Style Guide

STYLE GUIDE

Our Approach

This guide formalizes and consolidates the editorial practices of Encyclopædia Iranica, establishing a unified, transparent, and consistent framework for the preparation and editing of encyclopedia entries. It sets out the house style governing language, transliteration, naming conventions, indexing, references, and other matters specific to Iranian and related fields of study.

Encyclopædia Iranica uses American spelling and punctuation throughout. Entries should be concise, factual, and scholarly in tone. They should present established knowledge clearly and objectively and should not advance the author’s personal opinions, speculative interpretations, or argumentative positions in the manner of a research article.

Author Submission Guidelines

Contributors should submit manuscripts in Microsoft Word (.doc or .docx) format. All transliterations, diacritics, and non-Latin scripts must be entered using Unicode-compliant characters. Illustrations, figures, tables, and other supplementary materials should not be embedded in the manuscript and must be submitted as separate files. Authors are expected to prepare manuscripts in accordance with the Encyclopædia Iranica Style Guide before submission.

Citation Style Guide

General Rules

Entries should include specific page references whenever possible.
Page ranges within larger works should also be cited within the text when only portions of a work are relevant.
To facilitate disambiguation and authority control, authors’ names should be given in accordance with Iranica’s standard, see section IV. Names of Places and People.

Page Numbers

Use en dashes (–) for page ranges.
When citing multiple page numbers from the same source:
- (Meisami, 1987, 265–70, 316).
When citing a note, use “n.” followed by the note number:
- (Meisami, 1987, 62, n. 38).
When a critical edition or reprint series uses column numbering instead of traditional page numbers, explicitly use the abbreviation “col.” or “cols.” in both the in-text citation and the bibliography to prevent confusion with page numbers.

In-text

(Malalas, 1831, cols. 9–790)

Bibliography

Malalas, John. Chronographia. Edited by Ludwig A. Dindorf. Bonn: Ed. Weberi, 1831; repr. in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, vol. 97, cols. 9–790.

Repeated References

For clarity and precision, each in-text reference must stand independently.
Repeated works should be cited in shortened form, see section Book I.1.16.
Do not use abbreviations such as ibid., op. cit., loc. cit., passim, ff., supra, and infra.
Idem is only used in printed publications see sections Books I.1.2, I.1.15, and I.1.22.

Original titles are not translated and should appear in the original language of publication, albeit transliterated according to the relevant transliteration system.

Forthcoming publications are indicated by adding “forthcoming” in parentheses at the end of the bibliographic citation.

Publication Information

In bibliographical references, the place of publication should be accompanied by its geographic location when the settlement is relatively small or likely to be unfamiliar to readers. Commonly accepted abbreviations (e.g., U.S. or U.K. abbreviations) may be used.

Examples

Meisenheim am Glan, Germany
Harmondsworth, U.K.
Waltham, MA

I.1. Books

I.1.1

One Author

Entries by the same author should be listed chronologically, with the earliest work first. For successive works by the same author, use Idem.

In-text

(Meisami, 1987, 265–70).

Bibliography

Meisami, Julie Scott. Medieval Persian Court Poetry. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987.

Idem. Persian Historiography: To the End of the Twelfth Century. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999.

I.1.2

One Author, Multiple Works in the Same Year

Distinguish works published in the same year by adding lowercase letters after the year.

In-text

Bibliography

(Canepa, 2025a, 473–474, 480)

Canepa, Matthew P. “Commagene.” In The Oxford Handbook of the Hellenistic and Roman Near East, edited by Rubina Raja, 471–490. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2025a.

(Canepa, 2025b, 90)

Idem. “The Third Century in the Iranian World, a Time of Rupture and Renovation.” In Palmyra between the Arsacid and the Sasanian Empires: Palmyra, the Roman Empire, and the Third Century Crisis—Zooming in and Scaling up from the Evidence, edited by Rubina Raja and Eivind Heldaas Seland, 69–91. Oriens et Occidens 46. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2025b.

I.1.3

Two Authors

In-text

(Saeed-Vafa and Rosenbaum, 2003, 143).

Bibliography

Saeed-Vafa, Mehrnaz and Jonathan Rosenbaum. Abbas Kiarostami. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003.

I.1.4

More Than Three Authors

When a work has more than three authors, all authors must be listed in full in the bibliography. In the in-text citation, use the first author’s surname followed by et al.

In-text

(Cereti et al., 2025, 25)

Bibliography

Cereti, Carlo G., Pierfrancesco Callieri and Vito Messina. Eranshahr. Man, Landscape, and Society in Arsacid and Sasanian Iran. Rome: Sapienza Università Editrice, 2025.

