Table of Contents
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ČENGĪZ KHAN
David O. Morgan
(Mong. Chinggis), probably born in 1167 in northeastern Mongolia, d. 1227, founder of the Mongol empire, the most extensive land empire known to history. Čengīz’s achievement, though hardly positive from the point of view of Persia, was by no means wholly a military and a destructive one. In the 1250s, a relatively coherent Mongol kingdom, the Il-khanate, was set up under Čengīz’s grandson Hülegü.
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CENSORING AN IRANIAN LOVE STORY
Sara Khalili
the first novel published in English by noted modernist writer Shahriar Mandanipour.
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CENSORSHIP
Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak
(sānsūr) in Persia; censorship has been exercised in most societies, including Persia, by the religious establishment, by the political authority, and by unofficial groups.
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CENSUS
Firuz Tawfiq, Daniel Balland
(Pers. sar-šomārī). No census for the purpose of ascertaining the population and acquiring statistical data was taken in Persia until the present century.
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CENSUS i. In Iran
Fīrūz Tawfīq
No census for the purpose of ascertaining the population and acquiring statistical data was taken in Persia until the present century, but information about numbers of persons or families was sometimes collected for the purpose of fixing tax dues or conscript quotas.
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CENSUS ii. In Afghanistan
Daniel Balland
The first national census of Afghanistan was not conducted until 1979, but the idea of such a survey had already taken root during the reign of Šēr-ʿAlī Khan in the 19th century, due to new taxation regulations.
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CENTRAL ASIA
Multiple Authors
This series of articles covers Central Asia.
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CENTRAL ASIA i. Geographical Survey
EIr
The central expanse of the Asian continent, the land mass situated approximately between 55° and 115° E and 25° and 50° N, comprises two geographically distinct areas.
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CENTRAL ASIA ii. Demography
Richard H. Rowland
The combined population of the Uzbek, Kirgiz, Tajik, and Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republics totals more than 30 million people, one tenth of the population of the Soviet Union.
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CENTRAL ASIA iii. In Pre-Islamic Times
Richard N. Frye
The main evidence for the history of Central Asia before the coming of Islam comes from archeological excavations, while written sources contain little information.
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CENTRAL ASIA iv. In the Islamic Period up to the Mongols
C. E. Bosworth
In early Islamic times Persians tended to identify all the lands to the northeast of Khorasan and lying beyond the Oxus with the region of Turan, which in the Šāh-nāma of Ferdowsī is regarded as the land allotted to Ferēdūn’s son Tūr.
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CENTRAL ASIA v. In the Mongol and Timurid Periods
Bertold Spuler
At the death of Čengīz (Chinggis) Khan in 624/1227 the territory he had conquered was divided between his sons.
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CENTRAL ASIA vi. In the 16th-18th Centuries
Robert D. McChesney
In the 16th-17th centuries Central Asia, including Transoxania, Greater Balḵ, and Ḵᵛārazm, witnessed a neo-Chingizid (Jochid) political revival, spearheaded by the ʿArabshahid/Shibanid (Shaibanid) lineage in Ḵᵛārazm and the Abulkhairid/Shibanid and Toqay-Timurid lines in Transoxania and Greater Balḵ. In the main, political life was shaped by the neo-Chingizid appanage system of state and its internal dynamic.
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CENTRAL ASIA vii. In the 18th-19th Centuries
Yuri Bregel
By the beginning of the 12th/18th century Central Asia was in a state of a deepening political and economic crisis.
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CENTRAL ASIA viii. Relations with Persia in the 19th Century
Abbas Amanat
The question of Central Asia in the 13th/19th century, from the Persian point of view, was a prominent one not only because of Persian territorial claims over Marv, Ḵīva, Saraḵs, and other peripheral regions, but also because of the threat of the Turkmen frontier tribes of Tekka, Yomūt, and Gūklān to the security of Khorasan, Astarābād, and Māzandarān.
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CENTRAL ASIA ix. In the 20th Century
Edward Allworth
Technology brought by the Russian military and the colonial administration from Europe included advanced arms and material, as well as railroad, telegraph/telephone, and printed communication.
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CENTRAL ASIA x. Economy Before the Timurids
Peter B. Golden
Climate and geography have, of course, in large measure determined economic pursuits in pre-industrial times.
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CENTRAL ASIA xi. Economy from the Timurids until the 18th Century
Robert D. McChesney
The economy of Central Asia after the fall of Central Asia to the descendants of Čengīz Khan and during their rule was centered on agriculture, but with important contributions from pastoralism, especially the breeding and export of horses.
