Search Results

• BUNDAHIŠN

  D. Neil MacKenzie

  “Primal creation,” traditional name of a major Pahlavi work of compilation, mainly a detailed cosmogony and cosmography based on the Zoroastrian scriptures.

• KALURAZ

  TADAHIKO OHTSU

  archeological site (lat 36°54′ N, long 49°28′ E) 1.1 km west of Rostam Ābād city, 11.7 km northeast of Rudbār in Gilan Province.

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• DESERT

  Brian Spooner

  The general Persian word for desert is bīābān. As throughout most of the arid zone agriculture and settlement depend upon sustained investment, Persians generally expect to find bīābān where ābādī (settled, irrigated agriculture) ends. The term bīābān covers a broad range of different types of desert, from completely barren expanses to plains with significant percentages of vegetation cover.

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• KANGARLU

  P. OBERLING

  a Turkic tribe of Azerbaijan and the Qom-Verāmin region of central Persia. 

• GONĀBĀDI, MOḤAMMAD PARVIN

  Cross-Reference

  Persian scholar and translator. See PARVIN GONĀBĀDI.

• IRĀNŠAHR (3)

  Manouchehr Kasheff

  an encyclopedic collection of articles published under the auspices of the UNESCO National Commission in Iran. The ambitious idea, as presented in the preface of the first volume, was to produce a highly reliable condensed, but comprehensive, sourcebook covering every aspect of the history, culture, and civilization of Iran from ancient times to 1960.

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• ABŪ ṬĀLEB KALĪM

  Cross-Reference

  (b. ca. 1581-85; d. 1651), Persian poet and one of the leading exponents of the “Indian style” (sabk-e hendi). See KALĪM KĀŠĀNI.

• ARƎDVĪ SŪRĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See ANĀHĪD.

• BARRA

  G. Cardascia

  or bāru, an Iranian loanword designating a tax in Babylonian texts. The word appears nearly seventy times between 442 and 417 B.C. almost exclusively in tax receipts.

• ARCHITECTURE viii. Pahlavi, after World War II

  N. Ardalān

  Between the close of World War II and the overthrow of the Pahlavi regime in 1979, an ancient and very traditional Iranian culture came fully into contact with contemporary developments, in particular, with the highly scientific and empirical world of the West.

• CREATION

  Cross-Reference

  See COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY.

• EKBĀTĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ECBATANA.

• AMIR-AʿLAM

  Bāqer ʿĀqeli

  (1861-1961), university professor, representative and deputy speaker of the Majles, Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, senator, minister, and founder of the Red Lion and Sun, an organization corresponding to the Red Cross.

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• FRANCE xii(b). IRANIAN STUDIES IN FRANCE: PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Philippe Gignoux

• ḤEJLA

  Jean Calmard

  a bridal chamber (ḥejla-ye ʿarusi), generally in the shape of a curtained canopy, built by a ḥejla-sāz.

• ʿABBĀS EFFENDI

  Cross-Reference

  The eldest son of Bahāʾallāh and founder of the Bahaʾi movement. See ʿABD-AL-BAHĀʾ.

• ʿALĪ MOTTAQĪ

  M. Baqir

  Saint and Hadith scholar of India (885-975/1481-1567).

• ʿAZĪZ-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ EBRĀHĪM KHAN.

• CADMAN, JOHN

  Kamran Eqbal

  Director and later chairman of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC) during the reign of Reżā Shah (b. Silverdale, Staffordshire, England, 7 September 1877, d. Bletchley, Buckingham, 31 May 1941).

• KHACHIKIAN, Samuel

  Jamsheed Akrami

  (Sāmuʾel Ḵāčikiān), Iranian filmmaker (b. 20 October 1923, Tabriz; d. 21 October 2001, Tehran).

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• DHĀRAṆĪ

  Hiroshi Kumamoto, Yutaka Yoshida

  magic spells in the Buddhist Mahāyānist and Tantric (esoteric) traditions.

• SĀQI-NĀMA

  Paul Losensky

  (Book of the Cupbearer), a poetic genre in which the speaker, seeking relief from his hardships, losses, and disappointments, repeatedly summons the sāqi or cupbearer to bring him wine.

• GORGĀNI DIALECT

  Cross-Reference

  See MĀZANDARĀNI.

• AČAṘEAN, HRAČʾEAY YAKOBI

  J. R. Russell

  Armenian linguist, born 8 March 1876 (O. S.; 20 March N. S.) at Constantinople. 

• ARMAḠĀN

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  a monthly literary magazine founded in 1919.

• BAŠŠĀR-E MARḠAZĪ

  Z. Safa

  a Persian poet of the 10th century, apparently from Marv in Khorasan.

• AVICENNA xii. The impact of Avicenna’s philosophical works on the West

  S. Van Riet

• CUPPING

  Cross-Reference

  See BLOODLETTING.

• ELIŠĒ

  Robert W. Thomson

  or Elisaeus, fifth century author of the History of Vardan and the Armenian War, a detailed account of the Armenian rebellion against Yazdegerd II in 450, which was prompted by his persecution of their Christian faith.

• BOROWSKY, ISIDORE

  Bo Utas

  (ca. 1770-ca. 1838), Polish officer in the Persian army, said to have been fatally injured by a bullet in the abdomen during the second siege of Herat in 1837-38.

• FRIT WARES

  Cross-reference

  See CERAMICS xiv.

• HERACLEITUS OF EPHESUS

  J. Wiesehöfer

  (fl. ca. 500 BCE), Greek philosopher traditionally credited as the first to have written on the magi.

• ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. ABUʾL-ḤADĪD

  W. Madelung

  Muʿtazilite scholar and man of letters (13th century).

• ALLĀHVERDĪ KHAN (1)

  R. M. Savory

  (d.1022/1613), a Georgian ḡolām who rose to high office in the Safavid state. 

• BĀBĀ ṬĀHER ʿORYĀN

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  medieval dervish poet from the area of Hamadān, best known for his do-baytīs, quatrains composed  in a simpler meter still widely used for popular verse.

• ČAHĀRJŪY

  Cross-reference

  See ĀMOL.

• KĀMRĀN MIRZĀ

  Sunil Sharma

  second son of the founder of the Mughal empire, Ẓahir-al-Din Moḥammad Bābor (q.v.) and of Golroḵ Begom, and half-brother of the emperor Homāyun (q.v.).

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• DĪNAVARĪ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH

  Josef van Ess

  b. Ḥamdān b. Wahb b. Bešr (d. 902), traditionist and ḥāfeẓ (preserver of the Koranic text).

• MANI

  Werner Sundermann

  the founder of the religion of Manicheism in the 3rd century CE.

• IŠKATA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  in the Avesta the name of a mountain and of the land (situated in the Hindu Kush region) which is dominated by this mountain.

• ADERGOUDOUNBADES

  R. N. Frye

  a kanārang (eastern border margrave) appointed by the Sasanian king Kavād (r. 488-531 A.D.).

• ARSLĀNŠAH B. TOḠRELŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See SALJUQS OF KERMĀN.

• BAYHAQ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a rural area (rostāq) of medieval Khorasan, between the district of Nīšāpūr and the eastern borders of Qūmes, and its town, also known as Sabzavār.

• BAZAR iv. In Afghanistan

  E. F. Grötzbach

  In Afghanistan a bāzār is a collection of shops and workshops forming a topographic unit. As regards size and layout, however, there can be great differences.

• LENTZ, OTTO HELMUT WOLFGANG

  Gerd Gropp

  (1900-1986), German Iranologist who specialized in Middle Iranian and New Persian dialects as well as on Iranian religions.

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• GATE

  Cross-Reference

  See DARVĀZA.

• HERODIAN

  Philip Huyse

  (fl. shortly before 250 CE), historian, probably a native of Syria, who wrote a Greek history of the Roman emperors from the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 CE to the accession of Gordian III in 238.

• ʿABD-AL-LAṬĪF BHETĀʾĪ

  M. Baqir

  Sufi poet of Sind (1689-1752).

• ʿAMĀMA

  H. Algar

  (or ʿAMMĀMA, Arabic ʿEMĀMA), the turban. Imbued with symbolic significance, the turban was once the almost universal headgear of adult male Muslims. 

• BABYLONIA i. History of Babylonia in the Median and Achaemenid periods

  M. A. Dandamayev

  The Medes, under their king Cyaxares, first seized the Assyrian province of Arrapha in 614 B.C. Then, in the autumn of the same year, and after a fierce battle, they gained control of Assyria’s ancient capital, Assur. Nabopolassar brought his Babylonian army and joined the Medes after Assur had fallen.

• ḴĀQĀNI ŠERVĀNI

  Anna Livia Beelaert

  a major Persian poet and prose writer (b. Šervān, ca. 521/1127; d. Tabriz, between 582/1186-87 and 595/1199).

• DIVORCE

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Mansour Shaki, Sachiko Murata, Akbar Aghajanian, Jenny Rose, Mujan Momen

  legal termination of marriage. In the following series of articles only those communities are taken into consideration which are either Iranian or are focused in Persia. For this reason Jewish and Christian practices have not been included.