I.1.5

Chapter in a Single Author Book

In-text

(Amanat, 1997, 220–225)

Bibliography

Amanat, Abbas. “A Narrow Escape.” In Pivot of the Universe: Nasir al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831-1896, 200–225. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.

I.1.6

Chapter in an Edited Volume

In-text

(Cereti et al., 2022, 462)

Bibliography

Cereti, Carlo G., Mohammadreza Nemati, and Mahdi Mousavinia. “Ostraca and Bullae from Qalʿeh Iraja.” In Ancient Arms Race: Antiquity’s Largest Fortresses and Sasanian Military Networks of Northern Iran: A Joint Fieldwork Project by the Iranian Center for Archaeological Research, the Research Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism, and the University of Edinburgh (2014–2016), edited by Eberhard W. Sauer, Jebrael Nokandeh, and Hamid Omrani Rekavandi, 461–74. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2022.

I.1.7

Multi-Volume Works

When citing a multi-volume work, cite only the volume or volumes actually used. If more than one volume of the same work is cited within an entry, indicate the relevant volume in the in-text citation. In bibliographic entries, the volume number follows the title after a period, not after a comma.

In-text

Bibliography

Specific volume (Chesney, I,1850, 354–55)

Chesney, Francis Rawdon. The Expedition for the Survey of the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris, Carried on by Order of the British Government, in the Years 1835, 1836, and 1837. Vol. I. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1850.

Entire Multi-Volume Work (Chesney, 1850)

Chesney, Francis Rawdon. The Expedition for the Survey of the Rivers Euphrates and Tigris, Carried on by Order of the British Government, in the Years 1835, 1836, and 1837. 2 vols. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1850.

Volumes with individual titles (Brown, 1924, 125)

Browne, Edward G. A Literary History of Persia: from the earliest times until Firdawsi. Vol. IV, The Tartar Dominion, 1265–1502. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1924.

Chapter within a specific volume (MacKenzie, 1996, 344)

MacKenzie, David Neil. “The Qasida in Pashto.” In Qasida Poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa. Vol. I, Classical Traditions & Modern Meanings, edited by Stefan Sperl and Christopher Shackle, 339–50. Brill: Leiden, 1996.

I.1.8

Part within a Multi-Volume Work

Multi-volume works are sometimes divided into individual parts. When this occurs, the specific part should be indicated in the bibliography.

In-text

Bibliography

(Konow, 1929, 79)

Konow, Sten. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum. Vol. II, Kharoshṭhī Inscriptions, Part II. Calcutta: Gover Government of India, Central Publication Branch: 1929.

(Lukonin, 1983, 682)

Lukonin, Vladimir G. “Political, Social and Administrative Institutions: Taxes and Trade.” In The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. III, part I, The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanid Periods. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 681–746. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.

I.1.9

Volume within a Series

In works published as volumes of a named series, such as Ars Orientalis, The Idea of Iran, or Studia Iranica Cahiers, Serie Orientale Roma, the name of the series should be omitted unless strictly necessary to the identification of the publication.

I.1.10

Fascicle

For works published in fascicles, cite the series title followed by the volume and fascicle numbers:

In-text

(Sims-Williams, 2010, 30)

Bibliography

Sims-Williams, Nicholas. Iranisches Personennamenbuch. Vol. II: Mitteliranische Personennamen. Fasc. VII: Bactrian Personal Names. Vienna: Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 2010.

I.1.11

Supplement

Treat supplements (Supplementbanden) as independent publication units.

In-text

(Brockelmann, 1938)

Bibliography

Brockelmann, Carl. Geschichte der arabischen Literatur. Supplementband II. Leiden: Brill, 1938.

I.1.12

Multiple Editions

For in-text citation, include both dates only if the reprint is significantly different from the first edition.
Wording such as ‘Second edition’, ‘Revised edition’ is abbreviated as ‘2nd ed.’, ‘rev. ed.’, ‘repr.’, etc. but ‘expanded’ is spelled out.
Edition statements (e.g., rev. and expanded ed., 2nd ed.) identify which version of a work is cited and end with a period.
Reprint statements (repr.) introduce a separate publication event and are followed by a comma before the place, publisher, and date.
When a work is published at a later date without being explicitly identified as a second, revised, expanded, or otherwise altered edition, EI treats the new edition as the same as the first edition. ‘New edition’ need not be specified.

In-text

Bibliography

(Paruck, 1976 [1924], 45–47)

Paruck, Furdoonjee D. J. Sasanian Coins. Bombay, 1924. Repr., New Delhi: Indological Book Corp., 1976.

(Christensen, 1944, 93)

Christensen, Arthur. L’Iran sous les Sassanides. 2nd rev. and expanded ed. Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1944.

(Woods, 1999, 56)

Woods, John E. The Aqquyunlu: Clan, Confederation, Empire. Rev. and expanded ed. Salt Lake City: The University of Utah Press, 1999.

