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  • KASHAN

    Multiple Authors

    historical city and a sub-province of the province of Isfahan on the north-south axial route of central Iran.

  • KASHAN ix. THE MEDIAN DIALECTS OF KASHAN (2) URBAN JEWISH DIALECT

    Habib Borjian

    Kashan may be characterized as exclusively Persian speaking and Muslim from the time when the city was abandoned by its Jewry, who spoke a variety of Central dialects.

  • KASHAN vii. KASHAN WARE

    Margaret S. Graves

    Kashan, with its high-quality ceramic production in the medieval period, appears to have been a major site for the manufacture of fine wares between the 1170s and 1220s as well as later 13th and early 14th centuries.

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  • KASHAN i. GEOGRAPHY

    Habibollah Zanjani and EIr.

    Kashan is poor in flora and fauna. The most typical plants are bushes and shrubs spreading over the steppes, but the landscape becomes richer with increased elevation; Characteristic trees are pine, cypress, black poplar, elm, and ash.

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  • KASHAN iv. POPULATION

    Habibollah Zanjani

    In line with the general trends in Iran’s demography, the urban population in Kashan has continued to increase, while the rural population has steadily decreased. Such trends have been more significantly felt in Kashan Sub-province than the rest of the country.

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  • KASHAN v. ARCHITECTURE (3) TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE

    Mohammad- Reza Haeri and EIr.

    In line with the trend towards modernization in Iran’s recent history, most residential houses built by the middle classes in Kashan since 1950 comprise all or some of the following units: entrance, courtyard, living room, reception room, kitchen, lavatory, bath, bedroom, storage, staircase, and hall.

  • KASHAN v. ARCHITECTURE (1) URBAN DESIGN

    Mohammad- Reza Haeri and EIr.

    The city of Kashan, similar to other older Iranian cities, preserved its traditional architectural features and urban design into the early 20th century.

  • KASHAN v. ARCHITECTURE (2) HISTORICAL MONUMENTS

    Mohammad- Reza Haeri and EIr.

    The Zayn-al-Din Minaret is a rare Kashan landmark surviving from the Saljuqid period. Its height, which is recorded at one time to have reached 47 meters, is now only about 22 meters.

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  • KASHAN v. ARCHITECTURE (4) HISTORIC MANSIONS

    EIr.

    The design and major components of the historic mansions follow the general pattern of traditional architecture, but with larger spaces and more detailed architectural craftsmanship and luxurious elements.

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  • KASHAN viii. RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES (1) JEWISH COMMUNITY

    Mehrdad Amanat

    Kashan was home to an important Jewish community and cultural center starting at least in the Safavid period.

  • KASHAN ii. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

    Xavier de Planhol

    To the northeast of the well-watered mountain ranges of western and southern Iran, a line of bountiful oases which have given rise to important urban areas stretches along the piedmont bordering the desert basins of central and southeastern Iran.

  • KASHAN viii. RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES (2) BAHAI COMMUNITY

    Mehrdad Amanat

    Like many Bahai communities in Iran, Kashan Bahais can trace their roots to the early years of the Babi movement.

  • KASHAN vi. THE ESBANDI FESTIVAL

    Habib Borjian

    An elaborate festival held in the Kashan region on the eve of the month Esfand.

  • KASHAN ix. THE MEDIAN DIALECTS OF KASHAN

    Habib Borjian

    In the past few decades, rural Kashan has rapidly been shifting to Persian; most villages have already been partly or entirely persianized, and practically all Rāji speakers are bilingual.

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  • KASHAN iii. History to the Pahlavi Period

    Mehrdad Amanat

    of the city to the Pahlavi period.

  • KĀŠĀNI, ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ KHAN

    Mangol Bayat

    18th-century governor of Kashan under the Zand dynasty. 

  • ABŪZAYDĀBĀD

    E. Yarshater

    Oasis village of the province of Kāšān, called Būzābād for short and Bīzeva in the local dialect. It is situated 30 km to the east and slightly to the south of the city of Kāšān.

  • MEYMA ii. The Dialect

    Habib Borjian

    district is at the heart of the area where the Central dialects are spoken.