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• SCERIMAN FAMILY

  Sebouh Aslanian and Houri Berberian

  a wealthy Persian-Armenian merchant family.

• Great Britain xii. The Persian Community in Britain (1)

  Kathryn Spellman

  This entry will be treated in two separate articles: (1) Persian Community and (2) The Library for Iranian Studies.

• ISRAEL i. RELATIONS WITH IRAN

  David Menashri, Trita Parsi

  The relationship between Israel and Iran has, since the very inception of the Jewish state in 1948, been a complex function of Iran’s geo-strategic imperatives as a non-Arab, non-Sunni state.

• ĀDURFRĀZGIRD

  C. J. Brunner

  a brother of the Sasanian king Šāpūr II (309-79 CE) who is mentioned in the Syriac Acts of the Persian Martyrs.

• ARTAŠŠUMARA

  M. Mayrhofer

  a Mitannian king.

• BĀZĪ

  Fereydūn Vahman

  (games). The growing interest in Iranian folklore in recent decades has resulted in the publication of descriptions of many games played in various parts of Iran, often to be found in dialect glossaries.

• BURIAL iv. In Islam

  Hamid Algar

  In the handbooks of feqh that the detailed procedures for washing, enshrouding, praying over, and burying the dead are expounded, with little variation among the different schools of Islamic law.

• DĀḠESTĀN

  Gadzhi Gamzatovich Gamzatov, Fridrik Thordarson

  (Daghestan). The many-faceted relationship between Dāḡestān (ancient Albania), a region in the eastern Caucasus, and Persia since antiquity has yet to be studied as a whole, though there is considerable historical, linguis­tic, folkloric, literary, and art-historical evidence bear­ing on it.

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• ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF TAJIKISTAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ĖNTSIKLOPEDIYAI SOVETII TOJIK.

• OBOLLA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a port of Lower Iraq during the classical and medieval Islamic periods.

• ḠAFFĀRĪ, FARROḴ KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪN-AL-DAWLA, ABŪ ṬĀLEB FARROḴ KHAN ḠAFFĀRĪ.

• HINDU KUSH

  Ervin Grötzbach

  the name given to the southwest range of the massive middle and south Asiatic mountain complex lying partly in Afghanistan and partly in Pakistan.

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  Emir or ruler of Afghanistan, and member of the Bārakzay tribe of the Dorrāni tribal confederation, who unified the kingdom after the second Anglo-Afghan war (r. 1297-1319/1880-1901). See AFGHANISTAN x. Political History, BĀRAKZI, and DORRĀNI.

• AMĪN AḤMAD RĀZĪ

  M. U. Memon

  better known as AMĪN RĀZĪ, 10th-11th/16th-17th century author of the Haft eqlīm, a famous geographical and biographical encyclopedia.

• BADĪʿ BALḴĪ

  Z. Safa

  Persian poet of the 10th century.

• CAPPADOCIA

  Michael Weiskopf

  Anatolian Achaemenid satrapy, Hellenistic-era Iranian kingdom, and imperial Roman province. A rolling plateau cut by mountains, Cappadocia in the east contains bare central highlands, in the west a nearly treeless land­scape, and in the north mountainous tracts marked by fertile valleys, especially on the lower Halys river.

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• RA’DI AZARAKHSHI, Gholam-‘Ali

  Kāmyār ʿĀbedi

  (1909-1999), prominent poet.

• DONBA

  M. R. Ghanoonparvar

  the fatty part of the sheep’s tail, traditionally used as a cooking fat, sometimes in melted form, or as an inexpensive meat substitute.

• BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

  Hamid Algar

  : Persian Influence in Ottoman and post-Ottoman times. The Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina came to assimilate virtually all the cultural habits and interests of the Ottoman Turks. For the learned elite, this included an acquaintance with Persian language and literature.

• GUILDS

  Cross-Reference

  See AṢNĀF; CHAMBER OF GUILDS; CHAMBER OF COMMERCE; BĀZĀR iii.

• JABḠUYA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Arabo-Persian form of the Central Asian title yabḡu. Although it is best known as a Turkish title of nobility, it was in use many centuries before the Turks appear in the historical record.

• AFŠĪN B. DĪVDĀD

  ʿA. Kārang and F. R. C. Bagley

  founder of the semi-independent Sajid dynasty in Azerbaijan (r. 276/889-90-317/929).

• ĀRYĀMEHR

  Cross-Reference

  See MOḤAMMAD REŻA SHAH PAHLAVI.

• BEHBAHĀNĪ, ʿABD-ALLĀH

  cross-reference

  See ʿABD-ALLĀH BEHBAHĀNĪ.

• CHILDREN vi. Child Rearing Among Zoroastrians in Modern Persia

  Janet Kestenberg Amighi

• DALQAK

  Farrokh Gaffary

  buffoon, court jester, also sometimes known as masḵara.

• EPʿREM KHAN

  Aram Arkun

  Pers. Yeprem/Efrem (1868-1912), Armenian revolutionary and important military leader of the Constitutional Revolution. He uneasily reconciled his beliefs with his position as police chief of Tehran, resigning and returning to office several times.  On 24 December 1911, he shut down the parliament to comply with a Russian ultimatum, and this marked the close of Persia’s Constitutional Revolution.

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• SIRĀFI, ABU SAʿID ḤASAN

  David Pingree

  10th-century polymath known best for his work as a grammarian.

• GANDHĀRA

  Willem Vogelsang

  (OPers. Gandāra), a province of the Persian empire under the Achaemenids. The name of Gandhāra or Gandhārī occurs in ancient Indian texts as the name of a people.

• HOJVIRI, ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALI

  Gerhard Böwering

  B. ʿOṮMĀN B. ʿALI AL-ḠAZNAVI AL-JOLLĀBI (d. ca. 1071-72), author of the Kašf al-maḥjub, the most celebrated early Persian Sufi treatise.

• ʿABD-AL-VĀḤED

  D. Pingree

  8th/14th century author.

• AMĪR ḤASAN DEHLAVĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See INDIA xiv. Persian Literature in India.

• BĀḠ-E ŠĀH

  ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  (the king’s garden). In the mid-Qajar period, the site was a broad, circular field about 1,000 m in diameter situated on the outskirts of the city and devoted to horseback riding and racing.

• FARĀMARZ

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  son of Iran’s national hero Rostam, and himself a renowned hero of the Iranian national epic whose adventures were very popular, especially during the 10th and 11th centuries.

• CARTER ADMINISTRATION

  Richard W. Cottam

  (1977-81): POLICY TOWARD PERSIA. When the administration of President Jimmy Carter took office in January 1977, United States foreign relations overall were remarkably stable. A modus vivendi had been established with the Soviet Union, and the Soviet-American cold war, the primary source of disturbance of world tranquility, was on what would prove to be a temporary hold.

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• FASIH, Esma’il

  Ali Ferdowsi

  (1935-2009), eminent Persian novelist and translator.

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• DRANGIANA

  R. Schmitt

  or Zarangiana; territory around Lake Hāmūn and the Helmand river in modern Sīstān.

• MARITIME TRADE i. PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Daniel T. Potts

  In comparison with Mesopotamia, Persia has far less proof that maritime trade was an important factor in her ancient economy.

• GYMNASTICS IN PERSIA

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• JĀḤEẒ

  Michael Cooperson

  , ABU ʿOṮMĀN ʿAMR B. BAḤR (b. ca. 776; d. 868-9), the leading Arabic prose writer of the 9th century.

• ĀHAK

  E. Ehlers, T. S. Kawami

  “lime,” a solid, white substance consisting essentially of calcium oxide.

• ĀŠAQLŪN

  Cross-Reference

  Manichean demon. See ĀSRĒŠTĀR.

• BELTS

  Peter Calmeyer, Elsie H. Peck

  (Mid. Pets, kamar, NPers. kamar-band). Investigation of representations of belts in Iran between the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty in the 4th century BC and the coming of Islam reveals that they were almost exclusively male accessories. Depictions of females wearing belts are rare, and most are heavily influenced by Hellenistic and Roman styles.

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• CINEMA v. Filmography

  EIr

• DĀNEŠGĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See EDUCATION; entries on indi­vidual universities.

• ƎRƎTI

  William W. Malandra

  the name of a minor goddess, one of a number of abstract deities who appear in the Avesta only in formulaic invocations of divinities.

• MITHRA ii. ICONOGRAPHY IN IRAN AND CENTRAL ASIA

  Franz Grenet

  There is no known iconography of Mithra in the Achaemenid period. On coins of the Arsacids the seated archer dressed as a Parthian horseman has been interpreted as Mithra. In the Kushan empire Mithra is among the deities most frequently depicted on the coinage, always as a young solar god.

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• GARDEN ii. ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Lisa Golombek

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• HORMOZD KUŠĀNŠĀH

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  Sasanian prince governor of Kušān. He is known from his coins minted in eastern Iran and references in three Latin sources. His coins are gold scyphate (cup-shaped) and light bronze issues; rare heavy copper and silver coins also occur.