I.1.13

Reprint with a different title

In-text

(Nafisi, 1384/2011 [1320/1941], 82)

Bibliography

Nafisi, Saʿid. Jostoju dar aḥvāl o āṯār-e Farid-al-Din ʿAṭṭār Neyšāburi. Tehran: Eqbāl, 1320/1941; repr. as Zendegi-nāma-ye Šayḵ Farid-al-DinʿAṭṭār Neyšāburi. Tehran: Eqbāl, 1384/2011.

I.1.14

Numbered Edition Included

In-text

Bibliography

(Hutterer, 1993, 125)

Hutterer, Rainer. “Order Insectivora”. In Mammal Species of the World. 2nd ed., 69–130. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1993.

(Aṭṭār, 1389/2010, 83)

Aṭṭār, Farid-al-Din. Moḵtār-nāma. Edited by Moḥammad Reżā Šafiʿi Kadkani. 4th ed. Tehran: Entešārāt-e Soḵan, 1389/2010.

I.1.15

Published Translations of Modern Scholarly Works

In-text

Bibliography

(Kolesnikov, 1388/2010, 166)

Kolesnikov, Aliy I. Irān dar āstāna-ye soquṭ-e sāsāniān. Translated by Moḥammad Rafiq Yahyāi. Tehran: Kandokav, 1388/2010.

(Foucault, 2006, 383)

Foucault, Michel. History of Madness. Translated by Jonathan Murphy and Jean Khalfa. New York: Routledge, 2006.

(Hedayat, 1979, 94–96)

Hedayat, Sadeq. “Three Drops of Blood.” Translated by Brian Spooner and Edited by Ehsan Yarshater, 93–101. In Sadeq Hedayat: An Anthology. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1979.

I.1.16

Published Translations or Editions of Premodern Texts

In text citations of premodern works should include a reference to the original language text using the standard pagination, paragraph, section or line numbering, or column references established in critical editions (where these exist), enabling readers to locate the passage quoted in the original, regardless of which translation they may have access to.

I.1.16a

Standard References to Premodern Texts

When citing a single edition or translation of a premodern source within an entry, in-text references should cite the ancient author and, where applicable, the title of the work, followed by the standard book, chapter, paragraph, section, or line numbering established in critical editions.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL EXAMPLE

Herodotus. The Persian Wars. Vol. IV. Translated by Alfred Denis Godley. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1920.

Arrian. Anabasis of Alexander, Volume II: Books 5-7. Indica. Translated by Peter Astbury Brunt. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983.

Ṭabarī, Moḥammad b. Jarir. The History of al-Ṭabarī: The Sāsānids, the Byzantines, the Lakhmids, and Yemen. Vol. V. Translated and annotated by Clifford Edmund Bosworth. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999.

* When both the original and translated titles form the published title on the title page, give the complete title, keeping both portions in italics. For bilingual or parallel titles, separate the two with a space, a forward slash, and a space.

In-text

(Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq, Al-ʻAšar maqālāt, 6.1–19)

Bibliography

Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq. Kitāb al-ʻašar maqālāt fī al-ʻayn al-mansūb li-Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq /The Book of the Ten Treatises on the Eye Ascribed to Ḥunain Ibn Isḥāq. Arabic text with English translation. Edited and translated by Max Meyerhof. Cairo: Government Press, 1928.

I.1.16b

References to Specific Editions or Translations

References to translators and/or editors should be included only when citing, quoting, or comparing a specific modern edition or translation of a premodern source. In such cases, the in-text citation should include the ancient author, the title of the work (where applicable), the corresponding book, chapter, paragraph, section, and/or line number, followed by the relevant editor/ or translator (preceded by ed. or tr.), the volume number and, the number (s). The bibliography should provide the full details of every edition or translation cited.

In-text

Bibliography

(Herodotus, 9.14; tr. Godley, 172-173)
(Ḥunayn Ibn Isḥāq, Kitāb al-ʻayn, 6.1-19; tr. Meyerhof, 2)
(Ṭabari, Taʾriḵ, I, 1066; tr. Bosworth, 408–9)

For bibliographic citations see section I.1.16a.

(Theophylact, 3.16.7; ed. de Boor, 144; tr. Whitby and Whitby, 98)

Simocatta, Theophylact. Theophylacti Simocattae historia. Edited by Carl. de Boor. Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1887. Translated by Michael Whitby and Mary Whitby. Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1986.

(Ferdowsi, ed. Khaleghi, VIII, 403–405)

Ferdowsi, Abu’l-Qāsem. The Shahnameh (The Book of Kings). Edited by Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh. Vol. VIII. Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publishers, 1987–2009.

