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IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (6) Old Iranian Languages
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
Proto-Iranian split into at least four distinct dialect groups, characterized, among other things, by the typical developments of the palatal affricates and the groups.
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KAYĀNIĀN vi. Siiāuuaršan, Siyāwaxš, Siāvaš
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
Siiāuuaršan, “the one with black stallions,” is listed in the Avesta in Yašt 13.132 as a kauui and the third with a name containing aršan “male.”
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KHOTAN
Multiple Authors
town (lat 37°06′ N, long 79°56′ E) and major oasis of the southern Tarim Basin in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China, historically an important kingdom with an Iranian-speaking population.
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KAYĀNIĀN
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
(Kayanids), in the early Persian epic tradition a dynasty that ruled Iran before the Achaemenids, all of whom bore names prefixed by Kay from Avestan kauui.
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IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (4) Origins Of The Iranian Languages
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
General historical surveys of the Iranian languages.
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KAYĀNIĀN xi. The Kayanids and the Kang-dez
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
According to the Pahlavi texts, Kay Siāwaxš built the Kang castle (Kang-diz) by miraculous power (Pahlavi Rivāyat: with his own hands, by means of the [Kavian] xwarrah and the might of Ohrmazd and the Amahrspands).
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KAYĀNIĀN xii. The Kavian XˇARƎNAH
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
The nature of the Avestan xᵛarənah and its three subtypes, the Aryan (airiiana), the “unseizable” (? axᵛarəta), and the Kavian (kāuuaiia).
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BUN-XĀNAG
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
term in the inscriptions of Kirdīr at Naqš-e Rostam (KKZ and KNRm), variously interpreted.
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KAYĀNIĀN xiii. Synchronism of the Kayanids and Near Eastern History
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
The desire of the medieval historians to fit all the ancient narratives into one and the same chronological description of world history from the creation led them to coordinate the Biblical, Classical, and Iranian sources.
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KARSĪVAZ
Prods Oktor Skjærvø, Mahmoud Omidsalar
in the old Iranian epic tradition the brother of the Turanian king, Afrāsiāb, and the man most responsible for the murder of the Iranian prince Siāvaš.
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HAJIABAD i. INSCRIPTIONS
Philippe Gignoux
The Hajiabad inscriptions in Parthian and Middle Persian were discovered in 1818 in a grotto a few kilometers north of Persepolis. This text describes a feat of archery by King Šāpūr I performed in the presence of kings and princes, of the grandees and the nobles.
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KAYĀNIĀN iii. Kauui Kauuāta, Kay Kawād, Kay Kobād (Qobād)
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
Kauui Kauuāta has no epithets in the Avesta to describe him, and the descriptions in the Pahlavi sources are mostly vague. His seed is from the xwarrah; he was the first to establish kingship in Iran; he was godfearing and a good ruler. According to a notice in the Šahrestānīhā ī Ērānšahr, he may have married Wan, daughter of Gulaxš.
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IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
The term “Iranian language” is applied to any language which is descended from a proto-Iranian parent language (unattested by texts) spoken, presumably, in Central Asia in the late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BCE.
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HAMĒSTAGĀN
Philippe Gignoux
a word of uncertain etymology, used in Pahlavi literature to designate the intermediate stage between paradise and hell.
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KAYĀNIĀN i. Kavi: Avestan kauui, Pahlavi kay
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
Kavi is the Indo-Iranian term for “(visionary) poet.” The term may be older than Indo-Iranian, if Lydian kaveś and the Samothracean title cited by Hesychius as koíēs or kóēs are related.
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HOMOSEXUALITY i. IN ZOROASTRIANISM
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
Zoroastrian literature contains discussions of personal relations only in legal contexts and is quite explicit with regard to sins of a sexual nature.
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CLASS SYSTEM i. In the Avesta
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
The evidence for the existence of a highly developed class structure in the community in which the Avestan texts were composed is very slight, and the available information must be culled from sources chronologically as far apart as the Avesta itself and the Pahlavi texts.
