HUNTING IN IRAN i. In the pre-Islamic Period. ii. In the Islamic Period.  

KERMANSHAH (Kermānšāh), a province in western Iran; also the name of its principal city and capital. i. Geography. ii. Population….

ZOROASTRIANS IN IRAN The subject of the history and status of the Zoroastrian communities of Iran since the coming of Islam…

SCHIMMEL, ANNEMARIE (b. Erfurt, Germany, 7 April 1922; d. Bonn, 26 January 2003; PLATE I), German orientalist and scholar of Islam…

KERMAN (Kermān), a province in southeastern Iran; also the name of one of its sub-provinces as well as that of…

RHOXANE (Gk. Rhōxánē), a woman’s name (in English and other modern languages usually Roxane), and the Greek rendering of OIr….

PROSODY, systems, styles, and theories of versification in the Iranian world. i. Remnants of Proto-Indo-European Poetic Craft in Iranian. ii….

PAPER writing material invented in China that spread throughout Asia and to Iran in the pre-Islamic period. i. Paper in…

KHAYYAM, OMAR (ʿOMAR ḴAYYĀM, 1048-1131), celebrated polymath and poet, author of the Rubaiyat (Robāʿiāt). i.  Introduction. ii. The “Rubaiyat.” iii. Manuscripts…

ḴĀVARĀN-NĀMA (or ḴĀVAR-NĀMA) a Persian religious epic poem composed by Ebn Ḥosām Ḵᵛāfi or Ḵusfi. i. The Epic Poem. ii….

MEʿRĀJ The term meʿrāj means “instrument of ascension,” more specifically associated with the Prophet Mohammad’s “heavenly or celestial ascent”. i. Definition…

KÖROĞLU, also Göroḡly, name of an early-17th-century folk hero and poet, whose stories are mainly known among the Turkic peoples….

BEHBAHANI, SIMIN (Simin Behbahāni, b. Tehran, 28 Tir 1306 Š./1927, d. Tehran 28 Mordād, 1393 Š./2014; Figure 1, Figure 2),…

WALDSCHMIDT, ERNST (b. Lünen, Westphalia, Germany, 15 July 1897; d. Göttingen, 25 February 1985), Indologist. His research focused on Sanskrit manuscripts…

SOGDIAN LANGUAGE one of the Eastern Middle Iranian languages once spoken in Sogdiana. i. Description. ii. Loanwords in Persian.

SOGDIANA the name in Classical sources for Suγd, the region of Central Asia north of the river Oxus/Amu Darya. i….

NEŠALJ (also Nešalg, Nešlaj), large village in central Iran known for its picturesque architecture, the festivity of Friday of Nešalj…

KUSHANSHAHS the title of rulers, known between the 3rd-century Sasanian conquests and the 4th/5th-century Hunnic invasions, in parts of eastern…

ILĀM, a province, sub-province, and town in western Iran. The name “Ilām” was given to the above localities for the…

ḠAZAL, the most important Persian lyric, adopted also by literatures influenced by the classical Persian tradition, in particular Turkish and…

TAQIZADEH (Taqizāda), SAYYED ḤASAN (b. Tabriz, 30 Ramażān 1295/27 September 1878; d. Tehran, 8 Bahman 1348/28 January 1970), distinguished statesman,…

DARBAND EPIGRAPHY Along the walls of Darband (دربند), during the long history of the city, from the Sasanian period through…

ḴOSROW I Sasanian king (r. 531-79), son of Kawād I. This entry is divided into three sections: i. Life and…

ASTARA, a town and sub-province in the province of Ardabil, on the Caspian coast (lat 38°26′ N, long 48°51′ E)….

KHORRAMABAD (Ḵorramābād), sub-province and capital city of Lorestan Province. This entry is divided into the following two articles: i. The…

BIRJAND, the capital and a sub-province in Khorasan-e Jonubi Province. This entry is divided into the following two articles. i….

BORUJERD, town and sub-province in Lorestan Province in western Iran. This entry is divided into the following two articles:   …

BĀBOL, town in Māzandarān, formerly Bārforūš. i. The town. ii. Islamic monuments. iii. Population, 1956-2011.