(Ferdowsi, ed. Mohl, III, 103)

Ferdowsi, Abu’l-Qāsem. Le livre des rois. Edited and translated by Jules Mohl. Vol. III. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1838–1878; repr. 1976.

I.1.16c

Multiple Editions, Translations

When an entry requires consultation of multiple editions and/or translations, references should follow the preceding format.

IN-TEXT EXAMPLE

(Malalas, 5.59; ed. Dindorf, 444)
(Malalas, 5.59; tr. Jeffreys et al., 70)

I.1.16d

Abbreviations of Frequently Cited Works

Where a premodern source is cited repeatedly, an abbreviation may be introduced at first occurrence and used thereafter.

IN-TEXT EXAMPLE

(Procopius, De Bello Persico, hereafter BP)
(BP I.11.3–5)

I.1.17

Bible

Biblical references should be cited in-text. Standard biblical citation uses a colon to separate chapter and verse numbers, and a semicolon to separate different references. Book names of the Bible are capitalized and must be written out completely; they are neither italicized nor abbreviated. The biblical translation used should be listed in the end bibliography.

In-text

(Jeremiah 3:2)

(Genesis 10:2; Ezekiel 38:6)

Bibliography

The Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha: Revised Standard Version. Edited by Herbert G. May and Bruce M. Metzger. New York: Oxford University Press, 1965 .

I.1.18

Qur ʾ an

References to the Qurʾan should be exclusively cited in-text; no end bibliography is required. Citations use an Arabic numeral and a colon to separate sūra (chapter) and verse numbers. Qurʾan is capitalized and not italicized.

In-text

(Qurʾān 8:41)

(Qurʾān 12:4–5)

Bibliography

No end bibliography is required.

I.1.19

Hadith

References to ḥadith literature should be cited in-text, identifying the collection and, where applicable, the relevant book ( kitāb ), chapter ( bāb ), and/or ḥadith number. Titles of major collections should follow EI transliteration conventions. Where a specific modern print edition, commentary, or translation is used for the study, a corresponding entry must be included in the end bibliography following standard citation rules.

In-text

(Ṣaḥīḥ al-Buḵārī, no. 6227)

(Ṣaḥīḥ al-Buḵārī, kitāb al-maẓālem, bāb al-ḡorfa wa’l-ʿollīya, no. 5505)

Bibliography

Ibn Ḥajar al-ʿAsqalānī. Fatḥ al-bārī sharḥ ṣaḥīḥ al-Buḵārī. Vol. 2. Edited by ʿAbd al-ʿAzīz Bin Bāz and Muḥammad Foʾād ʿAbd al-Bāqī. Beirut: Dār al-Kotob al-ʿElmīya, 1997.

I.1.20

Zoroastrian Religious Texts

In-text

(Bd . 10.8-9; Vd . 5.18-19)

Bibliography

Anklesaria, Behramgore Tehmuras, ed. and trans. Zand-Ākāsīh: Iranian or Greater Bundahišn. Bombay: Rahnumae Mazdayasnan Sabha, 1956.

Geldner, Karl F., ed. Avesta: The Sacred Books of the Parsis. 3 vols. Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1886–1896.

I.1.21

Anonymous Works

When the author is unknown, the note and bibliography should begin with the abbreviated title. The term ‘anonymous’ should generally be avoided.

In-text

Bibliography

(Tāriḵ-e Sistān, ed. Bahār, 1935/2020, 215)

Tāriḵ-e Sistān. Edited by Moḥammad-Taqi Bahār. Tehran: Kolāla-ye Ḵāvar, 1314/1935.

(Chronicle of the Carmelites, 1939, 45)

A Chronicle of the Carmelites in Persia. Vol. 1. Edited by Herbert Chick. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1939.

(Iran Almanac, 1976, 68)

Iran Almanac and Book of Facts and Who’s Who in Iran. Tehran: Echo of Iran, 1976.

* When a work with a known author has an anonymous translator or editor, then specify this.

In-text

(Semnāni, 1362/1983, 67)

Bibliography

ʿAlāʾ-al-Dawla Semnāni. al-ʿOrwa le ahl al-ḵalwa wa’l-jalwa. Edited by Najib Māyel Heravi, with anonymous Persian translation. Tehran: Enteshārāt-e Mowlā, 1362/1983.

I.1.22

Uncertain or Tentative Attribution

If authorship is uncertain or only tentatively attributed, the proposed author’s name should appear in brackets. The end bibliography then lists it under the attributed author’s name.

In-text

Bibliography

([Šehāb al-Dīn Abū Saʿīd], 1976, 45)

[Šehāb-al-Din Abu Saʿid]. Tāriḵ-e šāhi-e Qarāḵtāʾiān, ed. Moḥammad-Ebrāhim Bāstāni Pārizi. Tehran: Bonyād-e Farhang-e Īrān, 1355/1976.