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• ʿABDALLĀH B. MOBĀRAK

  P. Nwyia

  Traditionist (736-97).

• ĀMOL

  C. E. Bosworth

   town situated three miles from the left bank of the Oxus river (Āmū Daryā).

• FISH iv. FISH AS FOOD

  NAJMIEH BATMANGLIJ

• FARHANG-E ĪRĀN-ZAMĪN

  Nasserddin Parvin

  a research quarterly first published in Tehran in March 1953.

• CAVIAR

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  ḵāvīar in Persian, the processed non-fertilized roe of sturgeons and some other large fishes, highly valued as a gourmet delicacy.  In Iran the roe for caviar is obtained mainly from three species of sturgeon (family Acipenseridae) caught in the southern littoral or fluvial waters of the Caspian Sea.

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• KARNĀ

  Stephen Blum

  designation of three types of musical instrument, the most prestigious being long trumpets made of brass, gold, silver, or other metals. Two regional instruments of Iran are also called karnā. Like the metal karnā, the long reed trumpet of Gilān and Māzandarān (also known as derāznāy “long reed”) lacks fingerholes and can produce only partials of the fundamental tone. 

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• DUALISM

  Gherardo Gnoli

  feature peculiar to Iranian religion in ancient and medieval times.

• KORK

  Rudi Matthee

  soft wool, also called Kermān wool, used for the manufacture of fine clothing and felt hats.

• JĀM MINARET

  F. B. Flood

  pre-eminent 12th-century monument of the Šansabāni sultans of Ḡur in central Afghanistan. The minaret stands 65 meters high near the confluence of the Harirud and Jāmrud rivers in a remote mountain valley once protected by a series of defensive towers.

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• AḤMAD INALTIGIN

  C. E. Bosworth

  Turkish commander and rebel under the early Ghaznavid sultan Masʿūd I (421-32/1030-41), d. 426/1035.

• ASIA MINOR

  M. Weiskopf

  IRANO-ANATOLIAN RELATIONS.

• BĒṮ LAPAṬ

  Michael Morony

  the Syriac name for Vēh Antiōk Šāpūr (Gondēšāpūr), founded in ca. 260 by Šāpūr I in Ḵūzestān with the Roman captives from Valerian’s army.

• CLOTHING xxvi. Clothing and jewelry of the Turkmen

  P. A. Andrews

  Until the 1970s the clothing and jewelry of the Turkmen formed the most elaborate tribal costume still used in Persia. The principal women’s garment is a shift (köynek), formerly of silk, now replaced by synthetic fibers; a raspberry red was common in the hand-woven material, sometimes with shot effects.

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• DĀRĀB-NĀMA

  William L. Hanaway

  prose romance of the 12th century, by Abū Ṭāher Moḥammad b. Ḥasan b. ʿAlī b. Mūsā Ṭārsūsī (or Ṭarṭūsī), in which the adventures of the legendary Kayanid king Dārāb, son of Bahman (also called Ardašīr) and Homāy, variously identified as the daughter of king Sām Čāraš of Egypt or of Ardašīr (=Bahman), are recounted.

• EṢFAHĀN and EṢFAHĀNĀT

  Cross-Reference

  See BAYĀT-E EṢFAHĀN.

• HOTZ, ALBERT PAUL HERMAN

  Cyrus Ala’i

  a Dutch trader, collector of artifacts, and author on Iran (1855-1930).

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD i

  Gerhard BÖWERING

  A man of Persian descent, Ḡazālī (variant name Ḡazzālī; Med. Latin form, Algazel; honorific title, Ḥojjat-al-Eslām"The Proof of Islam”), was born at Ṭūs in Khorasan in 450/1058 and grew up as an orphan together with his younger brother Aḥmad Ḡazālī (d. 520/1126; q.v.).

• ḤOSAYNI

  Bruno Nettl

  a guša (significant melodic unit) of the canonic repertory of Persian classical music (radif).

• ʿABHAR AL-ʿĀŠEQĪN

  H. Corbin

  work of the Persian mystic Rūzbehān Baqlī Šīrāzī (1128-1209).

• ANANTAMUKHANIRHĀRADHĀRAṆĪ

  R. E. Emmerick

  the name of a Buddhist text belonging to the Mahayanist Tantric tradition. 

• BAHMANAGĀN

  cross-reference

  See BAHMANJANA.

• FARMĀNFARMĀ

  Ahmad Ashraf

  lit. “giver of an order,” i.e., ruler, commander; an epithet with three usages in the Safavid and Qajar periods.

• ČERĀḠ KHAN ZĀHEDĪ

  Roger M. Savory

  b. Shaikh Šarīf, a descendant of Shaikh Zāhed Gīlānī, the celebrated moršed (spiritual director) of Shaikh Ṣafī-al-Dīn, the eponymous founder of the Safavid order (Ṣafawīya); hence Čerāḡ Khan was also known as Pīrzāda.

• KĀRIZ iv. Origin and Dissemination

  Xavier de Planhol

  Far simpler techniques of water adduction involving underground channels must be clearly distinguished from kārēz, although they are often grouped together.

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• EAGLES

  Steven C. Anderson, William L. Hanaway, Jr.

  Ten species of eagles occur at least seasonally in Persia, nine of which also occur in Afghanistan. Pallas’s fish eagle, Haliaeetus leucoryphus, ranges throughout Asia, is vagrant in Persia, eastern Arabia, and Oman, and is probably a winter visitor in western Afghanistan. It breeds from the Caspian to central China and Mongolia.

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• RAʿD

  Nasreddin Parvin

  (Thunder), the name of a newspaper published by Sayyed Żiyāʾ-al-Din Ṭabāṭabāʾi in Tehran, 1913-1921, with interruptions.

• HAIFA

  Hossein Amanat

  a port city in northwestern Israel and the site of a number of significant Bahai holy places, administrative buildings, and historical monuments.

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• JANĀB

  cross-reference

  See ALQĀB VA ʿANĀWIN.

• AḤSAN AL-TAWĀRĪḴ

  ʿA. Navāʾī

  a chronological history of Iran and the neighboring countries written by Ḥasan Beg Rūmlū (b. 937/1530-31), a qūṛčī in the service of the Safavid Shah Ṭahmāsb.

• ASPAND

  Cross-Reference

  See ESFAND.

• BĪDĀR

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (lit. awake) the name of three Persian periodicals, two of which were published in Tehran in 1923 and 1951 and the other in Mazār-e Šarīf in 1925.

• COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY iii. In Manicheism

  Werner Sundermann

• DARIUS ii. Darius the Mede

  Richard N. Frye

• ESKANDARĪ, ĪRAJ

  Cosroe Chaqueri

  (1907-1985), prominent leader of the Tudeh Party. He was an architect of the coalition of the Tudeh party with prime minister Aḥmad Qawām in 1946. From 1948 he worked for the Tudeh party in Paris, Vienna, Budapest, Moscow, and finally Leipzig. His lukewarm attitude toward the Islamic Revolution and refusal of a Soviet offer to help turn Persia into another Afghanistan cost him his leadership position in 1979.

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• WAR KABUD

  Bruno Overlaet

  an archeological site to the north of Čavār in Ilām Province (Pošt-e kuh, Lorestān). Two hundred and three individual tombs of a large plundered graveyard (more than 1,000 tombs estimated to have been plundered) were excavated in 1965 and 1966. They all date to the Iron Age III (ca. 800/750-600 BCE).

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• GENDARMERIE

  Stephanie Cronin

  the first modern highway patrol and rural police force in Persia. The Government Gendarmerie (Žāndārmerī-e dawlatī) was established in 1910 by the second Majles and proved the most enduring in a series of official projects for the modernization of the armed forces under the leadership of foreign officers.

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• HUNTING IN IRAN

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  i. In the pre-Islamic period. ii. In the Islamic period. See Supplement. Persian has two terms for hunting, naḵjīr and šekār, both of which have spread beyond Iranian languages.

• ĀBTĪN

  A. Tafażżolī

  father of the mythical king Feridun of the Pišdādi dynasty.

• ANGLO-AFGHAN RELATIONS

  J. A. Norris

  a survey from the earliest times to the death of the last Bārakzay ruler in 1357 Š./1978.

• BAḤRĀNĪ, AḤMAD

  E. Kohlberg

  B. MOḤAMMAD B. YŪSOF B. ṢĀLEḤ (d. 1690-91), described as the leading representative in his generation of Imami Shiʿite scholarship in Bahrain.

• FĀRS-NĀMA-YE EBN-E BALḴĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See EBN AL-BALḴĪ.

• CHARPENTIER, JARL

  Bo Utas

  (Hellen Robert Toussaint; b. 17 December 1884, d. 5 July 1935), Swedish Indologist, Indo-Europeanist, and Iranist, born in Gothenburg as the son of an army officer.

• MASʿUDI

  Michael Cooperson

  a tenth-century geographer and historian and an important source of information on pre-Islamic and early Islamic Iran.