BEHBAHAN (Behbahān, also pronounced Behbehān), a city and sub-province in Khuzestan province. This entry is divided into the following two…

DUNHUANG, an oasis town situated in the northwest of the Chinese province of Gansu, famous for the nearby Mogao Caves…

MAMMALS Mammals are endothermic (“warm-blooded”) vertebrate animals that have hair and produce milk to nourish their young. i. Mammals of…

TAQIYA, dissimulation (lit., guarding, wariness); the practice, commonly regarded as distinctively Shiʿite, of hiding beliefs or rituals in times of imminent harm…

VENDĪDĀD the common name given to the Avestan text widaēwa-dāta-, Pahl. jud-dēw-dād “The Law repudiating the Demons.” i. Survey of…

SYRIAC LANGUAGE Syriac, the slightly archaizing Eastern Aramaic dialect of the city of Edessa (Orhāy, ar-Ruhā, Urfa), is the most…

AVESTA the holy book of the Zoroastrians. i. Survey of the history and contents of the book. ii. Middle Persian translations.

SUSA the chief city of ancient Elam and one of the capital cities of the Achaemenid empire. i. Excavations. ii….

IRAN x. Persian art and architecture. See ART; ARCHITECTURE.

MIRACLES i. In ancient Iranian tradition. ii. In Islam. See KARĀMA.

ZOROASTRIANS IN IRAN The subject of the history and status of the Zoroastrian communities of Iran since the coming of Islam…

ZOROASTRIANISM i. Historical review: up to the Arab conquest. ii. Historical review: from the Arab conquest to modern times.

BANDAR-E ABBAS(I), a port city and capital of Hormozgan province on the Persian Gulf. This entry is divided into the…

KHALKHAL (Ḵalḵāl), the southeasternmost district of Azerbaijan. Its main city and administrative center, formerly named Heruābād, now likewise is called…

KUSHAN DYNASTY (Kušān), the line of rulers in Bactria, Central Asia and northern India from the first century CE. The…

MANICHEISM i. General Survey ii. The Manichean Pantheon iii. The Manichean Pandaemonium iv. Buddhist Elements in Manicheism v. Missionary Activity and Technique vi. in China

RUMI, JALĀL-AL-DIN, (d. 1273), Persian poet and Sufi philosopher. i. Introduction.ii. Biography.iii. The Maṯnawi.iv. Lyrics.v. Other works.vi. Poetics.vii. Philosophy.viii. Teachings.ix. Translations in English.x.  Translations and…

LURISTAN, a province of Iran. i. TBA ii. TBA iii. TBA iv. The Origin of Nomadism v. Religion, Rituals, and…

DEZFUL (< Dez-pol “Fortress bridge”), a town and sub-province (šahrestān) in northern Khuzestan province (Ostān-e Ḵuzestān). This entry is divided...

AHVĀZ, a city of southwestern Iran. Located in the province of Ḵūzestān at 31°19′ north latitude and 48°46′ east longitude, elevation 82 feet,…

RUSSIA i. Russo-Iranian Relations up to the Bolshevik Revolution. ii. Iranian-Soviet Relations (1917-1991). iii. Russo-Iranian Relations in the post-Soviet Era…

KERMAN (Kermān), a province in southeastern Iran; also the name of one of its sub-provinces as well as that of…

KOJUR, historical district in the central Alborz, northwestern Māzandarān. i. Historical geography ii. Language and culture

KUHPĀYA, piedmont district east of Isfahan province, historically known as Vir. i. The district ii. The dialect

MONĀJĀT, a prayer genre which is often associated with the mystical verses of the Persian poet ʿAbdallāh Anṣāri (d. 1089)…

KAZERUN (Kāzerun, also Kāzarun), city and sub-province in the province of Fars, west of Shiraz. This entry is divided into…

Mithra i. Mitra in Old Indian and Mithra in Old Iranian. ii. Iconography in Iran and Central Asia. iii. in…

ḴᵛĀNSĀR (also Ḵunsār, Ḵonsār, Ḵānsār), historical district and town in Isfahan province. i. Historical geography ii. The dialect

ZEFRA, mountainous district and village northeast of Isfahan, best known for its dialect. This article is divided into two sections:…

LORI LANGUAGE, the language of one of Iran’s major ethnic groups, spoken by five million people over the length of the…

Šāpur I i. History ii. The Great Statue iii. The Rock Reliefs   Šāpur II    

AMLAŠ i. Geography. ii. Excavations.