([Maẓhari], 1994, 43)

[Maẓhari, ʿAli]. Chilla-yi Nūr. London: Entešārāt ḵānaqāh-e Neʿmatollāhī, 1994.

* When multiple works are attributed to the same author, they should all be listed under that author’s name, again in square brackets, as follows:

In-text

([ʿAṭṭār], 1961, 27–28)

Bibliography

[ʿAṭṭār, Farid-al-Din]. Moḵtār-nāma, ed. Moḥammad Reżā Šafiʿi Kadkani, 4th ed. Tehran: Enteshārāt-e Sokhan, 1389/2010.

[Idem attrib.]. Ḵosrow-nāma, ed. Aḥmad Sohayli Ḵvānsāri. Tehran: Zawwār, 1339/1961.

I.1.23

Premodern Authors without Surnames

When a premodern author is known primarily by a pen name (taḵalloṣ), epithet, laqab, honorific, or geographic designation (nesba) rather than by a hereditary surname in the modern sense, the name should not be inverted. Bibliographic citations should follow the conventional form of the name used in scholarly literature and Encyclopaedia Iranica practice.

Example

ʿAṭṭār, Farid-al-Din. Ḵosrow-nāma. Edited by Aḥmad Sohayli Ḵvānsāri. Tehran: Zawwār, 1339/1961.

Ḥāfeẓ, Šams-al-Din Moḥammad. Divān. Edited by Moḥammad Qazvini and Qāsem Ḡani. Tehran: Čāpḵāna-ye Majles, 1320/1941.

Nāṣer-e Ḵosrow. Zād al-mosāferin. Edited by Moḥammad Baḏl-al-Raḥmān. Berlin: Kāvīānī, 1923.

Šāh Neʿmatullāh Valī. Dīvān, ed. Javad Nurbakhsh. 1st ed. Tehran: Entešārāt ḵānaqāh-e Neʿmatollāhī, 1347/1968.

I.1.24

Selected Translations within Secondary Scholarship

Partial translations embedded in modern studies.

In-text

Bibliography

(Browne, 1928, 292–297)

Browne, Edward G. A Literary History of Persia: from the earliest times until Firdawsi. Vol. IV, The Tartar Dominion, 1265–1502. London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1924.

(Karimi-Hakkak, 1978, 112–14)

Karimi-Hakkak, Ahmad. An Anthology of Modern Persian Poetry. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1978.

I.1.25

General Literary Translations (Non-Critical, Non-Parallel)

Modern literary translations without line-by-line correspondence.

In-text

(Davis, 2006, 446)

Bibliography

Ferdowsi. Shahnameh: The Persian Book of Kings. Translated by Dick Davis. New York: Viking, 2006.

I.1.26

Translators, Editors, and Other Contributors

When the same individual is both editor and translator use: Edited and translated by First Name, Surname.

In-text

Bibliography

(Thalibi, 1900, 43)

Ṯaʿālebi, ʻAbd al-Malik ibn Muḥammad. Ḡorar aḵbār moluk al-fors. Edited and translated by Hermann Zotenberg as Histoire des rois des Perses. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1900.

When the editor and translator are different individuals, cite each role separately: Edited by First Name Surname. Translated by First Name, Surname.

Example

Ferdowsi, Abu’l-Qāsem. The Shahnameh: The Persian Book of Kings. Foreword by Azar Nafisi. Translated by Dick Davis. New York: Viking Penguin, 2006.

When the translation is a chapter: For contributions appearing within edited volumes, cite the translator of the specific contribution where relevant.

In-text

(Kant, 1984, 35)

Bibliography

Kant, Immanuel. “What Is Enlightenment?” Translated by Catherine Porter. In The Foucault Reader. Edited by Paul Rabinow, 32–50. New York: Pantheon Books, 1984.

In Persian publications, designations such as be kūšeš-e (به کوشش) or compiler should normally be treated as equivalent to an editor unless the publication clearly indicates a different editorial role.

I.1.27

Citing an introduction

When citing the introduction, preface, foreword or similar contribution to an edited or translated work, cite the author of the contribution as the author of a separate text. If both the introduction and the underlying text are discussed, cite each separately.

In-text

Bibliography

Introduction only (Heravi, 1983, 10–13)

Introduction and text (Heravi, 1983, 10–13; Ḥammuya, 1362/1983, 45–47)

Heravi, Najib Māyel. Introduction to al-Meṣbāḥ fi’l-taṣawwof by Saʿd-al-din Ḥammuya. Edited by Najib Māyel Heravi. Tehran: Mowla, 1362/1983.

I.1.28

Unknown Publication Details

When the place of publication is not known, use the abbreviation n.p.

In-text

Bibliography

(Zokai, 2003, 323–5)

Zokai, Javad. Partow-e az nūr. n.p.: privately printed, 2003.

