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  FISCAL SYSTEM in Persia. i. Achaemenid Period. ii. Sasanian Period. iii. Islamic Period. iv. Safavid and Qajar Periods. v. Pahlavi Period. vi. Islamic Republic.  

FISCAL SYSTEM in Persia. i. ACHAEMENID PERIOD There probably was no clear distinction between state and royal incomes in the Achaemenid empire. All state receipts were considered royal property, as was the income from the king’s estates (Dandamayev and Lukonin, p. 208). Taxes constituted the most substantial source of government…

FISCAL SYSTEM iii. ISLAMIC PERIOD “Fiscal system” may be defined as the apparatus or bureaucracy installed by a state or a ruler in order to take in revenue in the form of taxes, dues, and so on, and also the apparatus designed to control expenditures. Such a system can be…

FISCAL SYSTEM iv. SAFAVID AND QAJAR PERIODS The Safavid shah’s fiscal prerogatives were expressed by terms like bājgoḏār, bājsetān, and jezyagoḏār (tax assessor or tax taker; Nāmī, p. 178; ʿĀlamārā, p. 137; Papaziyan, p. 442). The financial affairs of the country were the responsibility of the grand vizier, the head…

FISCAL SYSTEM v. PAHLAVI PERIOD The first attempts at setting up a modern fiscal system in Persian began after the Constitutional Revolution (q.v.; see, e..g, Jazˊayerī; Shuster). Though the first national budget was prepared and presented to the Second Majles in 1910, it was not before the 1920s that along…

FISCAL SYSTEM vi. ISLAMIC REPUBLIC 1. continuity and change in persia’s public finances Increasing role of the State. Public finances in Persia are intimately related to the significant role that the state has traditionally played in the Persian economy. The receipt of large revenues from oil exports and their expenditure…

FISCHEL,WALTER JOSEPH (b. 12 November 1902; d. 14 July 1973), a scholar of Oriental Jewry and Islamic civilization. Born in Frankfurt am Main, Fischel received a degree in political science from the University of Frankfurt and a Ph.D. from the University of Giessen. He moved to Jerusalem in 1926, where…

FISH. With about 1,800 km of coastline along the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, and about 990 km on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, plus some inland fresh waters, Persia has a great variety of aquatic fauna: mollusks, crustaceans, chelonians, mammals (dolphins, whales, seals), and particularly,…

FISH i. FRESHWATER FISHES History of research. The most important early work on the fishes of Persia is that of Jakob Heckel, inspector at the Imperial Royal Court Collection of Natural History in Vienna. He described the collections sent by Theodor Kotschy to Vienna from around Shiraz, comprising twenty-two species….

FISH ii.SALT WATER FISHES This article deals mainly with the most economically important or otherwise remarkable fishes (except the caviar-yielding Acipenseridae, for which see CAVIAR). The ichthyofauna may be described for two different geographical and ecological zones, (1) the Persian Gulf and Sea of Oman and (2) the Caspian. The…

FISH iii. IN PRE-ISLAMIC PERSIAN LORE The Bundahišn (q.v.) contains interesting pseudo-scientific, mythical, and sometimes inconsistent information about fishes. The fifth (and last) ēwēnag (class?) of animals created by Ahura Mazdā (q.v.) was that of aquatic (ābīg) creatures, of which the kar-māhīg (kar-fish; cf. the kar shark below) was the…

FISH iv. FISH AS FOOD Although fish is the main source of animal protein along the northern and southern coasts of Persia, it is not much eaten in the rest of the country and then mainly in smoked form (māhī-e dūdī) as a delicacy traditionally served with rice and fresh…

FISHERIES (ŠĪLĀT) AND FISHING.There was no real fishing organization in Persia until the second half of the 19th century when Russian subjects, encouraged and backed by the Tsarist Russia’s expansionist policy, became increasingly involved in coastal and fluvial fishing activities in the Caspian provinces of Persia, especially when members of…

FITZGERALD, EDWARD (b. 31 March 1809; d. 14 June 1883; Figure 1), British translator of The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (London, 1859), as well as Jāmī’s Salāmān o Absāl (Salámán and Absál: an Allegory, Translated from the Persian of Jámi, London, 1856) and ʿAṭṭār’s Manṭeq al-ṭayr (Bird Parliament, first published…

FLAGS. This article is meant to supplement earlier entries on Iranian vexillology (see ʿALAM VA ʿALĀMAT, BANNERS, and DERAFŠ). i. Of Persia ii. Of Afghanistan iii. Of Tajikistan