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  • KĀŠI, MUSĀ KHAN

    Houman Sarshar

    Jewish master of Persian classical music, teacher, and innovative kamānča player also known for his mellow singing voice.

  • JAMKARĀN

    Jean Calmard

    village near Qom, located 6 km south of it on the Qom-Kashan highway. It includes the mazraʿas of Gorgābi (Hādi-Mehdi) and Zangābād, the ruins of Gabri castle, and the Jamkarān or Ṣāḥeb-al-Zamān mosque.

  • NEŠALJ ii. The Dialect

    Habib Borjian

    Nešalj had a Median dialect of Rāji variety, a language group spread throughout Kashan region, but it has been succumbing to Persian in recent decades.

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  • Qohrud i. Historical Geography

    Habib Borjian

    mountainous river, village, and district, with attractive architectural monuments; on a caravan station from Kashan to Isfahan.

  • ḴĀVARI KĀŠĀNI

    Mehrdad Amanat

    preacher, poet, journalist, and constitutional activist. Ḵāvari learned the fundamentals of traditional learning from his preacher father, Sayyed Hāšem Wāʿeẓ.

  • MEYMA i. The District

    Habib Borjian

    The district rests on a high plain on the western foothills of the Kargas range, which separates Meyma from Naṭanz on the east.

  • NEŠALJ i. The Village

    Habib Borjian

    located in Niāsar Rural District, Niāsar District, Kashan Sub-Province, Isfahan Province.

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  • ZAYNAB BEGUM

    Kioumars Ghereghlou

    (d. Qazvin, 1640), the fourth daughter of Shah Ṭahmāsp and one of the most influential princesses in Safavid Iran.

  • JOWŠAQĀN i. The District

    Habib Borjian

    Jowšaqān is located at 65 miles northwest of Isfahan, where the western foothills of the Karkas Mountain range break down into plain.

  • ĀŠTĪĀNI

    E. Yarshater

    the dialect of Āštīān, belongs to the group of “Central” dialects spoken in Kashan and Isfahan provinces and some adjacent areas.

  • NABIL-AL-DAWLA

    Guity Etemad

    ʿAliqoli Khan learned English and French at the Dār al-Fonun School and, with his older brother, Ḥosaynqoli Khan Kalāntar, frequented traditional Persian gymnasia, where the latter was converted to the Bahai faith by a wrestler called Ostād Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Kāši, and he in turn led ʿAliqoli Khan into the new faith in about 1895.

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  • MAŠHAD-E ARDAHĀL

    Habib Borjian

    district and settlement near Kashan, significant for its shrine and conservative traditions.

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  • ABŪ ṬĀHER

    O. Watson

    Far from the works of the son following close upon those of the father, the gap between known works of the first generation is twenty-eight years, and between the second generations, forty-two years. Late marriage and long apprenticeships may be the explanation. 

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  • ḴORĀSĀNI, MOLLĀ ṢĀDEQ

    Vahid Rafati

    (d. 1874), teacher, defender and promulgator of the Babi-Bahai faiths.

  • ṢOBḤI, FAŻL-ALLĀH MOHTADI

    Moojan Momen

    (1897-1962), Persian school teacher, who is best known as a children’s storyteller, collector of folktales, broadcaster, and Bahai apostate.

  • VAḤŠI BĀFQI

    Paul Losensky

    (ca. 1532-1583), Kamāl-al-Din (or Šams-al-Din Moḥammad), Persian poet of the Safavid period, who was born in Bāfq and died in Yazd.

  • K~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

    Cross-Reference

    list of all the figure and plate images in the letter K entries.

  • ABŪ ZAYD B. MOḤAMMAD KĀŠĀNĪ

    O. Watson

    perhaps the single most important luster potter of Kāšān known to us. More signed and dated works (from 587/1191 to 616/1219) are known by him than by any other potter, and his signature occurs on a greater variety of wares, including both tiles and vessels.

  • ʿERĀQ-E ʿAJAM

    Pardis Minuchehr

    constitutionalist newspaper published in Tehran, 1907-08. 

  • BANISTER, Thomas

    Parvin Loloi

    (d. Arrash, 20 July 1571), British merchant and traveler to Persia who commanded the fifth voyage from Britain to Persia via Russia for the purpose of establishing trade. 