When the date of publication is unknown, use the abbreviation n.d.

In-text

Bibliography

(Monzavi, n.d., 4258–59)
(Nāhīd, 1360/1989, 53)

Nāhīd, ʿA. Zanān-e Īrān dar jonbeš-e mašrūṭa. n.p., n.d.; repr. Saarbrücken, 1360/1989.

I.2. Journals

I.2.1

Single Author

Include DOIs or stable URLs for online materials when available. Access dates should be omitted unless the source is unstable or subject to change. The name of journals should not be abbreviated.

In-text

(Melville, 1992, 200)

(Sharifi, 2024, 500)

Bibliography

Melville, Charles. “‘The Year of the Elephant’: Mamluk-Mongol Rivalry in the Hejaz in the Reign of Abū Saʿīd (1317-1335).” Studia Iranica 21, no. 2 (1992): 197–214.

Sharifi, Saeideh. “Tammarītu, ‘king of Ḫidalu,’ Tammarītu, ‘king of Elam.’” Iranian Studies 57, no. 4 (2024): 496–509. doi:10.1017/irn.2024.20

I.2.2

Single Author, Multiple Works in the Same Year

See Section I.1.2.

I.2.3

Two Authors

In-text

(Matsuo and Ito, 1978, 1640)

Bibliography

Matsuo, Tomoaki and Saburo Ito. “The Chemical Structure of Kaki-Tannin from Immature Fruit of the Persimmon (Diospyros kaki L.).” Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 42, no. 9 (1978): 1637–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/00021369.1978.10863225

I.2.4

More than Three Authors

In-text

(Karami et al., 2008, 77)

Bibliography

Karami, Mahmoud, Rainer Hutterer, Petr Benda, Roohollah Siahsarvie, and Boris Kryštufek. “Annotated Check-List of the Mammals of Iran.” Lynx (Praha) 39, no. 1 (2008): 63–102.

I.2.5

Book Review

Reviews should be cited under the reviewer’s name. The title of the review is introduced as: Review of Title of Book by Author.

In-text

(Turner, 2025, 118)

Bibliography

Turner, Bryan S. Review of Managing Religion and Religious Changes in Iran: A Socio-Legal Analysis by Sajjad Adeliyan Tous and James T. Richardson. Critical Research on Religion 13, no. 1 (2025): 117–119.

I.2.6

Journals Divided into Sections (Abteilungen)

Where a journal or serial publication is divided into sections or subdivisions (e.g., Abteilung A, Abteilung B), retain the designation as it appears in the publication.

In-text

(Krause, 1936, 440)

Bibliography

Krause, Max. “Stambuler Handschriften islamischer Mathematiker.” Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der Mathematik, Astronomie und Physik B, 2 (1936): 437–532.

I.2.7

Journal Article Titles Containing Quotation Marks

When the title of a journal article contains quotation marks, use single quotation marks within the double quotation marks that enclose the article title.

In-text

(Tanabe, 1997, 268)

Bibliography

Tanabe, Katsumi. “‘Shiva’ has ‘Gone with the wind’ — OHÞO: =Vayu restated.” al-Rāfidān 18 (1997): 263–280.

I.2.8

Journal Article with a Translator

In-text

(Inostrantsev, 1926, 43-45)

Bibliography

Inostrantsev, Konstantin Alexandrovich. “Sasanian Military Theory.” Translated by L. Bogdanov. Journal of the Cama Oriental Institute 7 (1926): 7–52.

Transliteration

In Encyclopædia Iranica, transliteration conventions depend largely on the historical period under consideration. To provide clear and consistent guidance for authors, this Style Guide distinguishes among three broad chronological periods: ancient, medieval, and modern. The ancient period encompasses the languages and writing systems of pre-Islamic Iran, while the medieval and modern periods primarily concern languages written in the Arabic script. Although both periods employ the Arabic script, they follow slightly different transliteration conventions.

II.1. Ancient Languages

All ancient Iranian languages—and languages commonly used in ancient Iranian studies—are transcribed according to well-established and widely accepted scholarly conventions. The transliteration systems used in Encyclopædia Iranica follow standard practices in the field and are summarized below for reference.

II.1.1.

Avestan

Avestan comprises sixteen vowel letters and thirty-seven consonant letters. It is rendered according to the standard system established mainly by Karl Hoffmann and Johanna Narten (1989), also available in the former’s Encyclopædia Iranica entry on Avestan Language.

II.1.2.

Bactrian

Bactrian almost exclusively uses the Greek alphabet. Authors are encouraged to use Greek.

II.1.3.

Greek

Greek follows the standard of Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott’s Greek dictionary (1996).

II.1.4.

