Pahlavi manuscripts date from the fourteenth century A.D., but the Pahlavi cursive script must have developed from the Aramaic script already in the first centuries A.D.
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AVESTAN LANGUAGE iv. AVESTAN SYNTAX
Jean Kellens
The only complete syntax of Avestan which is still usable today is H. Reichelt’sAwestisches Elementarbuch.
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AVESTAN PEOPLE
M. Boyce
The term Avestan people is used here to include both Zoroaster’s own tribe, with that of his patron, Kavi Vištāspa, and those peoples settled in Eastern Iran.
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AVIATION
Abbas Atrvash
Originally the Iranian government had approached the U.S. administration to negotiate the purchase of American military aircrafts and to organize the training of pilots and technicians. But the Americans rejected the request, arguing that such an agreement would violate the disarmement clauses of the post-World War I peace treaties.
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AVICENNA
Multiple Authors
Latin form of the name of the outstanding philosopher and physician of the medieval period, Abū ʿAlī Ḥosayn Ebn Sīnā (d. 1037).
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AVICENNA i. Introductory note
M. Mahdi
philosopher who began a movement away from explicitness about the central question of the relation between philosophy and religion.
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AVICENNA ii. Biography
D. Gutas
philosopher whose biography presents the paradox that although more material is available for its study than is average for a Muslim scholar of his caliber, it has received little critical attention.
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AVICENNA iii. Logic
Sh. B. Abed
philosopher whose works on logic are extant, and most of them have been published. With the exception of two Persian works, Dāneš-nāma-ye ʿalāʾī and Andar dāneš-e rag, all of his works are written in Arabic.
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AVICENNA iv. Metaphysics
M. E. Marmura
a philosopher whose metaphysical system is one of the most comprehensive and detailed in the history of philosophy.
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AVICENNA v. Mysticism
D. Gutas
a philosopher whose philosophical system, rooted in the Aristotelian tradition, is thoroughly rationalistic and intrinsically alien to the principles of Sufism as it had developed until his time.
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AVICENNA vi. Psychology
F. Rahman
a psychology or doctrine of the soul that has an Aristotelian base with a strong Neoplatonic superstructure.
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AVICENNA vii. Practical Sciences
M. Mahdi
an account of practical science that is laconic and dispersed in minor tracts and in the opening and closing passages of his comprehensive encyclopedic works.
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AVICENNA viii. Mathematics and Physical Sciences
G. Saliba
referred to, in his encyclopedic work the Šefāʾ, as the mathematical sciences; includes both mathematics and astronomy.
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AVICENNA ix. Music
O. Wright
from the discussion in his Ketāb al-najāt, Dāneš-nāma-ye ʿalāʾī, and Ketāb al-Šefāʾ. He considers music one of the mathematical sciences (the medieval quadrivium).
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AVICENNA x. Medicine and Biology
B. Musallam
In the works of Avicenna, the two great traditions,Galen and Aristotle, intersected. Avicenna wrote the medieval textbook of Galenic medicine the Qānūn (the Canon), as well as the central medieval statement of Aristotelian biology (the Ḥayawān, the biological section of the Šefāʾ).
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