KASHMIR. Kashmir lies on the crossroads of important trade routes, where Persian historically was the lingua franca of traders and…

KOROSH Korosh (کُرُش) is the name of a tribe (tāyefe, طایفه) scattered across southwestern Iran, whose traditional livelihood is based…

TAJIK i. The Ethnonym: Origins and Application ii. Tajik Persian iii. Colloquial Tajiki in Comparison with Persian of Iran

KASHAN (Kāšān) historical city and a sub-province of the province of Isfahan on the north-south axial route of central Iran (lat…

JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS This entry will be divided into the following sections: i. Achaemenid judicial and legal systems. ii….

ḴALAJ i. Ḵalaj Tribe. ii. Ḵalaji Language.

INHERITANCE i. Sasanian period. ii. Islamic period.  

IRANIAN IDENTITY, a collective feeling by Iranian peoples of belonging to the historic lands of Iran. This sense of identity,…

IRAQ AND ITS RELATIONS WITH IRAN Relations between Iran and Mesopotamia, the core region of present-day Iraq, can be traced back…

i. Persian Art Collections ii. Swedish Officers in Persia, 1911-15 iii. Swedish Archeological Mission to Iran iv. Iranian Community

i. In Persian tradition and folk belief. ii. Domestication in Iran.

GEOGRAPHY of Persia and Afghanistan. For physical geography see Supplement and under individual areas, countries, and provinces (e.g., AFGHANISTAN i; AZERBAIJAN…

GORGĀN i. Geography. ii. Dašt-e Gorgān. iii. Population. iv. Archeology. v. Pre-Islamic history. vi. History from the rise of Islam to the beginning of the Safavid…

i. The name. ii. Xerxes I. iii. Xerxes II.

i. The Achaemenid province Arabāya ii. The Sasanians and Arabia

  FISCAL SYSTEM in Persia. i. Achaemenid Period. ii. Sasanian Period. iii. Islamic Period. iv. Safavid and Qajar Periods. v. Pahlavi Period. vi. Islamic Republic.  

FICTION. i. Traditional Forms. ii. Modern Fiction. ii(a). Historical Background. ii(b). The Novel. ii(c). The Short Story. ii(d). The Post-Revolutionary Short Story. ii(e). Post-Revolutionary Fiction Abroad. ii(f). By…

KANDAHAR (قندهار, Qandahār), city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country…

KARAJ (کرج)(also spelled Kerej or Karadj), a town in Tehran province, located 36 km west of the city of Tehran on…

KALILA WA DEMNA (کلیله و دمنه), a collection of didactic animal fables, with the jackals Kalila and Demna as two…

GARDEN (bāḡ), referring to a garden estate, intended primarily for pleasure rather than permanent residence or production of crops, formally…

FORESTS AND FORESTRY i. Forests and Forestry in Persia. ii. Forests and Forestry in Afghanistan. See Afghanistan xiii.

GATHAS (GĀΘĀS), the core of the great Mazdayasnian liturgy, the Yasna, consisting of five gāθās, or modes of song (gā) that comprise seventeen…

  ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD, b. Moḥammad Ṭūsī (450-505/1058-1111), one of the greatest systematic Persian thinkers of medieval Islam and a…

FLORA i. Historical Background. ii. In Persia. iii. In Afghanistan. See Afghanistan ii. Flora.

Mining in Iran i. Mines and Mineral Resources ii. Mineral Industries

JULFA, short for New Julfa, a large settlement on the southwestern edge of Isfahan, established by Armenian refugees in 1605….

NOWRUZ i. In the Pre-Islamic Period ii. In the Islamic Period iii. In the Iranian Calendar

FRANCE i. Introduction ii. Relations with Persia to 1789 iii. Relations with Persia 1789-1918 iv. Relations with Persia Since 1918…

CASPIAN SEA, actually a lake, the largest in the world (estimated surface area in 1986: 378,400 km², volume 78,600 km³; approx….