  • MOḤTAŠAM KĀŠĀNI

    Paul Losensky

    (1528/29-1588), Šams-al-Šoʿarā Kamāl-al-Din, Persian poet of the Safavid period who was born and died in Kashan.

  • SWEDEN i. PERSIAN ART COLLECTIONS

    Karin Еdahl

    Persian art collections in Sweden contain items from the prehistoric period (3600 BCE) to the 19th century. The first artifacts of possibly Iranian origin were brought by Vikings (or Rus), who traveled to the shores of the Caspian and there met with merchants from Iran. 

  • ŠĀH ṬĀHER ḤOSAYNI DAKKANI

    Farhad Daftary

    (1480-90s-1549), thirty-first and the most famous imam of the Moḥammadšāhi (or Moʾmeni) branch of the Nezāri Ismaʿilis. A resident of Deccan, Šāh Ṭāher was a learned theologian, poet, literary stylist, and an accomplished diplomat who rendered valuable services to the Neẓāmšāhi dynasty of Aḥmadnagar.

  • NAẒIRI NIŠĀPURI

    Paul Losensky

    Indo-Persian poet of the late 16th and early 17th centuries (b. Nishapur, ca. 1560; d. Ahmadabad, between 1612 and 1614).

  • KALBĀSI

    Hamid Algar

    Ḥāj Moḥammad Ebrāhim (b. Isfahan, 1766; d. Isfahan, 1845), prominent Oṣuli jurist, influential in the affairs of Isfahan during the reigns of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah and Moḥammad Shah.

  • VATATZES, Vasilios

    Evangelos Venetis

    Greek scholar, merchant, traveler, pioneer explorer, and diplomat.

  • NAWʿI

    Sunil Sharma

    MOḤAMMAD-REŻĀ ḴABUŠĀNI (1563-1610),  Persian poet in India, best known for his long maṯnawi, Suz o godāza romance centered on a suttee (sati) heroine.

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  • MAḤALLĀTI, Moḥammad

    Javad Golmohammadi

    a master calligrapher of the Timurid period, known only through three surviving works on wood and stone (a cenotaph, a door, and a stone plaque), which reflect the stylistic influence of the Timurid prince and master calligrapher Ḡiāṯ-al-Din Bāysonqor (d. 1493).

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  • AFUŠTAʾI NAṬANZI, MAḤMUD

    Kioumars Ghereghlou

    (d. after 1599), poet and historian of the Safavid period, author of the chronicle Noqāwat al-āṯār.

  • ETTINGHAUSEN, RICHARD

    Priscilla P. Soucek

    Although Ettinghausen’s official role at the Berlin Museum ended in early 1933 because of decrees issued by the National Socialist Party, he retained an admiration for the work of his former colleagues, epecially that of F. Sarre.

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  • CARPETS vi. Pre-Islamic Carpets

    Karen S. Rubinson

    Evidence for textiles of all kinds in pre-Islamic Iran is very sparse. It is necessary to supplement the few remains of actual textiles with examination of representations in art and other kinds of indirect evidence of production, for example preserved impressions and pseudomorphs from excavations.

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  • KAZERUN iii. Old Kazerun Dialect

    ʿAlī Ašraf Ṣādeqī

    The old dialect of the city of Kazerun was commonly used by the local people up to around the 14th-15th centuries. 

  • IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (9) Arabic

    Gernot Windfuhr

    Most extensive was the Arab settlement in eastern Iran and Greater Khorasan (including northwestern Afghanistan, and Central Asia, including Marv and Bukhara).

  • MAḴDUM ŠARIFI ŠIRĀZI

    Kioumars Ghereghlou

    (1540-41 to 1587), Sunni bureaucrat and polemicist; he held office as ṣadr or minister of religious affairs and endowments at the court of Shah Esmāʿil II Ṣafawi, and eventually fled to the Ottoman Empire.

  • ARYANPUR, AMIR-HOSAYN

    MEHRDAD MASHAYEKHI

    noted engagé intellectual, scholar, and educator of the 20th century Iran.

  • JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES i. INTRODUCTION

    Houman Sarshar

    Jewish communities have been living upon the Persian plateau since ca. 721 BCE, when King Sargon II (r. 721-705 BCE) relocated large communities of conquered Israelites.

  • GAIL, MARZIEH

    Wendy Heller

    (1908-1993), Persian-American Bahaʾi author, essayist, and translator; child of the first Persian-American Bahaʾi marriage, and the first woman to work at a newspaper in Tehran.

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  • SHEYBANI, MANUCHEHR

    Saeid Rezvani

    poet, painter, filmmaker, and dramatist.

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  • KELIM (GELIM)

    Sumru Belger Krody

    a kind of flat-woven carpet employed by settled and nomadic families for a host of uses, primarily but not exclusively for covering household items and furnishing the interior of dwellings.

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  • KĀŠI, ḠIĀṮ-AL-DIN

    George Saliba

    ḠIĀṮ-AL-DIN JAMŠID B. MASʿUD B. MOḤAMMAD (ca. 1386-1429), mathematician, astronomer, and scientific instrument-maker of the highest rank.

  • CARPETS xiii. Post-Pahlavi Period

    P. R. Ford

    In the period immediately following the shah’s flight from the country in 1358 Š./1979 the prices for Persian carpets reached record highs on Western markets.

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  • ČAŠMA(-YE) ʿALĪ

    Abbas Alizadeh

    lit. “fountain of ʿAlī,” the name for various natural springs in Iran, the two best-known of which are located near Dāmḡān and Ray respectively.

  • MUNICH, PERSIAN ART IN

    Avinoam Shalem

    The collecting of Persian art in Munich goes back at least to the reign of Duke Albrecht V (r. 1516-75). Artifacts of oriental origin were mainly registered as exotica. For example, between 1545 and 1550, Hans Mielich (1516-73), the court painter of Albrecht V, provided the duke with an illustrated inventory of the varied treasures in the court.

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  • JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES v. QAJAR PERIOD (2)

    Mehrdad Amanat

    In the latter part of the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries there occurred a relatively widespread mass movement of Persian Jews to the Bahai community.

  • FOʾĀDI BOŠRUʾI, ḤASAN

    Fereydun Vahman

    (1899-1936), historian, philologist, educator, and head of Bahai schools in Iran and Turkmenistan.

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  • BĀDRŪDI

    E. Yarshater

    one of the local dialects of the Kāšān region, spoken in Bādrūd, a dehestān (rural district) of Naṭanz.

  • ḴORŠĀH B. QOBĀD ḤOSEYNI, NEẒĀM-AL-DIN

    Kioumars Ghereghlou

    a Hyderabad-based diplomat and historian of Iranian descent best known for his composition of a universal chronicle in Persian in the name of the Qoṭbšāhi ruler, Ebrāhim (r. 1550-80).

  • JEZYA

    Vera B. Moreen

    the poll or capitation tax levied on members of non-Muslim monotheistic faith communities (Jews, Christians, and, eventually, Zoroastrians), who fell under the protection (ḏemma) of Muslim Arab conquerors.

  • ḴĀKI ŠIRĀZI, ḤASAN BEG

    Kioumars Ghereghlou

    (d. 1612), Persian historian and bureaucrat, whose chronicle, titled Aḥsan al-tavāriḵ, is a general history of pre-Islamic and Islamic dynasties of Iran, the Indian Subcontinent, and Central Asia.

  • J~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

    Cross-Reference

    list of all the figure and plate images in the letter J entries.

  • KARAKI

    Rula Jurdi Abisaab

    Nur-al-Din Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAli b. Ḥosayn b. ʿAbd-al-ʿĀli, known as Moḥaqqeq al-Ṯāni or Moḥaqqeq ʿAli (1464-1533), a major Imamite jurist.

  • ḤASANLU TEPPE i. THE SITE

    Robert H. Dyson, Jr

    The Qadar River rises to the west in the Zagros on the Assyrian frontier near the ancient Urartian city of Musasir. Its eastern end drains into marshes north of the modern town of Mahābād, which lies northwest of the ancient country of Mannai.