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RUDĀBA
A. Shapur Shahbazi
princess of Kabul, wife of Zāl, and mother of Rostam in the Šāh-nāma.
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KAYĀNIĀN iv. “Minor” Kayanids
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
The Avesta contains no information on Aipi.vahu, Aršan, Pisinah, and Biiaršan, but, according to the Pahlavi tradition, Abīweh was the son of Kawād and the father of Arš, Biyarš (spelled <byʾlš>), Pisīn, and Kāyus.
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KAYĀNIĀN x. The End of the Kayanids
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
In the Pahlavi texts. The Bundahišn only records that, when Wahman, son of Spandyād, came to the throne, Iran was a wasteland, and the Iranians were quarreling with one another.
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IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (1) Earliest Evidence
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
The Indo-Aryan and Iranian tribes separated about 2000 BCE., but attempts to correlate the proto-Indo-Iranians with archeological sites are all problematic.
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IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (3) Writing Systems
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
Writing systems for Iranian languages include cuneiform (Old Persian); scripts descended from “imperial” Aramaic, two Syriac scripts, Hebrew, Arabic, Greek, Cyrillic, Georgian, and Latin.
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HUZWĀREŠ
D. Durkin-Meisterernst
a term describing the use of Semitic word masks in Middle Persian texts, written in the official orthography of the Sasanian state and surviving in Zoroastrian texts, and a small number of inscriptions, and letters.
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SYRIAC LANGUAGE iii. Syriac Translators as the Medium for Transmission of Greek Ideas to Sasanian Iran
Philippe Gignoux
The high point in the history of translation from Greek to Syriac came in the seventh century, during which translations in all domains were revised.
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KAYĀNIĀN viii. Kay Luhrāsp, Kay Lohrāsb
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
In the Avesta, Vištāspa’s father is Auruuaṯ.aspa, who is mentioned only once, when Zarathustra asks Anāhitā for the ability to make Vištāspa, son of Auruuaṯ.aspa, help the daēnā along with thoughts, words, and deeds, a wish he is granted.
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HANG-E AFRĀSIĀB
A. Sh. Shahbazi
in the national epic, the cave in which Afrāsiāb, the fugitive king of Turān, spent his last days.
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HERZFELD, ERNST iv. HERZFELD AND THE PAIKULI INSCRIPTION
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
The monument at Paikuli (Pāikūlī) lies on the Iraqi side of the border with Iran on a north-south line drawn from Solaimānīya in Iraq to Qaṣr-e Šīrīn in Persia on the ancient road from Ctesiphon to Azerbaijan.
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KAYĀNIĀN ii. The Kayanids as a Group
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
References to the kauuis in the Avesta are found in the yašts in the lists of heroes who sacrificed to various deities for certain rewards.
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KAYĀNIĀN xiv. The Kayanids in Western Historiography
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
Henry C. Rawlinson contrasted the “distorted and incomplete allusions to Jemshíd and the Kayanian monarchs” with “authentic history,” and Friedrich Spiegel called the Kayanids partly purely mythical, partly legendary.
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ZĀL
A. Shapur Shahbazi and Simone Cristoforetti
legendary prince of Sistān, father of Rostam, and a leading figure in Iranian traditional history. His story is given in the Šāh-nāma.
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IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (5) Indo-Iranian
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
Several important linguistic changes took place between Indo-European and Indo-Iranian, the reconstructed common ancestor of Iranian and Indian.
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SŪDGAR NASK and WARŠTMĀNSR NASK
Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina
the first and second of three commentaries on the Old Avesta, extant in a Pahlavi resume in book nine of the Dēnkard, the third being the Bag nask.
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KAYĀNIĀN vii. Kauui Haosrauuah, Kay Husrōy, Kay Ḵosrow
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
According to Ṯaʿālebi, having brought order to the earth, worrying that he might be subjected to hubris like several of his predecessors, Kay Ḵosrow left to wander, and no one heard any more from him.
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HORMOZD I
M. RAHIM SHAYEGAN
Sasanian great king (r. 272-73 CE), the throne name of Šāpur I’s son and and successor, Hormozd-Ardašēr.