ARDAŠĪR I (?-242 A.D.), the founder of the Sasanian empire. i. History ii. Rock reliefs

ṬUSI, NAṢIR-AL-DIN (1201-1274), celebrated polymath and vizier, whose significant works in literary, theological and scientific disciplines later earned him the title…

FLAGS. This article is meant to supplement earlier entries on Iranian vexillology (see ʿALAM VA ʿALĀMAT, BANNERS, and DERAFŠ). i….

FERDOWSĪ, ABU’L-QĀSEM (329-410 or 416/940-1019 or 1025), one of the greatest epic poets and author of the Šāh-nāma, the national…

FASĀ i. Geography and History ii. Tall-e Żaḥḥāk

FĀRS, province in southern Persia. i. Geography.ii. History in the pre-Islamic Period.iii. History in the Islamic Period.iv. History in the…

FĀRĀBĪ, ABŪ NAṢR, Muslim philosopher of the 4th/10th century. i. Biography ii. Logic iii. Metaphysics iv. Fārābī and Greek Philosophy…

FACULTIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEHRAN. The University of Tehran was founded in 1313 Š./1934 from four pre-existing schools (madrasas)…

EXCAVATIONS i. In Persia ii. In Afghanistan iii. In Central Asia iv. In Chinese Turkestan

EXEGESIS (Ar. tafsīr), commentary on or interpretation of sacred texts.i. In Zoroastrianismii. In Shiʿismiii. In Persianiv. In Sufism. See SUPPLEMENT.v….

EUNUCHS,castrated males who were in charge of the concubines of royal harems, served in the daily life of the court,…

ESCHATOLOGY, the branch of theology concerned with final things, i.e., the advent of the savior to defeat evil and the…

EPIGRAPHY, the study of inscriptions, particularly their collection, decipherment, interpretation, dating, and classification.i. Old Persian and Middle Iranian epigraphy.ii. Greek…

EMĀMZĀDA, a shrine believed to be the tomb of a descendent of a Shiʿite Imam. In addition to emāmzāda, such…

ELAM, ancient country encompassing a large part of the Persian plateau at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. but…

EGYPT: relations with Persia and Afghanistan.i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid periodii. Egyptian influence on Persia in the Pre-Islamic…

EDUCATION (Pers. āmūzeš o parvareš; earlier Ar. Per. taʿlīm o tarbīat) in Iranian-speaking areas.   1. Ancient and Traditional i….

ECONOMY i. Economic geography. ii. In the Pre-Achaemenid period. iii. In the Achaemenid period. iv. In the Sasanian period. v….

CYRUS i. The Name. ii. Cyrus I. iii. Cyrus II the Great. iiia. Cyrus II as Portrayed by Xenophon and…

CROWN, (Pers. and Ar. tāj), royal and divine headdress. i. In the Median and Achaemenid periods. ii. From the Seleucids…

COURTS AND COURTIERS i. In the Median and Achaemenid periods. ii. In the Parthian and Sasanian periods. iii. In the…

COTTON, (panba < Mid. Pers. pambag; katān; in Isfahan kolūza; genus Gossypium), particularly the short-staple species Gossypium herbaceum, is cultivated in almost all parts of Persia, and...

COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY i. In Zoroastrianism/Mazdaism. ii. In Mithraism. iii. In Manicheism. iv. In the Mazdakite religion. v. In Twelver…

CORRESPONDENCE i. In pre-Islamic Persia. ii. In Islamic Persia. iii. Forms of opening and closing, address, and signature. iv. On…

COOKING i. In ancient Iran. ii. In Pahlavi literature. iii. Principles and ingredients of modern Persian cooking. iv. In Afghanistan….

CONVERSION i. Of Iranians to the Zoroastrian faith. ii. Of Iranians to Islam. iii. To Imami Shiʿism in India. iv….

CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION (Enqelāb-e mašrūṭa) of 1323-29/1905-11, during which a parliament and constitutional monarchy were established in Persia. i. Intellectual background. ii….

COMMERCE within Persia and between Persia and other region. i. In the prehistoric period. ii. In the Achaemenid period. iii….