• EBN BĀBAWAYH (2)

  Martin McDermott

  (Bābūya), SHAIKH ṢADŪQ ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD b. Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī... Mūsā Qomī (b. Qom after 305, probably about 311/923; d. Ray, 381/991), author of one of the authoritative four books of Imami Shiʿite Hadith, Man lā yaḥżoroho’l-faqīh.

• KASRA’I, HOSAYN SIAVASH

  Hušang Ettehād

  (1939-2003), painter.

• ḤAKIMI, EBRĀHIM

  Abbas Milani and EIr

  (Ḥakim-al-Molk) (1871-1959), Persian statesman, three times prime minister.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĀTAKASTAVA

  Mauro Maggi

  a Khotanese religious poem in praise (Skt. stava-) of the Buddha’s former births (Skt. jātaka-).

• ĀKAUFAČIYĀ

  R. Schmitt

  name of a tribe resident in the southeastern part of the Achaemenid empire.

• ĀSTĀNA

  Eckart Ehlers, Marcel Bazin, and Christian Bromberger

  a township and a district of Lāhīǰān in the province of Gīlān.

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN

  Multiple Authors

  scholar and polymath of the period of the late Samanids and early Ghaznavids and one of the two greatest intellectual figures of his time in the eastern lands of the Muslim world (973-after 1050).

• ELAM iv. Linear Elamite

  MIRJO SALVINI

  Linear Elamite was a system of writing used at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. by Puzur-Inšušinak, the last of the twelve “kings of Awan,” according to a king list found at Susa. He ruled ca. 2150 B.C.E. and was a contemporary of Ur-Nammu, the first ruler of the Ur III dynasty in Mesopotamia.

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• DARYĀ-YE NŪR

  Yaḥyā Ḏokāʾ

  lit., “sea of light”; one of the largest diamonds in the world, kept and exhibited in the Jewel museum of the Central bank of Persia (Bānk-e markazī-e Īrān).

• ʿEṢMAT BOḴĀRĪ, Ḵᵛāja ʿEṢMAT-ALLĀH

  Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā

  b. Masʿūd Boḵārī (d. 1436), poet and scholar of the early Timurid period, known also for his expertise in mathematics, history, prosody, riddles, and mastery of enšāʾ.

• OLEARIUS, ADAM

  Christoph Werner

  (1599-1671), German author, secretary to the Holstein mission to Persia (1635-39), noted for the detailed account of his travels in Russia and Persia.

• GERĀYLĪ

  Pierre Oberling

  a Turkic tribe of Khorasan, Gorgān, and Māzandarān.

• IGNATIUS OF JESUS

  Paola Orsatti

  (Ignazio di Gesù, 1596-1667), an Italian missionary in Persia and a scholar of the Persian language, renowned mainly for his studies on religion and on the customs of the Mandaeans.

• ABŪ BAKR QOHESTĀNĪ

  Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī

   fl. 5th/11th century, a courtier and man of letters under the Ghaznavids and Saljuqs; himself a poet, he patronized poetry generously.

• ANjOMAN-E OKOWWAT

  ʿA. Anwār and EIr

  (or OḴŪWAT) “The Society of Brotherhood,” a non-political Sufi-type society officially founded on 15 Šabʿān 1317/21 December 1899 by Mīrzā ʿAlī Khan Ẓahīr-al-dawla to promote the ideals of equity and brotherhood in Iran.

• BAḴTĪĀR-NĀMA

  W. L. Hanaway, Jr.

  an example of early New Persian prose fiction in the form of a frame story and nine included tales, the earliest version of which seems to be from the late 12th-early 13th centuries.

• FATḤ-NĀMA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Arabic-Persian term used to denote proclamations and letters announcing victories in battle or the successful conclusion of military campaigns.

• CHRISTIE, CHARLES

  Kamran Ekbal

  , Captain (d. 1812), of the Bombay Regiment, an Anglo-Indian officer under the command of Sir John Malcolm.

• FIRUZ, MARYAM

  Maziar Behrooz

  political activist, feminist activist, and author.

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• EBN AL-JEʿĀBĪ, ABŪ BAKR MOḤAMMAD

  Wilferd Madelung

  b. ʿOmar Tamīmī Ḥāfeẓ (b. Baghdad 1 or 2 April 897, d. Baghdad 7 July 966), traditionist with Shiʿite leanings.

• SHIRAZ i. HISTORY TO 1940

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

   The city of Shiraz has been the capital of the province of Fārs since the Islamic conquest, succeeding Eṣṭaḵr (q.v.) of the Sasanian period and Persepolis (q.v.) of the Achaemenid days.

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• ḤAMD-ALLĀH MOSTAWFI

  Charles Melville

  historian and geographer of the Il-khanid period (1281-1344), author of Tāriḵ-e gozida, Ẓafar-nāma, and Nozhat al-qolub.

• JERUSALEM AND IRAN

  Hagith Sivan

  Twice Jerusalem came under Persian rule, the first time in the sixth century BCE, the second during the westward expansion of the Sasanian state in the early seventh century CE.

• ĀḴŪND

  H. Algar

  (or ĀḴᵛOND), a word of uncertain etymology with the general meaning of religious scholar. Various Persian origins have been proposed for the word.

• ATĀBAKĀN-E ĀḎARBĀYJĀN

  K. A. Luther

  an influential family of military slave origin, also called Ildegozids, ruled parts of Arrān and Azerbaijan from about 530/1135-36 to 622/1225.

• BOḴĀRĀ-YE ŠARĪF

  Michael Zand

  “Boḵārā the noble,” the first Central Asian newspaper published in Persian, 1912 to 1913.

• FACULTIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEHRAN i. Faculty of Agriculture

  MOḤAMMAD-ḤASAN MAHDAWĪ ARDABĪLĪ

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DASTŪR-E DABĪRĪ

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  comprehensive manual of letter writing by Moḥammad Meyhanī, consisting of an introduction (dībāča) and two chapters (qeṣm; comp. December 1189-January 1190).

• ETIQUETTE

  Nancy H. Dupree

  defined as the observance of conventional decorum particularly among the elite, is itself part of the wider topic of adab.

• KIMIĀ

  Pierre Lory

  “Alchemy.” Externally, the purpose of alchemy was the conversion of base metals like lead into silver or gold by means of long and complicated operations leading to the production of a mysterious substance, the ‘philosopher’s stone,’ able to operate the transmutation. 

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN BALBAN

  Cross-Reference

  See DELHI SULTANATE.

• ABU’L-FAYŻ KAMĀL-AL-DĪN SERHENDĪ

  J. G. J. ter Harr

  author of Rawżat al-qayyūmīya, a still unpublished taḏkera of the Naqšbandīya-Moǰaddedīya order in India. 

• ANŪŠERVĀN KĀŠĀNĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  , ABŪ NAṢR ŠARAF-AL-DĪN, high official who served the Great Saljuq sultans and the ʿAbbasid caliph during the first half of the 6th/12th century.

• BALŪHAR O BŪDĀSAF

  cross-reference

  See BARLAAM AND IOSAPH.

• FEDĀʾĪĀN-E ḴALQ

  Cross-Reference

  See COMMUNISM iii.

• CISSIANS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  a name for the Susians, the Elamite inhabitants of Susiana.

• XERXES

  Multiple Authors

  name of two Achaemenid rulers and of some later princes.

• EBN NOṢRAT, AMIR BAHĀʾ-AL- DĪN BARANDAQ ḴOJANDĪ

  Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā

  (b. 1356; d. ca. 1433), Timurid poet.

• PAYĀM-E MAŠREQ

  David Matthews

  Title of a collection of Persian verse by Muhammad Iqbal.

• HAOMA ii. THE RITUALS

  Mary Boyce

  Haoma yields the essential ingredient for the parahaoma, the consecrated liquid prepared during the main act of worship, the Yasna, and its extensions, the Visperad and Vendidad.

• JORDAN, SAMUEL MARTIN

  Michael Zirinsky

  (known in Iran as Dr. Jordan; 1871-1952), teacher, Presbyterian minister, missionary, founder and president of the American College of Tehran (later Alborz College).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀL-E ŠANSAB

  Cross-Reference

  See GHURIDS.

• ATSÏZ B. ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN ATSÏZ.

• BONYĀD-E ŠĀH-NĀMA-YE FERDOWSĪ

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  a research institute, 1971-78,  intended for preparation of a new critical edition of the Šāh-nāma.

• DAWLATĀBĀDĪ, SAYYED YAḤYĀ

  Abbas Amanat

  (b. Dawlatābād. near Isfahan, 8 January 1863, d. Tehran, 26 October 1939), celebrated educator, political activist, and memoirist of the constitutional and postconstitutional periods.

• EVOLUTION

  based on a longer article by ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn ZarrĪnkūb

  (takāmol, taḥawwol), a family of ideas embodying the belief that the physical universe and living organisms have developed in a process of continuous change from a lower, simpler to a higher, more complex state.

• MARTYRS, CHRISTIAN

  Christelle Jullien

  in the Iranian lands, as related in the surviving corpus of Persian Christian Acts.