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CENTRAL ASIA xii. Economy in the 19th-20th Centuries
Ian Matley
When the Russians arrived in Central Asia in the 1860s they found a predominantly agrarian economy. The main grain crops were wheat, barley, and sorghum.
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CENTRAL ASIA xiii. Iranian Languages
Ivan M. Steblin-Kamenskij
Central Asia was the ancient homeland of the Iranians and therefore also of the Iranian languages.
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CENTRAL ASIA xiv. Turkish-Iranian Language Contacts
Gerhard Doerfer
Three Turkish languages came together in Central Asia, the territory covered by the modern Turkmen, Uzbek, Kazakh, Kirghiz, and Tajik SSRs, excluding Chinese Turkestan: 1. the Uighur or Eastern Turks, 2. the Oghuz, speaking Khorasani Turkish, 3. and the Kipchaks
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CENTRAL ASIA xv. Modern Literature
Keith Hitchins
Central Asian literatures in the twentieth century have developed under diverse influences. Beside classical and modern Persian literature and the poetic traditions and folklore of the Central Asian peoples themselves, Russian thought and letters have been predominant.
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CENTRAL ASIA xvi. Music
Walter Feldman
In modern times Central Asia as a musicological unit can be defined as the area extending from Afghanistan north of the Hindu Kush, all of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan in the west, Kirgizia and Chinese Turkestan in the east, and Kazakhstan in the north.
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CENTRAL DIALECTS
Gernot L. Windfuhr
designation of a number of Iranian dialects spoken in the center of Persia, roughly between Hamadān, Isfahan, Yazd, and Tehran, that is, the area of ancient Media Major, which constitute the core of the western Iranian dialects.
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CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY
Mark J. Gasiorowski
When the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was established in September 1947, its predecessors had been operating in Persia for a number of years.
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CENTRAL TREATY ORGANIZATION
Joseph A. Kechichian
(CENTO), a mutual defense and economic cooperation pact among Persia, Turkey, and Pakistan, with the participation of the United Kingdom and the United States as associate members.
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ČERĀḠ
Mahmoud Omidsalar
lamps. Various kinds of lamps were used in Persia before the introduction of electric light. The simplest and cheapest was the čerāḡ-e mūšī “mouse lamp,” so called probably because of its small size and poor light.
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ČERĀḠ KHAN ZĀHEDĪ
Roger M. Savory
b. Shaikh Šarīf, a descendant of Shaikh Zāhed Gīlānī, the celebrated moršed (spiritual director) of Shaikh Ṣafī-al-Dīn, the eponymous founder of the Safavid order (Ṣafawīya); hence Čerāḡ Khan was also known as Pīrzāda.
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ČERĀḠ-ʿALĪ KHAN SERĀJ-AL-MOLK ZANGANA
Denis M. MacEoin
(d. after 1281/1864-65), a leading government official during the early reign of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah.
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ČERĀḠ-E DEHLĪ
Sharif Husain Qasemi
(b. at Avadh, ca. 675/1276-77; d. at Delhi, 18 Ramażān 757/14 September 1356), the title of Shaikh Naṣīr-al-Dīn Maḥmūd, the last of the five great early saints of the Indian Češtī order (see češtīya).
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ČERĀḠ-E HEDĀYAT
J. R. Perry
(“lamp of guidance”), a monolingual Persian dictionary by the Indo-Muslim poet and scholar Serāj-al-Din ʿAli Khan Ārzu.
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ČERĀḠĀNĪ
Mahmoud Omidsalar
(also čerāḡān, čerāḡbānī, čerāḡbārān), the decoration of buildings and open spaces with lights during festivals and on occasions like weddings, coronations, royal birthdays, circumcision ceremonies, and so on.
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ČERĀḠHĀ RĀ MAN ḴĀMUŠ MIKONAM
Elham Gheytanchi
(I turn off the lights, Tehran, 2001), the first and most acclaimed novel by Zoya Pirzad (Zoyā Pirzād, b. Abadan, 1952), and the second to be penned by an Iranian-Armenian writer, after Ālice Ārezumāniān’s Hama az yek (All from one,Tehran, 1963).
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ČERĀM
Pierre Oberling
or ČORŪM, a small tribal confederacy (īl) inhabiting the dehestān of Čerām, in the Kūhgīlūya region, in southwestern Persia.
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CERAMICS
Multiple Authors
Ceramics in Persia from the Neolithic period to the 19th century.