COMMUNISM i. In Persia to 1941. ii. In Persia from 1941 to 1953. iii. In Persia after 1953. iv. In…

CLOTHING  i. General remarks. ii. In the Median and Achaemenid periods. iii. In the Arsacid period. iv. In the Sasanian…

CLEANSING i. In Zoroastrianism. ii. In Islamic Persia.  

CLASS SYSTEM (ṭabaqāt-e ejtemāʿī), a generic term referring to various types of social group, including castes, estates, status groups, and occupational…

CITIES i. Geographical introduction. ii. City planning, construction, and architecture. See Supplement iii. Administration and social organization. iv. Modern urbanization…

CITIZENSHIP i. In the Achaemenid period. ii. In the Sasanian period. iii. In modern times (Qajar and Pahlavi periods).

CINEMA in Persia i. History of cinema in Persia. ii. Feature films. iii. Documentary films. iv. Film censorship. v. Filmography.

CHRISTIANITY i. In pre-Islamic Persia: Literary sources. ii. In pre-Islamic Persia: Material remains. iii. In Central Asia and Chinese Turkestan….

CHORASMIA (Gk. Chorasmiē < OPers. (H)uwārazmiš, Av. Xᵛāirizəm, later Ḵᵛārazm [Khwārazm], generally derived from *hwāra-zam/zmī-, either “nourishing land” [Burnouf, p....

CHINESE TURKESTAN, IRANIAN ELEMENTS IN i. Geographical overview ii. In pre-Islamic times iii. From the advent of Islam to the…

CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS i. In Pre-Islamic Times. ii. Islamic Period to the Mongols. iii. In the Mongol Period. iv. The Safavid…

CHILDREN i. Childbirth in Zoroastrianism. ii. Childbirth in modern Persian folklore. iii. Legal rights of children in the Sasanian period….

KASRAVI, AḤMAD (احمد کسروی)(b. Tabriz, 29 September 1890; d. Tehran, 11 March 1946; Figure 1), influential social thinker, prominent historian, a pioneer…

CERAMICS i. The Neolithic period through the Bronze Age in northeastern and north-central Persia. ii. The Neolithic period in northwestern…

CENTRAL ASIA i. Geographical survey. ii. Demography. iii. In pre-Islamic times. iv. In the Islamic period up to the Mongols….

CAUCASUS AND IRAN. The Iranian world is bordered in the northwest by the high mountain barrier of the Caucasus, which…

CARPETS, (qālī; Ar. and Pers. farš), heavy textiles used as coverings for floors, walls, and other large surfaces, as well as…

TENTS in Iran i. General Survey ii. Variety, Construction, and Use

BŪŠEHR (Ar. Būšahr, European spellings Bushire, Busheer, Bouchir, etc.), port city in southern Iran on the Persian Gulf. i. The…

BURIAL i. Pre-Achaemenid burial sites. ii. Remnants of burial practices in ancient Iran. iii. In Zoroastrianism. iv. In Islam. v….

BUKHARA  i. In Pre-Islamic Times. ii. From the Arab Invasions to the Mongols. iii. After the Mongol Invasion. iv. Khanate…

BUDDHISM among Iranian peoples.  i. In pre-Islamic Times. ii. In Islamic Times. iii. Buddhist Literature in Khotanese and Tumshuqese. iv….

BRONZE i. In pre-Islamic Iran. ii. In Islamic Iran.   Search terms:  برنز bronze bronz  

BOUNDARIES  i. With the Ottoman empire. ii. With Russia. iii. Boundaries of Afghanistan. iv. With Iraq. v. With Turkey.  …

BISOTUN, (Bīsetūn, Bīstūn, Behistun), the modern name of a cliff rising on the north side of the age-old caravan trail and…

BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN MOḤAMMAD b. Aḥmad (362/973- after 442/1050), scholar and polymath of the period of the late Samanids and…

BIBLE i. The Bible as a source for Median and Achaemenid history. ii. Persian elements in the Bible. iii. Chronology…

BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES i. In the West. ii. In Iran.     Search terms: کتاب شناسی و فهرست نویسی  ketab…