Khotanese and Tumshuqese

Khotanese and Tumshuqese are transliterated like Sanskrit; see further R. E. Emmerick, Khotanese and Tumshuqese (Schmidt 1989, 204–229).

II.1.5.

Khwarezmian

Khwarezmian is generally transliterated according to the system adopted in H. Humbach, Choresmian (Schmidt 1989, 193–203).

II.1.6.

Middle Persian

Middle Persian generally follows the transcription system established by David N. MacKenzie (1967, 17–29; 1971). In transliteration, heterograms (Aramaic logograms) are written in all caps, following Philip Gignoux (1972).

A distinction must be maintained among the various Middle Persian traditions: Inscriptional and Manichaean Middle Persian are transliterated (transcriptions may be added when relevant); Book Pahlavi is generally transcribed (transliterations may be added when relevant); Pāzand follows Avestan conventions. In its inscriptional and Manichaean variants, transliteration must reflect the orthographic form of the source, following Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst (2004, 2014).

II.1.7.

Old Persian

Old Persian is generally transcribed, but transliteration may be added when relevant. For transliteration follow Rüdiger Schmitt (2014).

II.1.8.

Parthian

Parthian is generally transliterated, though transcription is admitted. Both should follow the model found in Durkin-Meisterernst (2004, 2014) and Sundermann (Schmidt 1989, 114–137).

II.1.9.

Sanskrit

Sanskrit should be transliterated according to the International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST), which serves as the standard system throughout the Encyclopaedia Iranica. Contributors should follow the conventional scholarly forms established by Monier-Williams. For etymological matters, authors may also consult Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen (2 vols., Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, 1986–2001).

II.1.10.

Sogdian

Sogdian is generally transliterated according to the system adopted by Nicholas Sims-Williams (Schmidt 1989, 173–192).

II.1.11.

Syriac

Section forthcoming.

II.2. LANGUAGES WRITTEN IN THE ARABIC SCRIPT

Encyclopædia Iranica employs its own standardized transliteration system for Persian and Arabic. The primary objective of this system has been to provide a Persian-oriented romanization that reflects the pronunciation of modern Persian, particularly as it applies to medieval and modern Persian texts. For the purposes of Encyclopædia Iranica, “modern” refers to the period from approximately 1800 to the present.

To maintain the discoverability and accurate identification of published sources, however, other established transliteration systems, such as those of the Library of Congress, Encyclopaedia of Islam, and IJMES, are preserved in citations and bibliographic references exactly as they appear in the original publication. Likewise, the names of modern individuals are retained in their Anglicized or other Westernized forms when they have published under, or are widely known by, those forms.

Because many languages are written in the Arabic script, each with its own distinct transliteration conventions, they are grouped here under this heading. The transliteration system for each language, however, is presented separately.

II.2.1.

Persian

The Encyclopaedia Iranica uses its own transliteration system for Persian and Arabic. Other transliteration systems (e.g., Library of Congress, Encyclopaedia of Islam, or IJMES) are only preserved in the final bibliography.

Vowels. The EIr represents the short vowels “a,” “i,” and “u” in Arabic or Persian words as “a,” “e,” and “o,” as in gol, meḥvar, or modarres. The long vowels “ā, ” “ī,” and “ū” are represented as “ā,” “u,” and “i,” as in mādar, piš, or foṣus. The transliteration system also preserves the historical word-final -a rather than the modern Persian pronunciation -e (e.g., dasta ‘handle’). In Persian words, such as ḵāna or guna, the silent final “-h” is not represented. With regard to diphthongs, notice exceptions such as Ferdowsi, Ḥosayn, or ayvān. The diphthong “ey” is represented as “i,” as in Siar al-moluk, while “eyy” is transliterated as “iy,” as in adabiyāt. The majhul vowels “ē” and “ō” are required for Afghan Persian and Indo-Persian.

Arabic constructs. The rules of Arabic grammar apply to genitive constructions such as the book title Nozhat al-qolub or the institution of bayt al-māl. But noun and depending genitive are capitalized and hyphenated in all proper names, such as ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn and Fatḥ-ʿAli, and in honorifics and other titles, such as Zinat-al- Nesāʾ. The Arabic article al- is only preserved for depending genitives, as in Ebn- al-Aṯir and Nāṣer-al-Din, but otherwise dropped, as for Biruni and Ḥallāj.

Consonants

ء–

بb

پp

تt

ثṯ, s̱ ṯ

جǰ

چč

حḥ

خḵ

دd

ذḏ, ẕ ḏ

رr

زz

ژž

سs

شš

صṣ

ضż

طṭ

ظẓ

عʿ

غḡ

فf

قq

کk

گg

لl

مm

نn

وv w

هh

Vowels

اā

یā

وū

یī

ـَa

ـُo

ـِe

وَaw, ow aw

ىَay, ey ay

II.2.3.

