Table of Contents
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CLASS SYSTEM iii. In the Parthian and Sasanian Periods
Mansour Shaki
The scant and fragmentary information available on the Parthian period does not permit a comprehensive description of social structure; in fact, the vast but decentralized empire encompassed a variety of social structures.
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CLASS SYSTEM iv. Classes In Medieval Islamic Persia
Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi
A new social stratification and conception of inequality seems to have gradually emerged under the influence of: (1) Islamic ideals of equality and merit; (2) pre-Islamic Persian and Arabian ideals and practices of social inequality; and above all (3) rivalries among social groups over wealth, prestige, and power.
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CLASS SYSTEM v. Classes in the Qajar Period
Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi
During the Qajar period there continued to be a fundamental division between a narrow stratum of courtiers, state officials, tribal leaders, religious notables, landlords and great merchants at the top and the vast majority of peasants, tribespeople, and laborers in agriculture, traditional industries, and services at the bottom.
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CLASS SYSTEM vi. Classes in the Pahlavi Period
Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi
The major social classes leading to the revolution in 1979, consisted of professionals, bureaucrats, the bourgeoisie, the traditional middle and lower-middle classes, the heterogeneous working classes, and the agrarian classes.
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CLAVIJO, RUY GONZÁLEZ DE
Beatrice Forbes Manz and Margaret L. Dunaway
(d. 2 April 1412), ambassador from King Henry III of Castile and Leon to Tīmūr in the years 805-08/1403-06 and author of an important travel account.
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CLEANSING
Multiple Authors
This article treats cleansing practices in Zoroastrianism and in Islamic Persia.
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CLEANSING i. In Zoroastrianism
Mary Boyce
Cleansing is conceived as a cosmic and individual activity is an essential element in Zoroastrianism, which teaches that the assault of the Evil Spirit, Angra Mainyu, brings defilement on all the good creations of Ahura Mazdā and that they, in their struggle for salvation, must ceaselessly strive to rid themselves of it.
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CLEANSING ii. In Islamic Persia
Hamid Algar
The identification of unclean objects (najāsāt) and of the factors or agents that, within certain limits, may cleanse them (moṭahherāt) depends more on the interpretation of prophetic tradition and on juristic deduction than it does on clear Koranic injunctions.
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CLEARCHUS
Rüdiger Schmitt
(b. ca. 390 or 410 BCE, the latter date based on Memnon’s report of his age as fifty-eight years at his death in 352), tyrant of Pontic Heracleia (modern Ereğli) in 363-52 BCE.
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CLEARCHUS OF SPARTA
Rüdiger Schmitt
(b. Sparta ca. 450 BCE, d. Babylon 401 BCE), son of Rhamphias, Greek general in the service of Cyrus the Younger.