BELTS (Mid. Pets, kamar, NPers. kamar-band) i. In ancient Iran. ii. In the Parthian and Sasanian periods.   i. In…

BĀZĀR “market (place),” Middle Persian wāzār (wʾcʾr), Armenian vačaṟ, Sogdian wʾcrn, wʾcn “street,” hence bāzargān (Arm. vačarākan) “merchant”; Sasanian inscription…

BARDA and BARDADĀRĪ, “slaves and slavery.” i. In the Achaemenid period. ii. In the Sasanian period. iii. In the Islamic period…

BĀMĪĀN, town in central Afghanistan, important prehistoric and Buddhist site. i. The Bāmīān basin. ii. History and monuments. iii. Modern…

BALUCHISTAN i. Geography, History and Ethnography. ii. Archeology. iii. Baluchi Language and Literature. iiia. Baluchi Poetry. iv. Music of Baluchistan. v….

BAHRĀM (بهرام), the name of six Sasanian kings and of several notables of the Sasanian and later periods. The name…

BAHAISM  or Bahai Faith, a religion founded in the nineteenth century by the Iranian notable Bahāʾ-Allāh (commonly Baháʾulláh or Bahāʾullāh in…

FOLKLORE STUDIES. This article aims to provide a summary of folklore studies made in or about the Iranian world. i….

FISH. With about 1,800 km of coastline along the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, and about 990 km…

BĀḠ “garden.“ i. Etymology ii. General iii. In Persian Literature iv. In Afghanistan (For Bāḡ in Persian art, see GARDEN)…

BABYLONIA i. History of Babylonia in the Median and Achaemenid periods. ii. Babylonian influences on Iran.

ĀB “water.” i. The concept of water in ancient Iranian culture. ii. Water in Muslim Iranian culture. iii. The hydrology…

AZERBAIJAN (Āḏarbāy[e]jān), historical region of northwestern Iran, east of Lake Urmia, since the Achaemenid era. The name Azerbaijan was also adopted for…

KHOTAN, town (lat 37°06′ N, long 79°56′ E) and major oasis of the southern Tarim Basin in the Xinjiang Uyghur…

AVICENNA, Latin form of the name of the outstanding philosopher and physician of the medieval period,  Abū ʿAlī Ḥosayn Ebn Sīnā (ابوعلی…

ASB, “horse” (equus cabullus, Av. aspa-, Old PerS. asa- and aspa-, Mid. and NPers. asp/b). i. In pre-Islamic Iran. ii….

ART IN IRAN, History of i. Neolithic to Median, seventh millennium to seventh century B.C. ii. Median art and architecture iii. Achaemenian art and…

ARSACIDS (Persian Aškānīān, اشکانیان), Parthian dynasty which ruled Iran from about 250 BCE to about 226 CE. i. Origins. ii….

ARMY i. Pre-Islamic Iran ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period iii. Safavid Period iv. Afšar and Zand Periods v. Qajar…

ARMENIA and IRAN i. Armina, Achaemenid province. ii. The pre-Islamic period. iii. Armenian religion. iv. Iranian influences in Armenian Language….

KHORRAMSHAHR (Ḵorramšahr; formerly known as Moḥammara), port city on the confluence of the rivers Karun and Shatt al-Arab, in the…

ARCHITECTURE i. Seleucid Period. ii. Parthian Period. iii. Sasanian Period. iv. Central Asian. v. Islamic, pre-Safavid. vi. Safavid to Qajar Periods; see…

ARCHEOLOGY i. Pre-Median: history and method of research. ii. Median and Achaemenid. iii. Parthian. iv. Sasanian. v. Pre-Islamic Central Asia….

ARABIC LANGUAGE i. Arabic elements in Persian ii. Iranian loanwords in Arabic iii. Arabic influences in Persian literature iv. Arabic…

ʿARAB i. Arabs and Iran in the pre-Islamic period. ii. Arab conquest of Iran. iii. Arab settlements in Iran. iv….

ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS i. From the Safavids to the Zands ii. The Qajar period iii. The Pahlavi period See also under…

ALBORZ (ELBORZ, ELBORS), modern Persian name for the east-west massif in northern Iran, lying south of the Caspian districts. i….