Pashto

Encyclopaedia Iranica follows the Pashto transcription system developed by Daniel Septfonds and Matteo De Chiara. The system is phonological rather than strictly transliterative and neutralizes major dialectal differences. Orthographic distinctions inherited from Arabic that are not phonemically relevant in Pashto are generally not maintained in transcription. The transcription table of Pashto script is as follows:

Pashto (Septfonds / De Chiara)

اa

آā

بb

پp

تt

ټṭ

ثs

جǰ

چč

ځj

څc

حh

خx

دd

ډḍ

ذz

رr

ړṛ

زz

ژž

ږǧ

سs

شš

ښx̌

صs

ضz

طt

ظz

عʿ

غγ

فf

قq

کk

ګg

لl

مm

نn

ڼṇ

وw / u / o

ہh

یy / ay

يi

ېe

ۍ-y

ئ-əy

Vowels are represented according to the phonological system of Pashto. Contributors should follow the forms established in standard scholarly usage and in recent Encyclopaedia Iranica publications.

This system follows the conventions established by Septfonds (1994) and further developed by De Chiara (2020, 2022).

II.3. Other Languages

II.3.1.

Armenian

The encyclopedia of Iranica adopts a standardized transliteration system based on the Strict Diacritic System (Hübschmann-Meillet/REA) transliteration system, with minor adjustments for digital readability and consistency. The system follows conventions widely used in Armenian philology, particularly in publications such as Revue des Études Arméniennes.

Scope of Use: Transliteration should be used for Armenian personal names, Place names (when no standard English form exists), Technical terms and key concepts, Titles of texts that do not have a standardized English title

Core Principles: The system maintains a one-to-one correspondence between Armenian and Latin characters. The complete transliteration table is provided below.

Armenian (Hübschmann-Meillet)

Ա աA a

Բ բB b

Գ գG g

Դ դD d

Ե եE e

Զ զZ z

Է էĒ ē

Ը ըĚ ě

Թ թTʿ tʿ

Ժ ժŽ ž

Ի իI i

Լ լL l

Խ խX x

Ծ ծC c

Կ կK k

Հ հH h

Ձ ձJ j

Ղ ղŁ ł

Ճ ճČ č

Մ մM m

Յ յY y

Ն նN n

Շ շŠ š

Ո ոO o

Չ չČʿ čʿ

Պ պP p

Ջ ջJ̌ ǰ

Ռ ռṘ ṙ

Ս սS s

Վ վV v

Տ տT t

Ր րR r

Ց ցCʿ cʿ

Ւ ւW w

Փ փPʿ pʿ

Ք քKʿ kʿ

Օ օŌ ō

Ֆ ֆF f

Եւ ևew

Ու ուU u

Classical Armenian Names: Classical Armenian names should follow the standardized scholarly transliteration.

Example

Ełišē (not Yeghishe); Łazar Pʿarpecʿi; Vahan Mamikonean

Modern Personal Name: For modern individuals, use the established Latin spelling employed by the individual or found in their publications. A scholarly transliteration may be provided at first occurrence where relevant.

II.3.8.

Tajik

For Tajik written in the Perso-Arabic script, follow the Encyclopaedia Iranica transliteration system for Persian. For Tajik written in the Roman script, no further transliteration is required. Roman-script texts should be reproduced as published, including ʙ c ç ƣ j ş ƶ. For Tajik written in the Cyrillic script, transliteration should follow the table below. The system is based on a one-to-one substitution of Cyrillic letters with their Latin equivalents. Vowels are transliterated directly from the Cyrillic alphabet, while consonants follow the Encyclopaedia Iranica transliteration system for Persian and Arabic, thereby avoiding digraphs (e.g., č, š, ž, ḵ, ḡ). Tajik written in the Cyrillic alphabet capitalizes proper nouns and the first word of sentences.

Tajik (CYRILLIC / ROMAN)

аa

бb

вv

гg

ғḡ

дd

еe

ёyo

жž

зz

иi

ӣī

йy

кk

қq

лl

мm

нn

оo

пp

рr

сs

тt

уu

ӯū

фf

хḵ

ҳh

чč

ҷj

шš

ъʼ

эè

юyu

яya

II.3.9.

Turkish

Turkish follows standard modern Turkish orthography, following TDK usage or spellings in the Redhouse Turkish/Ottoman-English Dictionary. For Ottoman Turkish, give the modern Turkish spelling first when standard, followed by a full transliteration in parentheses, as for Taşköprüzade (Ṭāškobrāzāda), and use the modern Turkish spelling thereafter. Use full transliteration throughout only when no standard Turkish spelling exists. For the Turkic languages of Central Asia, the appropriate variants of the EIr’s transliteration system are to be used.

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