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  • CARPETS iii. Knotted-pile carpets: Techniques and structures

    Annette Ittig

    The techniques of carpet making are the processes of weaving, knotting, and finishing; structure is the complex of interrelations among the elements of the finished carpet. 

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  • ṬĀLEB ĀMOLI

    Paul Losensky

    Persian poet of the early 17th century (b. Mazandaran, ca. 1580; d. India, 1626-7).

  • TEXTILE INDUSTRY IN IRAN

    Willem Floor

    Textile production in Iran dates back to the 10th millennium BCE. The first European-style factories in Persia were established in the 1850s and were among the first establishments in the country to use modern technology.

  • ZAYN-AL-ʿĀBEDIN MARʿAŠI MAUSOLEUM

    SANDRA AUBE

    a tomb-shrine in Sāri, Māzandarān, where Sayyed Yaḥyā Marʿaši is buried.

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  • BURIAL i. Pre-Historic Burial Sites

    Ezzatollah Negahban

    The earliest human skeletal remains found in Persia (pre-8th millennium B.C.) are from several cave dwelling sites: Hotu Cave (Angel) and Belt Cave, both on the south­eastern shore of the Caspian Sea; Behistun (Bīsotūn) Cave near Kermānšāh; and Konjī and Arjana Caves in Luristan.

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  • JOWŠAQĀN ii. The Dialect

    Habib Borjian

    Jowšaqāni, spoken in the township of Jowšaqān, is a variety of the local dialects of Kāšān, a subgroup of the Central Dialects. Published materials on the dialect include Ann Lambton’s brief grammar and texts and glossary, and R. Zargari’s verb forms, glossary, and idioms.

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  • ʿORFI ŠIRAZI

    Paul Losensky

    Persian poet of the latter half of the 16th century (b. Shiraz, 1555; d. Lahore, Aug. 1591).

  • ʿABBĀS II

    Rudi Matthee

    Safavid king of Iran (1052-77/1642-66).  The expedition to Kandahar, which had been lost to the Mughals under Shah Ṣafi I, counts as Shah ʿAbbās II’s main military venture.

  • ISFAHAN xix. JEWISH DIALECT

    Donald Stilo

    The Jewish dialects of Isfahan, Kāshān, Hamadān, Borujerd, Yazd, Kermān and others belong to the Central dialect group of Northwestern Iranian. All of Northwestern Iranian languages, in turn, are descended from Median.

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  • ḤAYĀTI TABRIZI, QĀSEM BEG

    Kioumars Ghereghlou

    16th-century Persian historian, whose chronicle, Tāriḵ, spans the period between Shaikh Ṣafi-al-Din Esḥāq Ardabili and Shah Esmāʿil I.

  • ḴᵛĀNSĀR i. Historical Geography

    Habib Borjian

    historical district and town in Isfahan province.

  • GHAFFARY, FARROKH

    Michele Epinette

    (1922-2006), Iranian artist and one of the founders of the National Archives of Iranian Cinema; he served as one of the directors of the National Iranian Radio-Television, worked as the chief organizer of the Shiraz Festival of Arts.

  • KEŠAʾI DIALECT

    Habib Borjian

    the dialect spoken in the village of Keša, near Naṭanz, in Isfahan Province.

  • ZEFRA i. The District

    Mohammad-Hasan Raja’i Zefra’i and Habib Borjian

    mountainous district and village northeast of Isfahan. Historical documents have little mention of Zefra.  Nevertheless the village is embellished with a fine congregational mosque from the Saljuq era with subsequent renovations; the mosque’s antique gate and pulpit are dated 790/1388 and 791/1389, respectively.

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  • HYENA

    Steven C. Anderson

    Hyaena hyaena (Linnaeus, 1758), Pers. kaftār. The striped hyena is the only current Asian representative of the mammalian family Hyaenidae. Principal threats to hyena populations today are vehicular traffic (since they scavenge road kills at night), wanton shooting, and secondary poisoning. The hyena is a protected species in Iran.

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  • ZOROASTRIANS OF IRAN vi. Linguistic Documentation

    Saloumeh Gholami

    This article focuses on the importance of documenting the Zoroastrian dialects of Yazd and Kerman, also known as Zoroastrian Dari (a term not to be confused with classical Persian Dari or Dari in Afghanistan).