• GISU-DARĀZ

  Richard M. Eaton

  or Gēsu-darāz (b. Delhi, 1321; d. Gulbarga, 1422), the popular title of Sayyed MOḤAMMAD b. Yusof Ḥosayni, the most important transmitter of Sufi traditions from North India to the Deccan plateau.

• INDRA

  W. W. Malandra

  the name of a minor demon (daēwa) in the Avesta, In sharp contrast to the Indra of the Ṛgveda [RV], the most celebrated god (devá) of the Vedic pantheon.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN ŠAMSĀBĀDĪ

  H. Algar

  (1326-96/1908-76), an influential moǰtahed of Isfahan who was murdered on 7 April 1976 under mysterious circumstances.

• ĀQĀ MĪRAK

  P. P. Soucek

  prominent painter of the 10th/16th century in the workshop of the Safavid Shah Ṭahmāsp (r. 930-84/1524-76).

• BANDAR-E GAZ

  X. De Planhol

  a port on the southern shore of Astarābād Bay in the southeastern Caspian Sea, a few kilometers from a group of nine hamlets known collectively as Gaz. The installation of Russians on the Āšūrāda islands after 1837 made it very important strategically.

• COAL

  Willem M. Floor

  (zoḡāl-e sang). Although Persia and Afghanistan are rich in coal deposits (Harrison, pp. 492-96; Research Group, pp. 58-149; Arens, pp. 126-28), these deposits have only recently come to be exploited.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FLORA

  Multiple Authors

  i. Historical Background. ii. In Persia. iii. In Afghanistan

• EBRĀHĪM B. JARĪR

  Munibur Rahman

  author of a general history called Tārīḵ-e ebrāhīmī or Tārīḵ-e homāyūnī.

• MAḤJUBI, Reżā

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi and EIr

  (1898-1954) composer and violinist, brother of Morteżā.

• ḤASAB O NASAB

  Louise Marlow

  term used in Arabic and New Persian literature to express complementary aspects of the concept of nobility. I

• AḴESTĀN

  Ż. Sajjādī

  a late 12th-century ruler of the Šervānšāh dynasty, patron of the poet Ḵāqānī Šervānī.

• ʿAWĀREF AL-MAʿĀREF

  W. C. Chittick

  a classic work on Sufism by Šehāb-al-dīn Sohravardī (1145-1234)

• BOŠRŪʾĪ, Mollā Moḥammad-Ḥosayn

  Denis M. MacEoin

  Shaikhi ʿālem who became the first convert to Babism, provincial Babi leader in Khorasan, and organizer of Babi resistance in Māzandarān (1814-49).

• COTTON iii. In Afghanistan

  Daniel Balland

• DECORATION

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  Despite progress in identifying or classifying the features of Persian decorative patterns, few scholars have attempted to explain why particular designs were used in specific periods, regions, or circumstances, even though it can be observed that in a given area or epoch the form and character of ornament are often consistent within a particular craft or different media.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FAGERGREN, CONRAD GUSTAF

  Bo Utas

  (b. Stockholm, 1818; d. Shiraz, 1879), Swedish physician in Shiraz, 1848-79.

• SUSA i. EXCAVATIONS

  Hermann Gasche

  The excavations of ancient Susa, whose ruins document more than 5,000 years of settlement, themselves have a long history.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOL-E GĀVZABĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See GĀVZABĀN.

• ABU’L-MAṮAL BOḴĀRĪ

  J. W. Clinton

  (or BOḴĀRĀʾĪ), a poet of the Samanid court.

• ʿARABŠĀHĪ

  Y. Bregel

  a dynasty of Chingisid origin that ruled in Ḵᵛārazm from the beginning of the 10th/16th century.

• BĀQELĀ

  H. Aʿlam

  broad beans, the grains of Vicia faba L. In Iran, this crop is grown rather extensively in the Caspian provinces and, to a lesser extent, in the south and southwest.

• FĪN

  Cross-Reference

  strict and spring near Kāšān. See BĀḠ-E FĪN.

• COMMUNISM

  Multiple Authors

• ḴĀṢṢA

  Willem Floor

  an Arabic term that in the early Muslim period as well as later denoted people and things that were “special, elite, private” as against those that were “public, common, general” (ʿāmma; Morony, p. 258; see CLASS SYSTEM iv).

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• ECBATANA

  Stuart C. Brown

  present-day Hamadān, capital of the Median empire, summer capital of the Achaemenids, and satrapal seat of the province of Media from Achaemenid to Sasanian times.

• ZĀDSPRAM

  Philippe Gignoux

  a 9th-century Zoroastrian scholar and author. He was one of the four sons of Gušn-Jam (or Juwānjam, according to Boyce and Cereti).

• HAŠTRUDI, MOḤSEN

  A. Shadi Tahvildar-Zadeh and Fariborz Majidi

  or Hachtroudi (1907-1976), contemporary Iranian mathematician and popular lecturer.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KABIR-KUH

  Majdodin Keyvani

  one of the long ranges of the Zagros mountains, lying between Iran’s two western provinces of Loristan and Ilām.

• ALEXANDER OF LYCOPOLIS

  G. Widengren

  apparently a Neoplatonic philosopher living in Egypt about 300 CE.

• ĀYATĪ, ʿABD-AL-ḤOSAYN

  Ī. Afšār

  (b. 1288/1871; d. 1332 Š./1953), son of Mollā Moḥammad-Taqī Āḵūnd Taftī, Bahāʾi missionary, journalist, author, and teacher.

• BREAD

  Hélène Desmet-Grégoire

  Persian nān. In modern Iran bread is the dietary staple food for the population and accounts, on the average, for 70 percent of the daily caloric intake.

• MONKEY

  Cross-Reference

  See BŪZĪNA.

• DéLéGATIONS ARCHéOLOGIQUES FRANçAISES

  Francine Tissot

  bodies established by the French government to conduct archeological investigations in Persia and Afghanistan respectively.

• PHILOSOPHY

  Cross-Reference

  see under FALSAFA.

• KARAFTO CAVES

  Hubertus von Gall

  an ensemble of artificially cut rock chambers dated to the 4th or 3rd century BCE, in Kordestān Province, 20 km west of Takab. The site is of considerable importance because of its Greek inscription, one of the very few examples preserved in situ in Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLESTĀN-E SAʿDI

  Franklin Lewis

  probably the single most influential work of prose in the Persian tradition, completed in 1258 by Mošarref-al-Din Moṣleḥ, known as Shaikh Saʿdi of Shiraz.

• ABU’L-QĀSEM MOḤAMMAD ASLAM

  S. Moinul Haq

  (pen name MONʿEMĪ), 18th-century historian of Kashmir.

• AVERY, PETER

  David Blow

  (1923-2008), British scholar of Persian literature and history.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BARD-E BOT

  Cross-Reference

  See ELYMAIS.

• COPPER i. In Islamic Persia

  James W. Allan and Willem Floor

  the metallic element Cu.

• FORESTS AND FORESTRY i. In Persia

  Eckart Ehlers

  Less than 2 percent of Persia is covered by forests, while another 8 to 9 percent may be regarded as depleted former forest areas. Altogether, 150-160,000 km² are, or have been, densely forested areas.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAZĀRA iii. Ethnography and social organization

  Alessandro Monsutti

  It would be misleading to present a fixed and definitive image of the main Hazāra tribes, as the affiliations are changing over time and the designations reflect the political situation.

• ĀB-GŪŠT

  EIr and N. Ramazani

  “Meat juice,” a popular Persian meat-based soup or stew, consisting of lamb, some legume, and herb and seasoning.

• ʿALĪ B. ʿOBAYDALLĀH ṢĀDEQ

  C. E. Bosworth

  , ABU’L ḤASAN (d. ca. 1040), Ghaznavid military commander under Sultan Masʿūd I.

• ĀZĀDĪSTĀN

  N. Parvīn

  the title of a Persian educational magazine which came out at Tabrīz in Jawzā, 1299/June-August, 1920.

• BUKHARA

  Multiple Authors

  i. In pre-Islamic times. ii. From the Arab invasions to the Mongols. iii. After the Mongol invasion. iv. The khanate of Bukhara and Khorasan. v. Archeology and monuments. vi. The Bukharan school of miniature painting. vii. Bukharan Jews.

• WAKIL-al-RAʿĀYĀ, Ḥāji Shaikh Taqi Irāni

  John R. Perry

  (1868-1939), a prominent merchant and the Majles deputy of Hamadān, who, in October 1906, was the first provincial deputy to take his place in the First Majles (parliament) to be established after the Constitutional Revolution.

• DERĀZ-DAST

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  having long hands.

• GILĀN

  Multiple Authors

  or Ḡelān; province at the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea. 

• GOMBROON WARES

  Cross-Reference

  See CERAMICS; ČĪNĪ.

• IRAN-NAMEH

  Vahe Boyajian

  journal of Oriental studies, founded in Yerevan, Armenia, in May 1993 as a scholarly monthly publication in the Armenian language.

• ABŪ ṬĀHER B. MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See ATĀBAKĀN-E LORESTĀN.

• ARDUMANIŠ

  P. Lecoq

  a Persian, son of Vahauka.