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CERAMICS i. The Neolithic Period through the Bronze Age in Northeastern and North-central Persia
Robert H. Dyson
The ceramic tradition of northeastern Persia developed in parallel but distinct sequences in the Gorgān lowlands and the Dāmḡān highlands, including the parts of the Atrak region adjacent to both.
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CERAMICS ii. The Neolithic Period in Northwestern Persia
Mary M. Voigt
The initial occupation of Persian Azerbaijan by farming groups took place in the second half of the 7th millennium B.C.E. The best known site of this period is Hajji Firuz (Ḥājī Fīrūz) Tepe, located in the Ošnū-Soldūz valley and approximately contemporary with Hasanlu X (ca. 6000-5000 B.C.E.).
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CERAMICS iii. The Neolithic Period in Central and Western Persia
Peder Mortensen
Present knowledge is based primarily on evidence from three excavated sites and from surveys carried out southwest of Harsīn, on the Māhīdašt plain, and in the Holaylān valley.
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CERAMICS iv. The Chalcolithic Period in the Zagros Highlands
Elizabeth F. Henrickson
The Zagros Chalcolithic may be divided into Early, Middle, and Late subperiods. Within each several distinctive regional assemblages are known in varying archeological detail.
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CERAMICS v. The Chalcolithic Period in Southern Persia
Thomas W. Beale
The most fully excavated corpus of ceramics from the Chalcolithic of southern Persia comes from Tal-i Iblis and Tepe Yahya. Extensive surface collections by Sir Mark Aurel Stein in Baluchistan and more recently have provided important supplementary material.
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CERAMICS vi. Uruk, Proto-Elamite, and Early Bronze Age in Southern Persia
William M. Sumner
Lapui common ware consists of a red paste tempered with rather coarse black grit. It is not as well fired as the fine ware, and frequently the sherds reveal an unoxidized gray core.
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CERAMICS vii. The Bronze Age in Northwestern, Western, and Southwestern Persia
Robert C. Henrickson
During the 3rd millennium BCE there were two major ceramic traditions in northwestern Persia, shifting ceramic traditions in central western Persia, and polychrome ware in northern Susiana.
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CERAMICS viii. The Early Bronze Age in Southwestern and Southern Persia
Elizabeth Carter
The ceramic repertoire of the 2nd millennium B.C.E. in Ḵūzestān is dominated by plain buff-ware forms, the development of which can be traced through approximately 1,000 years, with four major subdivisions. The most common and long-lived forms are illustrated in this article.
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CERAMICS ix. The Bronze Age in Northeastern Persia
Serge Cleuziou
Archeologists have traditionally linked the appearance of burnished gray wares at Tepe Hissar (Ḥeṣār) and Tureng (Tūrang) Tepe in Gorgān during the second half of the 4th millennium b.c., and their possible diffusion westward in the first half of the 2nd millennium.
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CERAMICS x. The Iron Age
Robert C. Henrickson
The pottery of Iron Age Persia presents a vast array of problems, not least the huge area and long span of time that must be taken into consideration.
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CERAMICS xi. The Achaemenid Period
Remy Boucharlat and Ernie Haerinck
Although information on architecture and sculpture at major Achaemenid sites in Persia is plentiful, knowledge of the pottery of this period is almost totally lacking.
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CERAMICS xii. The Parthian and Sasanian Periods
Remy Boucharlat and Ernie Haerinck
the distribution pattern of pottery characterized by a wide range of different techniques and styles was quite complex, probably owing to diverse environments that have traditionally been reflected in major differences in the material culture of Persia.
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CERAMICS xiii. The Early Islamic Period, 7th-11th Centuries
David Whitehouse
Early Islamic pottery has been found in two main regions of Persia: Ḵūzestān and the Persian Gulf and the Persian plateau, including Khorasan. Study of all Islamic pottery of the first four hundred years has been dominated by the finds from Sāmarrā in Mesopotamia.
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CERAMICS xiv. The Islamic Period, 11th-15th centuries
Ernst J. Grube
A large variety of pottery types from different parts of the country has been attributed to this general period, notably incised and slip-carved earthenwares, which have been published under a variety of labels, as proper attributions have so far been impossible.
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CERAMICS xv. The Islamic Period, 16th-19th centuries
Yolande Crowe
Although several European travelers to Persia in the 17th century reported active potteries at some cities, there are no detailed records that would assist in attributing specific pieces surviving from the rule of the Safavid dynasty (1501-1732) to any one of them.
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