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ANDREAS, FRIEDRICH CARL, German Iranologist (1846-1930). i. Life and work. ii. The Andreas Nachlass. iii. The Andreas Theory.   i. Life and Work Andreas was born in Batavia, Java, of Armenian, German, and Malayan descent. After general education in Hamburg and Geneva, he pursued Iranian and other Oriental studies at…

ANĒRĀN “non-Iran,” Middle Persian ethno-linguistic term generally used pejoratively to denote a political and religious enemy of Iran and Zoroastrianism. It is etymologically a plural form with negative prefix and contrasts with Ērān (see also Arya). Ērān derives from *Ariyānām, and designated in the Sasanian period those areas which were…

ANGAJĪ, ḤĀJJ MĪRZĀ ABŪ’L-ḤASAN (1282-1357/1865-1939), a leading moǰtahed of Tabrīz, politically active during both the Constitutional Revolution and the reign of Reżā Shah. He was born into a family of religious scholars; his father, Ḥāǰǰ Mīrzā Moḥammad Āqā Shaikh-al-šarīʿa, was one of the most influential ʿolamāʾ of Tabrīz. After preliminary…

ANGALYŪN, Persian rendering of the title of the Gospel (Gk. Euangélion) of Mani. This work was considered the most important of the seven which made up the Manichean scriptural canon; it heads most known lists of these books, whether from Manichean, anti-Manichean, or neutral sources. Like all Mani’s works, except…

ANGIOLELLO (or DEGLI ANGIOLELLO), GIOVANNI MARIA (1451-ca. 1525), Venetian adventurer, merchant, and author of an important historical report on the Aq Qoyunlū and early Safavid Persia. Angiolello’s biography and literary works give rise to much controversy, since few points are definite. Of noble family, he took part as a youth…

ANGLO-AFGHAN RELATIONS, a survey from the earliest times to the death of the last Bārakzay ruler in 1357 Š./1978. A brief encounter in Fatehpur Sīkri in the summer of 993/1585 illustrates two abiding themes of British involvement in India and Afghanistan. John Newbery, Ralph Fitch, and William Leedes had a…

ANGLO-AFGHAN TREATY OF 1905, an agreement pertaining to British control of Afghan foreign policy and related matters. When ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān died in October, 1901, his son and successor Ḥabīballāh Khan inherited a special relationship with the government of India, founded on letters exchanged in June and July, 1880, between ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān and…

ANGLO-AFGHAN TREATY OF 1921, the outcome of peace negotiations following the Third Anglo-Afghan War. After the cease-fire of 3 June 1919, negotiations were begun at Rawalpindi between an Afghan mission headed by ʿAlī-Aḥmad Khan, commissary for home affairs, and the British delegation headed by Sir A. H. Grant, foreign secretary…

ANGLO-AFGHAN WARS i. First Anglo-Afghan war (1838-42). ii. Second Anglo-Afghan war (1878-80). iii. Third Anglo-Afghan war (1919).   i. First Anglo-Afghan War (1838-42) This war was fought between a British Indian army in alliance with the still-independent Sikhs under Ranjit Singh, and the Bārakzay rulers of Kabul and Qandahār. Its…

ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS i. From the Safavids to the Zands ii. The Qajar period iii. The Pahlavi period See also under Foreign Affairs and Anglo-Persian Agreement of 1919.

ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS i. Safavid to Zand Periods 1. Introduction 2. the early Safavids 3. the reign of Shah ʿAbbās I 4. the later Safavids 5. the successors of the Safavids and Nāder Shah 6. the Zands   1. Introduction. English interest in Persia during this period is almost exclusively concerned…

ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS ii. The Qajar Period Before the 19th century Anglo-Iranian relations were sporadic. Periods of engagement alternated with decades of disengagement. After the death of Karīm Khan Zand (1193/1779) contacts between Britain and Iran diminished and were maintained with regularity only in the Persian Gulf as the center of…

ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS iii. The Pahlavi Period 1. Introduction 2. The reign of Reżā Shah 3. The war years 4. The reign of Moḥammad Reżā Pahlavī: (a) the oil crisis; (b) the middle years; (c) the last years.   1. Introduction. The principles of British policy towards Iran, despite divergence of…