• BARNAVĪ, ʿALĀ-AL-DĪN ČEŠTĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ČEŠTĪYA.

• ARCHITECTURE ii. Parthian Period

  E. J. Keall

• COX, PERCY ZACHARIAH

  Floreeda Safiri

  , Sir (b. Herongate, near Brentwood, Essex, England, 20 November 1864, d. Bedford, England, 20 February 1937), officer of the political service in the British Indian government who held several diplomatic posts in the Persian Gulf re­gion in 1893-1923 and played a leading role in nego­tiating the Anglo-Persian Agreement of 1919.

• EJĀZA

  Devin J. Stewart

  "lit. permission, license, authorization"; a term describing a variety of academic certificates ranging in length from a few lines to many fascicles.

• ĀHI, MAJID

  Bāqer ʿĀqeli

  (b. Tehran, 1265 Š./1886; d. 22 Šahrivar 1325 Š./12 September 1946), judge, governor of Fārs, minister of justice, and ambassador to the Soviet Union.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤEFẒ AL-ṢEḤḤA

  Nasseredin Parvin

  the first Iranian medical journal, published as a  monthly during 1906.

• ʿABBĀS (III)

  R. M. Savory

  Son of Shah Ṭahmāsp II, roi fainéant of the Safavid dynasty (1732-40).

• ʿALĪ-MOḤAMMAD KHAN BAHĀDOR

  Hameed ud-Din

  Historian of the Mughals and author of Merʾāt-e Aḥmadī (ca. 1111/1700-1177/1763).

• ĀŽĪR

  N. Parvīn

  “Alarm bell,” a radical leftist Persian newspaper, printed at Tehran, May 1943 to June, 1945.

• BYZANTINE-IRANIAN RELATIONS

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  From the middle of the 1st century B.C. the Middle East was dominated by the political rivalries of the empires of Rome and Iran.  

• DEZFŪL

  Massoud Kheirabadi, Colin MacKinnon

  or Dez-pol, lit. "fortress bridge"; šahrestān (subprovincial administrative unit) and city in northern Ḵūzestān province.

• QODDUS

  Nosrat Mohammad-Hosseini

  (1822-1849), spiritual title of Moḥammad-ʿAli Bārforuši, a prominent Bābi figure.

• GORGĀN vi. History From The Rise Of Islam To The Beginning Of The Safavid Period

  C. Edmund Bosworth

• ISFAHAN

  Multiple Authors

  ancient province and old city in central Iran. Isfahan city has served as one of the most important urban centers on the Iranian Plateau since ancient times.

• ĀBYĀR

  E. Ehlers

  Title of the person given official charge of the irrigation of ābī “irrigated” lands.

• ARIYĀRAMNA

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  Old Persian proper name.

• BASKERVILLE, HOWARD C.

  K. Ekbal

  a teacher at the American mission in Tabrīz, killed 19 April 1909 during the siege of Tabrīz by royalist troops.

• AVICENNA vii. Practical Sciences

  M. Mahdi

• CUNEIFORM SCRIPT

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  The term “cuneiform” script in its broader sense includes that in which Old Persian was written, a simplified version invented in the 6th century B.C.E. It was the official script adopted by the Achaemenid kings (from Darius I to Artaxerxes III) for writing their mother tongue.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ELGOOD, CYRIL LLOYD

  F. R. C. Bagley

  (1893-1970), British historian of medicine in Persia.

• BAYĀNI, JĀR-ALLĀH-ZĀDA

  Tahsin Yazici

  , Shaikh Moṣtafā (d. 1597), a Turkish poet who composed on the ḡazals of Hāfeẓ.

• FREEMASONRY iii. In the Pahlavi Period

  EIr

  Freemasonry in the Pahlavi era underwent three distinct phases: (1) dormancy, from 1925-1950 under Reżā Shah and for the decade following his abdication in 1941; (2) revival, and the creation of the Lodge Pahlavi; (3) burgeoning, in the period of 1955-78, when dozens of regular lodges were chartered.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HENDUŠĀH B. SANJAR

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  B. ʿABD-ALLAH SAḤEBI KIRANI,  author of a Persian history  Tajāreb al-salaf (fl. first half of the 8th/14th century).

• ʿABD-AL-BARĪ

  F. Robinson

  early 20th century Indian scholar and pīr of the Ferangī Maḥal family.

• ʿALLĀF

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-HOḎAYL.

• BĀBĀ KUHI

  M. Kasheff

  popular name of Shaikh Abū ʿAbdallāh Moḥammad b. ʿAbdallāh b. ʿObaydallāh Bākūya Šīrāzī, Sufi of the 10th-11th centuries.

• ČAHĀRBĀḠ-E EṢFAHĀN

  Roger M. Savory

  the name of a broad avenue which was a key feature of the city of Isfahan as replanned by Shah ʿAbbās I after he had designated the city the new capital of the Safavid state in 1006/1597-98.

• KALLAJUŠ

  Etrat Elahi & EIr.

  an old Iranian dish, also pronounced kālajuš, kālājuš, kaljuš in different parts of Iran.

• DINAR

  Philippe Gignoux, Michael Bates

  a gold coin, in pre-Islamic times struck mainly for purposes of prestige. In Arabic of the classical Islamic period, the word dīnār had the double sense of a gold coin and of a monetary unit which might not be precisely embodied by actual coins.

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• KONDORI, MOḤAMMED B. MANṢUR

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (b. ca. 1024, d. 1064), vizier to Ṭoḡrel Beg (r. 1040-63), the first sultan of the Great Saljuqs, and, briefly, to Ṭoḡrel’s successor Alp Arslān (r. 1063-72).

• GOWHAR-E MORĀD (2)

  Cross-Reference

  pen name of the 20th-century author Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Sāʿedi. See SA'EDI, GHOLAM-HOSAYN.

• ʿADAS

  A. Parsa and N. Ramazani, A. Parsa

  "lentils."

• ARSITES

  A. SH. Shahbazi

  Greek rendering of an Old Persian name.

• BAYATỊ, GAPPO

  F. Thordarson

  (Ger.: Georg-Gappo Baiew; 1869-1939), Ossetic man of letters.

• BALUCHISTAN iii. Baluchi Language and Literature

  J. Elfenbein

  Baluchi (Balōčī), the language of the Baluch (Balōč), is a member of the Western Iranian group of languages, bearing affinities to both main representatives of Western Middle Iranian: Middle Persian and Parthian; but it  differs from both of these languages in important respects.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DABĪR-E AʿẒAM

  Cross-Reference

  See BAHRAMĪ, FARAJ-ALLĀH.

• EMĀM-E JOMʿA

  Hamid Algar

  leader of the congregational prayer performed at midday on Fridays.

• ʿABD-AL-KARĪM GAZĪ

  H. Algar

  A respected religious leader of Isfahan (1856-1921).

• AMA

  M. Boyce

  a minor Zoroastrian divinity, the hypostasis of strength, who appears in the Avestan hymn to Vərəθraγna (Yt. 14).

• BABR

  P. Joslin

  “tiger.” The little evidence suggests only tentative differences between the Caspian tiger (Panthera tigris virgata) and the Indian tiger (P. t. tigris) or the Siberian tiger (P. t. altaica).

• CALLIGRAPHY

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  (ḵaṭṭāṭī, ḵᵛošnevīsī), the writing system in use in Persia since early Islamic times, which grew out of the Arabic alphabet. Comparison of some of the scripts that developed on Persian ground, particularly Persian-style Kufic, with the Pahlavi and Avestan scripts reveals a number of similarities between them.

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• SHIʿITE DOCTRINE iii. Imamite-Sunnite Relations since the Late 19th Century

  Rainer Brunner

  Since the 20th century, sectarian relations have reflected a growing number of attempts to reach, at least to some degree, an understanding and a rapprochement of each other’s views (taqrib, rarely taqārob), although Sunnites and Shiʿites have confronted each other in civil war and polemical writings since the 7th century.

• DĪVĀNA NAQQĀŠ

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  15th-century painter whose work is known primarily from single-page paintings preserved in the Topkapı Sarayı library, Istanbul.

• SAMAK-E ʿAYYĀR

  Marina Gaillard

  a prose narrative originating in the milieu of professional storytellers, transmitted orally and written down around the 12th century.

• ISMAʿILISM xiv. ISMAʿILISM IN GINĀN LITERATURE

  Ali Sultaan Ali Asani

  Nezāri Ismaʿili texts from the Indian Subcontinent exhibit an adaptive response to the region’s complex religious, literary, and cultural environment.

• ĀDUR GUŠNASP

  M. Boyce

  an Ātaš Bahrām, that is, a Zoroastrian sacred fire of the highest grade, held to be one of the three great fires of ancient Iran, existing since creation.

• ARTABĒ

  M. A. Dandamayev

  the Greek form of a Median and Old Persian measure of volume.

• BĀZĀR-E WAKĪL

  Karāmat-Allāh Afsar

  an architectural monument of Shiraz from the reign of Karīm Khan Zand (Wakīl, r. 1750-79) and still an important center of business.