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TALMUD ii. RABBINIC LITERATURE and MIDDLE PERSIAN TEXTS
Yaakov Elman
Jews and Persians had coexisted in Mesopotamia, mostly peaceably, for some 700 years by the time that the first generation of prominent Babylonian talmudic rabbis was born in the third quarter of the 2nd century.
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HORDĀD
Antonio Panaino
“Integrity (of body), Wholeness”, one of the Avestan entities (AMƎŠA SPƎNTA), normally mentioned in association with Amərətāt (AMURDĀD) already in the Gāθās.
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KARSĀSP
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
Avestan dragon-slayer, son of Sāma, and eschatological hero. In the Pahlavi and Zoroastrian Persian traditions, several heroic feats are connected with him.
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KAYĀNIĀN v. Kauui Usan, Kay-Us, Kay Kāvus
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
The story of Kay Us’s madness is found in two versions. According to the Bundahišn, his mind was disturbed so that he tried to go up and do battle with the sky, but he fell down and the xwarrah was stolen from him; he devastated the world with his army, until they caught and bound him by deception in the land of Šambarān.
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KAYĀNIĀN ix. Kauui Vištāspa, Kay Wištāsp, Kay Beštāsb/Goštāsb
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
The name Vištāspa presumably means “he who gives the horses free rein” (víṣitāso áśvāḥ “horses let loose or given free rein”), which agrees with the description of Vištāspa as the prototypical winner of the chariot race in Yašt 5.132.
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ZOROASTRIAN RITUALS
Michael Stausberg
Ritual has been variously theorized in recent decades. While the category remains elusive, the formative social importance of ritual is by now generally acknowledged even in Zoroastrian studies.
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GATHAS ii
William W. Malandra
Of the entire corpus of the Avesta, the Gathas have been translated far more frequently than any of its other divisions.
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IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (7) Turkic Languages
Gernot Windfuhr
In Iran, there are two distinct branches of Turkic: Oghuz Turkic languages and dialects that represent the southwestern branch of Turkic, and Khalaj, which presents a tiny branch of its own.
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SCHAEDER, HANS HEINRICH
Werner Sundermann
HANS HEINRICH (1896-1957), a major German Iranist and scholar of related disciplines.
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BUDDHISM iii. Buddhist Literature in Khotanese and Tumshuqese
Ronald F. Emmerick and Prods Oktor Skjærvø
Khotan played an important role in the transmission of Buddhism during the period represented by the extant material (probably from around 700 to the end of the kingdom of Khotan ca. 1000).
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KARTIR
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
a prominent Zoroastrian priest in the second half of the 3rd century CE, known from his inscriptions and mentioned in Middle Persian, Parthian, and Coptic Manichean texts.
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HENNING, WALTER BRUNO
Werner Sundermann
The emphasis on the philological character of Henning’s work is justified not only because all his discoveries were made through deductions from or new interpretations of original sources, but also because his working system kept astonishingly aloof from theorems regarding contemporary linguistics, the philosophy of history, ethnology, and comparative religion.
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IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (2) Documentation
Prods Oktor Skjærvø
Iranian languages are known from roughly three periods, commonly termed Old, Middle, and New (Modern).
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JAMŠID i. Myth of Jamšid
PRODS OKTOR SKJÆRVØ
In the Avesta, he ruled the world in a golden age; he saved living beings from a natural catastrophe by preserving specimens in his var- (fortress); he possessed the most Fortune among mortals, but lost it and his kingship as a consequence of lying.
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EMMERICK, RONALD ERIC
Mauro Maggi
(1937-2001), distinguished Australian scholar of the ancient civilizations and languages of Iran, India, and Tibet.
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ZOROASTRIANISM i. HISTORICAL REVIEW UP TO THE ARAB CONQUEST
William W. Malandra
This article presents an overview of the history of Zoroastrianism from its beginnings through the 9th and 10th centuries CE. Details of different periods and specific issues relating to Zoroastrianism are discussed in the relevant separate entries.