Oil Industry i. Petroleum and its Products ii. Iran’s Oil and Gas Resources

  GREAT BRITAIN i. Introduction. ii. An Overview of Relations: Safavid to the Present. iii. British influence in Persia in the 19th Century….

AFGHANISTAN i. Geography. ii. Flora. iii. Fauna. iv. Ethnography. v. Languages. vi. Paṧto. vii. Parāčī. viii. Archeology. ix. Pre-Islamic Art….

ADMINISTRATION in Iran. i. Achaemenid Period. ii. Arsacid/Parthian Period. iii. Sasanian Period. iv. Early Islamic Period. v. Medieval Period. vi….

ADAB i. Adab in Iran. ii. Adab in Arabic Literature.

ĀBĀDĀN, island and city in the ostān (province) of Ḵūzestān at the head of the Persian Gulf. i. History. ii….

KABUL (Kābol), city in eastern Afghanistan (lat 34°31′00″ N, long 69°11′00″ E), also the name of its province and a…

This entry will be divided into the following sub-entries: i. Introduction. ii. The Achaemenid period. iii. The Parthian and Sasanian…

JOURNALISM IN IRAN, the collection and editing of news for presentation through the public press during the following periods: i….

JOSEPH (Yusof). The story of Joseph is described in the Qurʾān (12.3) as the most beautiful of stories (aḥsan al-qeṣaṣ)….

JIROFT, name of a sub-provincial unit (šahrestān), a town, and a dam in Kerman Province. i. Geography. ii. Human geography…

JAPAN AND ITS RELATIONS WITH IRAN. i. Introduction ii. Diplomatic and commercial relations with Iran iii. Japanese travelers to Persia…

JAMŠID (or JAM), mythical king of Iran; Middle Persian Jam, Jamšēd, Avestan Yima (Old Indic Yama), with the epithet xšaēta…

JĀMI, ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN NUR-AL-DIN b. Neẓām-al-Din Aḥmad-e Dašti, Persian poet, scholar, and Sufi of the 15th century (b. Ḵarjerd-e Jām, November…

JAMALZADEH, MOHAMMAD-ALI (محمد علی جمالزاده)(Moḥammad-ʿAli Jamālzāda), a prominent Iranian intellectual and a pioneer of modern Persian prose fiction, and of…

JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ, ABU ʿABD-ALLĀH, the sixth imam of the Imami Shiʿites. He was the eldest son of Imam Moḥammad al-Bāqer…

ITALY: relations with Iran. This entry is divided into the following sections: i. Introduction. ii. Diplomatic and commercial relations. iii….

ISRAEL: Relations with Iran. This entry is divided into the following four sub-entries: i. Diplomatic and political relations with Iran….

ISMAʿILISM, a major Shiʿite Muslim community. The Ismaʿilis have had a long and eventful history dating back to the middle…

ISLAM IN IRAN. Although a large number of articles in this Encyclopaedia are devoted to specific aspects of Sunnite Islam…

ISFAHAN (اصفهان), ancient province and old city in central Iran (Middle Pers. “Spahān,” New Pers. “Eṣfahān”). Isfahan city has served…

IRAN, New Persian Irān (Mid. Pers. Ērān, from OIr. *Aryānām “of the Aryans” [see ARYANS]), name of the modern political…

INDUSTRIALIZATION, the foundation and development of modern industries in 20th-century Iran. Although Iran is generally characterized as an oil economy,…

INDIA: relations with Iran. This subject will be treated in the following thirty-three entries. i. Introduction. ii. Historical geography: the…

IL-KHANIDS, the Mongol dynasty in Persia and the surrounding countries, from about 1260 until about 1335. The dynasty was founded…

HYDROLOGY. i. Iranian plateau. See ĀB. ii. Southwestern Persia. iii. Afghanistan. i. IRANIAN PLATEAU. See ĀB.   ii. SOUTHWESTERN PERSIA…

ḤOSAYN B. ʿALI B. ABI ṬĀLEB, ABU ʿABD-ALLĀH (also referred to among Shiʿites as Sayyed-al-Šohadāʾ), the second surviving grandson of…

HOMOSEXUALITY i. In Zoroastrianism. ii. In Islamic law. iii. In Persian literature. iv. In modern Persia. See Supplement.