• BUKHARA v. Archeology and Monuments

  G. A. Pugachenkova and E. V. Rtveladze

  The earliest settlement levels at Bukhara can be dated to the 5th-2nd centuries B.C. During this period Bukhara consisted of a citadel on a hill and a large, sprawling settlement.

• DAF(F) AND DAYERA

  Jean During, Veronica Doubleday

  terms applied to types of frame drum common in both the art music and popular traditions of Persia. Such drums have long been known throughout Asia in various forms and under different names.  The term dāyera originally referred to the flat, circular drums of pre-­Islamic Arabia.

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• ʿENĀYAT-ALLĀH

  Sheila S. Blair

  Timurid builder or tile maker of the 15th century.

• NĒZAK

  Frantz Grenet

  dynastic name appearing on a long series of silver coins issued by a local dynasty in Kāpisā (in the region of Kabul; Sk. Kāpiśī) ca. late 7th century C.E.

• GÄDIATỊ (SEḰAYỊ FỊRT) COMAQ

  Fridrik Thordarson

  (1883-1931), Ossetic writer.

• HESYCHIUS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (Gk. Hēsýchios), Greek lexicographer from Alexandria, whose lexicon records a number of Iranian words (6th or possibly 5th century CE).

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤĪM ʿANBARĪN-QALAM

  M. A. Chaghatai

  Calligrapher of India (fl. late 10th-11th centuries).

• ʿAMĪD-AL-DĪN SANĀMĪ

  M. U. Memon

  Persian poet of India, panegyrist of Nāṣer-al-dīn Maḥmūd (r. 644-64/1246-66) and perhaps of Ḡīāṯ-al-dīn Balban (7th/13th century).

• BĀDGĪR

  S. Roaf

  (wind-tower), literally “wind catcher,” a traditional structure used for passive air-conditioning of buildings. Yazd is known as šahr-e bādgīrhā (the city of wind catchers) and is renowned for the number and variety of them, some of which date from the Timurid period

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• XERXES i. The Name

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  the common Greek (Xérxēs) and Latin form (Xerxes, Xerses) of the Achaemenid throne-name which in Old Persian is spelled x-š-y-a-r-š-a. 

• KELIDAR

  Mohammad Reza Ghanoonparvar

  (1978-1984), a monumental novel of nearly three thousand pages in five volumes consisting of ten books by Maḥmud Dawlatābādi (b. 1940), the noted novelist.

• DOLOMITAE

  Cross-Reference

  See DEYLAMITES i.

• AMPELIUS, LUCIUS

  Philip Huyse

  author of a short encyclopaedic work Liber memorialis in fifty chapters covering such diverse subjects as cosmography (and astronomy), geography and ethnography, theology and especially history.

• GUBARU

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Babylonian rendering of the Iranian name Gaub(a)ruva, which is best known in the Greek form Gōbryas.

• JABAL-E SERĀJ

  Erwin Grötzbach

  a small town in the province of Parvān in Afghanistan, located at the mouth of the Sālang valley in Kabul Kohestān to the north of the city of Charikar (Čārikār).

• AFŠĀR, AḤMAD SOLṬĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See AḤMAD SOLṬĀN.

• ʿARŪŻĪ, YŪSOF

  Z. Safa

  rhetorician and poet of the 4th/10th century.

• BEH

  Wilhelm Eilers, Hūšang Aʿlam, Nesta Ramazani

  “quince, Cydonia.”  i. The word.  ii. The tree.  iii. Culinary uses of the fruit. Wild quince trees are found in the Caucasus, and the cultivated variety may have originated there.

• CHILDREN i. Childbirth in Zoroastrianism

  Jenny Rose

• DAKANĪ, REŻĀ ʿALĪŠĀH

  Javad Nurbakhsh

  also known as Shah ʿAlī-Reżā (1683-1799), leader (qoṭb, lit., “pole”) in the years 1741-99 of the Neʿmat-­Allāhī Sufi order in Hyderabad (Deccan), India.

• EPIGRAPHY

  Multiple Authors

  the study of inscriptions, particularly their collection, decipherment, interpretation, dating, and classification.

• SAFINE-YE SOLAYMANI

  M. Ismail Marcinkowski

  (“Ship of Solayman”), a Persian travel account of an embassy sent by the Safavid ruler Shah Solayman (r. 1666-94) to Siam in the year 1685.

• GAN(N)ĀG MĒNŪG

  Cross-Reference

  See AHRIMAN.

• HOFFMANN, KARL

  Johanna Narten

  (1915-1996), German Indo-Europeanist and Indo-Iranist. From the 1960s on, he particularly devoted his attention to the history of the Avesta tradition, above all to the Avestan script.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABD-AL-ṢAMAD ḤAMADĀNĪ

  M. Bayat

  Faqīh, author, and well-known Sufi master of the Neʿmatallāhī order (d. 1216/1801).

• AMĪR

  C. E. Bosworth

  “commander, governor, prince” in Arabic. The term seems to be basically Islamic; although it does not occur in the Koran, we do find there the related concept of the “holders of authority.”

• BĀḠ-E FĪN

  ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  garden southwest of the city of Kāšān, where subterranean waters from the Dandāna and Haft Kotal mountains emerge to form the Fīn springs.

• FARĀHĀNĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ṢĀDEQ

  Cross-Reference

  See ADĪB-AL-MAMĀLEK FARĀHĀNĪ.

• CARPETS xv. Caucasian Carpets

  Richard E. Wright

  The oldest surviving rugs produced in the Caucasus may be a group with representations of dragons and phoenixes in combat. There is, however, no evidence to permit attribution to the Caucasus. A group of carpets from the 18th century does include patterns and motifs that persisted in subsequent productions; they are predominantly long rugs with bold repeat patterns and have been found primarily in mosques in Turkey.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ČERĀḠHĀ RĀ MAN ḴĀMUŠ MIKONAM

  Elham Gheytanchi

  (I turn off the lights, Tehran, 2001), the first and most acclaimed novel by Zoya Pirzad (Zoyā Pirzād, b. Abadan, 1952), and the second to be penned by an Iranian-Armenian writer, after Ālice Ārezumāniān’s Hama az yek (All from one,Tehran, 1963).

• DOZDĀB

  Cross-Reference

  See ZĀHEDĀN.

• LAYARD, Austen Henry

  John Curtis

  (1817-1894), French archeologist and politician. Layard is chiefly known for his excavations in northern Iraq between 1845 and 1851.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GUTSCHMID, HERMANN ALFRED FREIHERR VON

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  (b. Loschwitz near Dresden, 1831; d. Tübingen, 1887), classical scholar and ancient historian with a special interest in the Ancient Near East.

• JAHĀNGOŠĀ-YE NĀDERI

  Ernest Tucker

  , TĀRIḴ-E (or Tāriḵ-e nāderi), one of the most important chronicles of the reign of Nāder Shah Afšār (r. 1736-47) by his court secretary, Mirzā Moḥammad-Mahdi Khan EEstrābādi/Astarābādi.

• ĀḠKAND

  R. Schnyder

  a special kind of pottery, so designated because of a village in southeast Azerbaijan of the same name, where most of it was said to have been found in the 1930s. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀṢAFĪ HERAVĪ

  A. ʿA. Rajāʾī

  a minor poet of the Timurid period (d. 923/1517).

• BELL, GERTRUDE Margaret Lowthian

  G. Michael Wickens

  (1868-1926), British traveler, private scholar, archeolo­gist, sometime government servant, and a translator of Ḥāfeẓ.

• CHRISTIANITY viii. Christian Missions in Persia

  Yahya Armajani

• DĀNEŠ-NĀMA-YE ĪRĀN WA ESLĀM

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Encyclopedia of Iran and Islam.

• ʿERĀQ-E ʿAJAM(Ī)

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  lit. “Persian Iraq”; the name given in medieval times to the largely mountainous, western portion of modern Persia.

• MARYAM KHANOM

  Dominic Parviz Brookshaw

  thirty-ninth wife of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah Qajar (r. 1797-1834), mother of Żiāʾ-al-Salṭana and Maḥmud Mirzā.

• GARAMAIOI

  Cross-Reference

  See BĒT GARMĒ.

• CORN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḎORRAT.

• AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS

  M. L. Chaumont

  historian who provides important information on the Sasanians (b. ca. 330-35).

• BAHĀʾ-AL-DAWLA, ABŪ NAṢR FĪRŪZ

  cross-reference

  See BUYIDS.

• FARHANG-E ASADĪ

  Cross-reference

  See ASĀDĪ TŪSĪ; LOḠĀT-E FORS.

• CAUCASUS ii. Language contact

  Fridrik Thordarson

• SOGDIANA iii. HISTORY AND ARCHEOLOGY

  É. de La Vaissière

  an Iranian-speaking region in Central Asia (q.v.) that stretches from the rivers Āmu Daryā (q.v.) in the south to the Syr Daryā in the north, with its heart in the valleys of the Zarafšān and the Kaška Daryā.

• ḎŪ QĀR

  Ella Landau-Tasseron

  watering place near Kūfa in Iraq where a battle was fought between Arab tribesmen and Persian forces in the early 7th century.

