Table of Contents

• COMMUNISM i. In Persia to 1941

  Cosroe Chaqueri

  The Persian communist movement was born among Persian immigrant workers in the Baku oilfields. In the years 1323-25/1905-07 some of them had founded Ferqa-ye ejtemāʿīyūn-e ʿāmmīyūn-e Īrān.

• COMMUNISM ii. In Persia from 1941 to 1953

  Sepehr Zabih

  With the Anglo-Soviet occupation of Persia and the abdication of Reżā Shah on 25 Šahrīvar 1320 Š./16 September 1941, the climate for resumption of political activities was vastly improved.

• COMMUNISM iii. In Persia after 1953

  Torāb Ḥaqšenās

  Whereas in the previous period Persian communism had been embodied primarily in the Tudeh party, which followed the ideological and political dicta of the Soviet Union, after the coup d’etat of 1332 Š./1953 it was characterized by ideological and organizational diversity.

• COMMUNISM iv. In Afghanistan

  Anthony Arnold

  The Afghan Communist party, Ḥezb-e demōkrātīk-e ḵalq-e Afḡānestān was officially founded in 1344 Š./1965, at a time when political parties were illegal in Afghanistan. Two other durable Afghan Marxist-Leninist groups were active in the same general period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• COMPUTERS in Persia

  Moḥammad-Reżā Moḥammadīfar

  electronic data-processing equipment, in Persia.

• CONCESSIONS

  Willem Floor, Mansoureh Ettehadieh [neẓām māfī]

  (emtīāzāt), grants by a state to citizens, aliens, or other states of rights to carry out specific economic activities and of capitulatory rights on its territory.

• CONCOBAR

  Cross-Reference

  See KANGĀVAR.

• CONFEDERATION OF IRANIAN STUDENTS, NATIONAL UNION

  Afshin Matin-Asgari

  (Konfederāsīūn-e jahānī-e moḥaṣṣelīn wa dānešjūyān-e īrānī etteḥādīya-ye mellī), an organization purporting to be the political and corporate (ṣenfī) representative of Persian students abroad, as well as in Persia, during the 1960s and 1970s.

• CONFEDERATIONS, TRIBAL

  Richard Tapper

  tribal groups commonly comprise several levels of organization, from a nomad camp to (sometimes) a nation-state, with different criteria defining membership of groups at each level.

• CONFESSIONS

  Jes P. Asmussen

  i. In the Zoroastrian faith. ii. In Manicheism.