HISTORIOGRAPHY. This entry is concerned with the historiography of the Iranian and Persephone world from the pre-Islamic period through the…

HERZFELD, Ernst Emil (1879-1948; Figure 1), archeologist, philologist, and polyhistor, one of the towering figures in ancient Near Eastern and…

HERAT, ancient city and province in northwestern Afghanistan. i. Geography. ii. History, Pre-Islamic Period. iii. History, Medieval Period. iv. Topography…

HELMET. This subject will be treated in the following separate entries: i. In pre-Islamic Iran. ii. In the Islamic period….

HELMAND RIVER (Av. Haētumant; modern usage, Hirmand, Halmand), the border river of Afghanistan and Persia. It originates in the mountains…

HELL i. In Zoroastrianism. ii. Islamic Period.

HEDAYAT, SADEQ (Hedāyat, Ṣādeq), the eminent fiction writer (b. Tehran, 28 Bahman 1281 Š./17 February 1903; d. Paris, 19 Farvardin…

HEALTHIN PERSIA. i. Pre-Islamic period. ii. Medieval period. See Supplement. iii. Qajar period. iv.Pahlavi period. See Supplement.  

HAREM (Ar. and Pers. lw. ḥaram “sanctuary,” from ḥarim, lit. “something forbidden”), wives and other female associates in former aristocratic…

HAMADĀN, province, governorship, and city located in the Zagros region of western Persia. i. Geography. ii. Population. iii. Historical geography….

HAFEZ (Ḥāfeẓ), Šams-al-Din Moḥammad, of Shiraz (ca. 715-792/1315-1390), celebrated Persian lyric poet. i. An overview. ii. Hafez’s life and times….

GREECE : Relations with the Persian Empire. i. Greco-Persian Political Relations ii. Greco-Persian Cultural Relations iii. Persian Influence on Greek…

GIFT GIVING in Persia. The following articles constitute a preliminary attempt at studying various aspects of gift giving in a chronological…

ZOROASTER, the name generally known in the West for the prophet of ancient Iran, whose transformation of his inherited religion…

GEORGIA (Pers. Gorjestān; Ar. al-Korj). i. The land and the people ii. History of Perso-Georgian relations iii. Georgian art and…

FREEMASONRY This famous fraternal order, bound by rituals and secret oaths, was introduced to Persia and adopted by Persian notables…

FREE WILL. i. In Twelver Shiʿism. ii. In Ismaʿili Shiʿism. i. IN TWELVER SHIʿISM. On the question of free will,…

FORGERIES of art objects and manuscripts. i. Introduction. ii. Of Pre-Islamic Art Objects. iii. Of Islamic Art. iv. Of Manuscripts.  

KERMANSHAH (Kermānšāh), a province in western Iran; also the name of its principal city and capital. i. Geography. ii. Population….

FESTIVALS. This article treats mainly religious or communal festivals and commemorations in Persia and Afghanistan. For specific festivals and secular…

KHARG ISLAND (Pers. Ḵārag, shortened to Ḵārg, contemporary Pers. Ḵārk, Ar. Ḵārak), an island and a district of Bušehr Province…

ḴOSROW I i. LIFE AND TIMES. Forthcoming online.

ṬUSI, NASIR-AL-DIN Abu Jaʿfar Moḥammad (b. Ṭus, 17 February 1201/d. Baghdad, 25 June 1274), celebrated polymath and vizier, whose significant works…

ABARQŪH (or ABARQŪYA), a town in northern Fārs; it was important in medieval times, but, being off the main routes,…

GĪLĀN, Ḡelān (گیلان, Ar. Jīlān), province at the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea. i. Geography and Ethnography ii. Population iii. Archeology iv. History in…

DARIUS (NPers. Darīūš, Dārā), name of several Achaemenid and Parthian rulers and princes. i. The name. ii. Darius the Mede….

GERMANY. i. German-Persian diplomatic relations. ii. Archeological excavations and studies. iii. Iranian studies in German: Pre-Islamic period. iv. Iranian studies in German: Islamic period….