vi. Shifting paradigms and recent developments Several large and learned dictionaries grace the late Qajar and early Pahlavi period in…

v. Evolution of Persian lexicography in India As the court centers of Persian literary patronage expanded eastward and westward under…

iv. Topical vocabularies and glossaries Both category-based vocabularies and universal mono- and bilingual alphabetized dictionaries often made limited or extensive…

iii. Classical bilingual glossaries In the 12th and 13th centuries, despite considerable activity in other branches of Persian literature, no…

ii. Alphabetical dictionaries The first Persian dictionaries were of the alphabetical type, and reputedly appeared soon after the earliest court…

i. Introduction Dictionaries of New Persian (Pārsi-e dari), as they emerged in Iran and Transoxiana from perhaps about 900 CE…

ELTON, Captain JOHN (?-1751), English merchant, seaman and shipbuilder for Nāder Shah Afšār. From 1734 onward the British merchants of…

BRYDGES, Sir HARFORD JONES (1764-1847), English diplomat and author, ambassador to the court of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah Qājār from 1807 to…

ZAND DYNASTY (1164-1209/1751-94), a dynasty that ruled in Persia (excluding Khorasan) from Shiraz, from the time when Nāder Shah’s (r….

It is well known that the Šāh-nāma has comparatively few Arabic loanwords. Most commentators claim casually, like E. G. Browne…

DARKE, Hubert Seymour Garland (b. London, 8 May 1919, d. Cambridge, 6 February 1998), teacher and scholar of Persian, Lecturer…

WAKIL-AL-RAʿĀYĀ, well known regional title assumed by Karim Khan Zand (r. 1164-93/1751-79) after he established himself at Shiraz in 1179/1765….

TAJIK ii. TAJIKI PERSIAN Tajik Persian (self-designation [zabon-i] tojik,tojikī, forsī-i tojikī; also called Tajiki, Tojiki, Tadzhik) is the variety of…

TAJIK i. THE ETHNONYM: ORIGINS AND APPLICATION Modern usage. The Tajiks are an Iranian people, speaking a variety of Persian,…

ARMY iv. Afšār and Zand (ca. 1142-1205/1730-90) The successor states to the Safavid empire were conceptually and administratively a direct…

ḎU’L-FAQĀR KHAN AFŠĀR, governor (ḥākem) of Ḵamsa province (ca. 1177-94/1763-80) under the Zand dynasty. Of the Imīrlū clan of Afšārs,…

ĀZĀD KHAN AFḠĀN (d. 1195/1781), a major contender for supremacy in western Iran after the death of Nāder Shah Afšār…

ASTARĀBĀDĪ, MĪRZĀ (MOḤAMMAD) MAHDĪ KHAN B. MOḤAMMAD-NAṢĪR, court secretary and historiographer to Nāder Shah Afšār (r. 1148-60/1736-47). Despite his position…

ARG (or ARK), the inner fortress or citadel of a walled city. The arg may also serve as the residence…

ALLĀHYĀR KHAN ABDĀLĪ, a chieftain of the important Afghan tribe of the Abdālī (later known as the Dorrānī). Elected leader…

ʿALĪ-MORĀD KHAN ZAND (r. 1195-99/1781-85), fourth of the Zand rulers. After the death of ʿAlī-Morād’s father, Qayṭas Khan of the…

ʿALAM KHAN ʿARAB-E ḴOZAYMA, AMIR, viceroy of the Afsharid state of Khorasan, 1161-68/1748-54. The son of Esmāʿīl Khan, one of…

AKBAR KHAN ZAND (d. 1196/1782), youngest son of Zakī Khan Zand. Cruel and ambitious, Akbar never rose to primacy, but…

AFSHARIDS, a dynasty (1148-1210/1736-96; Table 16) founded by Nāder Shah Afšār upon the abolition of the Safavid dynasty in 1148/1736. What…

ʿĀDEL SHAH AFŠĀR, the royal title of ʿAlī-qolī Khan, r. 1160-61/1747-48, nephew and successor of Nāder Shah. The eldest son…

ĀḠĀ MOḤAMMAD KHAN QĀJĀR (r. 1203-12/1789-97), founder of the Qajar dynasty (q.v.). He was born about 1155/1742, the eldest son…

ABU’L-FATḤ KHAN BAḴTĪĀRĪ, a chieftain of the Haft Lang branch of the Baḵtīārī and paramount chief (īlḵānī) of the tribe….

ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ BEG B. NAJAF-QOLĪ KHAN DONBOLĪ (1176-1243/1762-63 to 1827-28), literary biographer, poet, and historian of the early Qajar period. ʿAbd-al-Razzāq…

KĀBOLI, the colloquial Persian spoken in the capital of Afghanistan, Kabul, and its environs. It has been a common and…

ČERĀḠ-E HEDĀYAT (“lamp of guidance”), a monolingual Persian dictionary by the Indo-Muslim poet and scholar Serāj-al-Din ʿAli Khan Ārzu. Its…

BANĪ LĀM, a numerous and historically important Shiʿite Arab tribe of northwestern Ḵūzestān, southern Lorestān, and adjacent parts of Iraq….

BĀWĪYA, a Shiʿite tribe of Ḵūzestān. They range east and south of Ahvāz, between the Kārūn and Jarrāḥī rivers, to…

BANĪ ṬOROF (Banu Turuf), a large Shiʿite Arab tribe of Howayza (Ḥawīza) district in Ḵūzestān, mostly sedentary, centered north of…

BANĪ TAMĪM, an Arab tribe of western Ḵūzestān, both settled and nomadic, raising sheep and camels. Their range lies between…

BANĪ SĀLA (not to be confused with the Āl Bū Ṣāleḥ of southern Iraq), a Shiʿite Arab tribe of Howayza…

BANĪ ḤARDĀN, a Shiʿite Arab tribe of Howayza (Ḥawīza) district in Ḵūzestān. Small in number (they were estimated at 2,500…

ii. THE AFSHARID, ZAND, AND QAJAR PERIODS. The fall of the Safavid Dynasty in 1722, the Afghan occupation, and subsequent…

GILCHRIST, JOHN BORTHWICK (b. 19 June 1759 in Edinburgh; d. 8 January 1841 in Paris; Figure 1), physician, Indologist, and…

WAKIL-al-RAʿĀYĀ, Ḥāji Shaikh (Moḥammad) Taqi Irāni (b. ca. 1285/1868, d. 1318 Š./1939), a prominent merchant and the Majles deputy of…

EŻĀFA (اضافه)(annexation, suppletion), a grammatical term embracing several types of Persian noun phrase in which the constituents are connected by the…

ESMĀʿĪL III ṢAFAWĪ, ABŪ TORĀB, Safavid shadow-king, (1163-87/1750-73), the third Safavid dynast of that name, even though the chroniclers generally…

EBRĀHĪM SHAH AFŠĀR, nephew of Nāder Shah, claiming the Afsharid throne briefly (1161-62/1748-49). Ebrāhīm was born the second of four…

DICTIONARIES i. Persian dictionaries. ii. Arabic-Persiandictionaries. iii. Bi/Multiligual dictionaries. iv. Specialized dictionaries. v. Slang dictionaries.   i. PERSIAN DICTIONARIES The…

DEPORTATIONS, forced transfers of population from one region to another. Deportations should be distinguished from other, somewhat similar sanctions that…

LEXICOGRAPHY (farhang-nevisi), the compiling of dictionaries, glossaries, and vocabularies of a language or a particular lexical corpus, the entry words…

ḤAZIN LĀHIJI, SHAIKH MOḤAMMAD ʿALI B. ABI ṬĀLEB (1103-1180/1692-1766), Persian poet and scholar, who emigrated to India in 1734. Ḥazin…

ḤAYDARI and NEʿMATI (also Amir-Ḥaydari; Neʿmat-Allāhi), mutually hostile urban moieties of Safavid and post-Safavid Iran. From the late ninth/fifteenth century…

GOLŠAN-E MORĀD, a history of the Zand Dynasty (1164-1209/1751-94) by Mirzā Moḥammad Abu’l-Ḥasan Ḡaffāri. Ḡaffāri’s father, Mirzā Moʿezz-al-Din Moḥammad, was…

KARIM KHAN ZAND [Moḥammad-Karim] (b. ca. 1705; d. Shiraz 13 Ṣafar 1193/1 March 1779; FIGURE 1), “The Wakil,” ruler of…

TURKIC-IRANIAN CONTACTS i. LINGUISTIC CONTACTS Geo-historical survey. Speakers of Iranian and Turkic languages have been in contact since pre-Islamic times,…

ARABIC LANGUAGE v. ARABIC ELEMENTS IN PERSIAN Since the Arab conquest of Iran in the seventh century and the subsequent…