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EDUCATION xiii. RURAL AND TRIBAL SCHOOLS
Moḥammad Bahmanbeygī, Nāṣer Mīr, Moḥammad Pūrsartīp, and EIr
Compulsory-education laws enacted in 1911 and 1943 provided the legal framework for the extension of modern education into rural and tribal areas. Until the 1950s, however, the Persian government did not possess the resources to implement these laws; in addition, landowners and tribal khans resisted such efforts.
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EDUCATION xiv. SPECIAL SCHOOLS
Samineh Baghchehban-Pirnazar
Until 1968 responsibility for children with special educational needs had fallen on the individual schools. In that year the National Organization for Special Education was established as a general directorate under a deputy minister of education.
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EDUCATION xv. FOREIGN AND MINORITY SCHOOLS IN PERSIA
EIr
Modern education was introduced to Persia in the 19th century by European and American religious institutions and military advisers.
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EDUCATION xvi. SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS
Aḥmad Bīrašk and EIr
No standardized schoolbooks existed in Persia before the advent of the modern educational system. The first were written by European teachers at the Dār al-fonūn in the mid-19th century.
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EDUCATION xvii. HIGHER EDUCATION
David Menashri
Initially Reżā Shah’s government, like the Qajar government before it, encouraged aspiring professionals to study abroad, but, while urging them to absorb practical elements of Western culture, he also warned them to reject “harmful” influences and preserve their own national identity.
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EDUCATION xix. TEACHERS’-TRAINING COLLEGES
Majd-al-Dīn Keyvānī
Dānešgāh-e tarbīat-e moʿallem, the oldest institution for educating teachers in Persia, was founded in Tehran in 1336/1918. It has gone through various phases and changes of name since.
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EDUCATION xviii. TEACHERS’-TRAINING SCHOOLS
Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾ ī
In March 1934 an act establishing lower and advanced schools for teachers’ training under the Ministry of Education (Wezārat-e maʿāref) was adopted by the Majles, and an operating charter for such schools was ratified in July of the same year.
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EDUCATION xx. ADULT EDUCATION
Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr
The Ministry of Education (Wezārat-e maʿāref) established adult-literacy classes in state schools considered suitable. They were to last two years and to consist of ninety-six two-hour classes each year, free of charge. Reading and writing Persian, arithmetic, and elementary history, geography, and civics were to be taught.
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EDUCATION xxi. EDUCATION ABROAD
Afshin Matin-Asgari
A survey of 350 students abroad between 1811 and 1920 indicates that more than 50 percent of the total studied in France, about 15 percent in Russia, and 5-10 percent in Germany, England, Switzerland, Istanbul, and Beirut. A small number studied in Egypt, India, and the United States.
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EDUCATION xxii. PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Cross-Reference
See PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
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EDUCATION xxiii. MILITARY EDUCATION
Cross-reference
See MILITARY EDUCATION.
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EDUCATION xxiv. EDUCATION IN POSTREVOLUTIONARY PERSIA, 1979-95
Golnar Mehran
The history of education in the Islamic Republic falls into two phases: from the revolution to the cease-fire between Persia and Iraq in 1367 Š./1988 (the revolutionary period), when Islamic ideology predominated, and the subsequent period of reconstruction and privatization.
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EDUCATION xxv. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE QAJAR PERIOD
Afsaneh Najmabadi
The premodern conception of women’s education was varied. In some medieval books of ethical instruction and counsel teaching women to read was recommended, whereas other authors warned against it.
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EDUCATION xxvi. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD AND AFTER
EIr
In the 1920s and 1930s women’s public education in Persia was established and grew rapidly. In 1926-27 the enrollment of females in primary schools was about 17,000, 21 percent of total enrollment at that level.
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EDUCATION xxvii. IN AFGHANISTAN
M. Mobin Shorish
By the end of the 19th century, mosque schools (maktabs) and madrasas had lost their vitality, rigor, and scope. Internecine struggles among the ruling Abdālī and subsequently among the Moḥammadzai clan ensured that no trace of regular and systematic education remained in the country.
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EDUCATION xxviii. IN TAJIKISTAN
Habib Borjian
Modern education in Tajikistan developed as the country emerged as a Soviet socialist republic, under the Soviet policy of standardization, with language as virtually the only variable. In Tajikistan, as in other Central Asian republics, this policy brought about nearly universal literacy.
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EFTEḴĀR DAWLATĀBĀDĪ, ʿABD-AL-WAHHĀB BOḴĀRĪ
S. Moinul Haq
(b. Ahmadnagar; d. Dawlatābād, 1776), Deccani biographer and poet in Urdu and Persian.
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EFTEḴĀRĪĀN
François de Blois
a family of officials and poets from Qazvīn, reputed descendants of the caliph Abū Bakr, who flourished under the early Il-khans in the 13th century.
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EGGPLANT
Cross-Reference
See BĀDENJĀN.
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EḠLAMEŠ
Cross-Reference
See SAYF-AL-DĪN ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN EḠLAMEŠ.