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  • KALĀNTARI, PARVIZ

    Nojan Madinei

    (b. Zanjān, 22 March 1931; d. Tehran, 20 May 2016), painter, graphic designer, writer, and a pioneering illustrator of Iranian children’s books.

  • JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES v. QAJAR PERIOD (1)

    Daniel Tsadik

    The socio-economic and legal status of the Jews of Iran in early Qajar times was, to an extent, a continuation of the legacy of Safavid times. With the passage of time, however, certain changes started to be seen.

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  • CERAMICS x. The Iron Age

    Robert C. Henrickson

    The pottery of Iron Age Persia presents a vast array of problems, not least the huge area and long span of time that must be taken into consideration.

  • CERAMICS xiv. The Islamic Period, 11th-15th centuries

    Ernst J. Grube

    A large variety of pottery types from different parts of the country has been attributed to this general period, notably incised and slip-carved earthenwares, which have been published under a variety of labels, as proper attributions have so far been impossible.

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  • ARDABĪL CARPET

    M. Beattie

    a name applied chiefly to a Persian carpet acquired by the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1893, which is significant for its outstanding quality of design and weaving and for the precise date it carries. A second, almost identical carpet is less well known; it was presented by the late J. Paul Getty to the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in 1953.

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  • ART IN IRAN ii. Median Art and Architecture

    P. Calmeyer

    We know that Medes were mentioned in neo Assyrian annals from the year 836 B.C. onwards; as late as in King Esarhaddon’s vassal treaties (672 B.C.) they are represented by petty princes: central kingship had not yet been established, the foundation of which was later ascribed to the legendary judge, Deïokes.

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  • ZHUKOVSKIĬ, Valentin Alekseevich

    Firuza Abdullaeva

    (1858-1918), one of the most prominent representatives of Russian, namely St. Petersburg, Oriental studies. The scholarly interests of Zhukovskiĭ were extremely wide, covering the whole range of subjects from dialectology and folklore to archeology. His archives contain papers on many different subjects; some of them still await publication.

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  • SCHLIMMER, JOHANNES LODEWIK

    Willem Floor

    (1818-1876), Dutch physician who served in Iran as an instructor of medicine and became a leading pioneer in the promotion of modern medicine in Iran. His Terminologie Medico-Pharmaceutique (1874) helped standardize medical technical terms in Persian. 

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  • CRYSTAL, ROCK

    Brigitte Musche, Jens Kröger

    a pure, transparent variety of quartz, usually called “rock crystal” to distinguish it from crystal glass.

  • SOLṬĀN ḤOSAYN

    Rudi Matthee

    (1668-1727), the ninth and last Safavid king, the eldest son of Shah Solaymān I. Like most Safavid rulers, he was most comfortable speaking Turkish, although he appears to have learned Persian as well.

  • KĀMRĀN MIRZĀ NĀYEB-AL-SALṬANA

    Heidi Walcher

    (1856-1929), the third surviving son of Nāṣer-al-Din Shah, he was the minister of war and commander of the armed forces, and intermittently governor of Tehran and a number of provinces.

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  • GHIRSHMAN, ROMAN

    Laurianne Martinez-Sève

    Ghirshman came from an affluent family in Kharkov and was enlisted in 1914 into the Russian army. In 1917, he joined the counter-revolutionary camp, and after the Communist victory took refuge in Istanbul, where he earned a living as a violinist.

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  • TABRIZ x. MONUMENTS x(1). The Blue Mosque

    Sandra Aube

    (Pers. Masjed-e kabud), also known as Masjed-e Moẓaffariya, built during the rule of the Qarā Qoyunlu dynasty (1351-1469) and completed in 1465. The extant tilework documents artistic connections with contemporary architecture in Timurid Khorasan and in the Ottoman Empire.

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  • CERAMICS iv. The Chalcolithic Period in the Zagros Highlands

    Elizabeth F. Henrickson

    The Zagros Chalcolithic may be divided into Early, Middle, and Late subperiods. Within each several distinctive regional assemblages are known in varying arche­ological detail. 

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