• ḴAMSA-ye JAMĀLI

  Paola Orsatti

  a suite of five mathnawis, composed in response to the Ḵamsa by Neẓāmi (1141-1209).

• HADITH v. AS INFLUENCED BY IRANIAN IDEAS AND PRACTICES

  Shaul Shaked

  The contact of Arabia with ancient Iran started even before Islam, and there are definite traces of the presence of Iranian religious notions in the Koran.

• JALULĀ

  Klaus Klier

  the site of a major battle between the Sasanian and Muslim forces. This locale is a medium-sized town in the Diāla Province of Iraq, situated on the middle course of the Diāla River.

• AḤMAD-E ʿABD-AL-ṢAMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See AḤMAD ŠĪRĀZĪ.

• ASFEZĀRĪ, ABŪ ḤĀTEM

  D. Pingree

  5th/12th-century astronomer, of whose life almost nothing is known.

• DĀRA, MIRZĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDALLĀH MĪRZĀ DĀRĀ.

• EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA, EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR

  Cross-Reference

  See EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR.

• ḠAZAL ii. CHARACTERISTICS AND CONVENTIONS

  Ehsan Yarshater

  The Persian ḡazal, especially the Hafezian and the post-Hafezian, does not usually follow a sustained narrative, but consists of a number of lines and statements largely independent of each other.

• GAZA

  Cross-Reference

  See GANZAK.

• ḤOSAYN KHAN KAMĀNČAKAŠ

  Ameneh Youssefzadeh

  a famous musician and a master of the kamānča, the chief traditional Persian string instrument played with a bow (d. 1934).

• ʿĀBEDĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a landowner (dehqān) of Transoxania (12th century).

• ANĀMAKA

  R. Schmitt

  name of the tenth month (December-January) of the Old Persian calendar.

• FARĪZANDĪ

  Cross-reference

  See CENTRAL DIALECTS; see also NAṬANZĪ.

• CENTRAL DIALECTS

  Gernot L. Windfuhr

  designation of a number of Iranian dialects spoken in the center of Persia, roughly between Hamadān, Isfahan, Yazd, and Tehran, that is, the area of ancient Media Major, which constitute the core of the western Iranian dialects.

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• KARRĀMIYA

  Aron Zysow

  he adherents to a theological and legal movement with a broad following in Khorasan and Afghanistan from the 10th to the 13th centuries, with its intellectual center in Nishapur (Nišāpur). 

• DŪZAḴ

  Mansour Shaki

  hell.

• PHRAORTES

  I. Medvedskaya

  the second king of the Median dynasty. All information about him is from Herodotus.

• HAFTŌRANG

  Antonio Panaino

  the circumpolar constellation Ursa Major (UMa),  known in Young Avestan literature under the appellative of haptōiriṇga- (only pl. with star- “star”).

• KUKADARU, JAMSHEDJI SORAB

  Michael Stausberg and Ramiyar P. Karanjia

  (1831-1900), Parsi Zoroastrian priest. He was renowned for his spiritual powers, in particular with respect to healing and divination.

• AḤRĀR, ḴᵛĀJA ʿOBAYDALLĀH

  J. M. Rogers

  (806-96/1404-90), influential Naqšbandī of Transoxania.

• ĀSŌRISTĀN

  G. Widengren

  name of the Sasanian province of Babylonia.

• BICKERMAN, ELIAS JOSEPH

  Muhammed A. Dandamayev

  (1897-1981), a leading scholar of Greco-Roman history and the Hellenistic world, whose research interests extended to Judaism and some aspects of Iranian history.

• CORRESPONDENCE ii. In Islamic Persia

  Fatḥ-Allāh Mojtabāʾī

• DARĪ IN AFGHANISTAN

  Cross-Reference

  See AFGHANISTAN v. LANGUAGES. 

• ESKANDAR B. JĀNĪ BEG

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-ALLĀH KHAN b. ESKANDAR.

• ŠARḤ-e TAʿARROF

  Nasrollah Pourjavady

  an extensive commentary in Persian on Abu Bakr Moḥammad Kalābāḏi’s Sufi manual Ketāb al-Taʿarrof le-maḏhab ahl al-taṣawwuf.

• GELĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See CARPETS.

• HUMOR

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  In the present article the focus will be on description and classification of the types of humor that can be found in Persian literary sources, mainly belonging to the classical period.

• šBRĪZĀN

  255, 255, 255

  See TĪRAGĀN.

• ANDREAS, FRIEDRICH CARL

  W. Lentz, D. N. MacKenzie, B. Schlerath

  German Iranologist (1846-1930).

• BAHRĀMĪ, FARAJ-ALLĀH

  M. Amānat

  , DABĪR AʿẒAM (1878/79?-1951), Reżā Shah’s personal secretary and an early supporter who played a key role in Reżā Shah’s control of absolute power.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION iv. The aftermath

  Mansoureh Ettehadieh

• CHARES of MITYLENE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Greek historiographer, who participated in Alexander’s expedition and wrote “Stories about Alexander” (Perì Aléxandron historíai), of which fragments remain.

• LEXICOGRAPHY

  John R. Perry

  the compiling of dictionaries, glossaries, and vocabularies of a language or a particular lexical corpus.

• EBN AL-AṮĪR, ʿEZZ-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ

  D. S. Richards

  b. Moḥammad Jazarī (b. Jazīrat Ebn ʿOmar [modern Cizre, in eastern Turkey] 13 May 1160; d. Mosul, June 1233), major Islamic historian and important source for the history of Persia and adjacent areas from the Samanids to the first Mongol invasion.

• DARKE, Hubert Seymour Garland

  John Perry

  (b. London, 8 May 1919, d. Cambridge, 6 February 1998), teacher and scholar of Persian, Lecturer in Persian at Cambridge University ‘s Faculty of Oriental Studies from 1961 to 1982.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤAKAMI

  Mohammad-Mahdi Khalaji

  , Mirzā ʿALI-AKBAR (ca.1848-1925-6), philosopher and theosopher, known in his lifetime as Ḥakim but later referred to as Ḥakami.

• JĀRUDIYA

  cross-reference

  See ZAIDIS.

• ĀJĪL

  M. Kasheff

  an assortment of nuts, roasted chickpeas and seeds such as watermelon, pumpkin, and pear, and raisins and other dried fruits.

• ASSYRIANS IN IRAN

  R. Macuch, A. Ishaya

  Assyrians (Āšūrīs) is the term for the modern, East Syrian Christian communities in Iran. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BIRD, ISABELLA L

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  also known under her married surname of Bishop (1831-1904), British traveler in western Iran and Kurdistan during the late Victorian period.

• DARVĪŠREŻAÚ

  Kathryn Babayan

  (d. 1040/1631), a qezelbāš functionary who claimed to be the awaited Mahdī.

• ESMĀʿĪL III ṢAFAWĪ

  John R. Perry

  , ABŪ TORĀB, Safavid shadow-king, (r. 1750-73), the third Safavid dynast of that name.

• MARD-E ĀZĀD

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a daily newspaper published in Tehran  to support Reżā Khan (the future Reza Shah) in his bid for power, 1923.

• ʿID-E NIMA-YE ŠAʿBĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See Islam In Iran vii.

• ABŪ BAKR B. SAʿD

  B. Spuler

  (623-58/1226-60), member of the Salghurid dynasty, atabeg of Fārs.

• ANJOMAN-E ESMĀʿĪLI

  F. Daftary

  (Ismaʿili Society), a research institution founded on 16 February 1946 in Bombay, India, under the patronage of the third Aqa Khan.

• BAḴTĪĀRĪ (2)

  cross-reference

  in music, a gūša. See HOMĀYŪN.

• FATḤ-ʿALĪ KHAN QĀJĀR

  ʿABD-AL-ḤOSAYN NAVĀʾĪ

  chief of the Ašāqa-bāš division of the Qajar tribes at Astarābād at the time of the demise of the Safavid dynasty.

• CHORASMIA

  Multiple Authors

  region on the lower reaches of the Oxus (Amu Darya) in western Central Asia.

• GIFT GIVING

  Multiple Authors

  i. Introduction, ii. In Pre-Islamic Persia, iii. In the Medieval Period, iv. In the Safavid Period, v. In the Qajar Period.

• EBN FŪRAK

  EBN FŪRAK. See Supplement.

• ŠĀH-NĀMA TRANSLATIONS xvi. INTO SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES

  Claus V. Pedersen

  among the works of classical Persian literature, Ferdowsi’s Šāh-nāma is the one best known in the Scandinavian countries.

• HAMĀRAKARA

  Muhammad A.Dandamayev

  (*hmāra-kara-, lit. “account-maker”), “bookkeeper,” an Old Iranian title attested in various sources of Achaemenid and later times.

• JENJĀN

  Daniel T. Potts

  coll. Jenjun, “Jinjun,” village in western Fārs, small archeological site of the Achaemenid period. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḴTĀJĪ

  D. O. Morgan

  a term, Mongolian in origin, derived from aḵtā “gelding” and meaning “groom” or, more specifically in the context of the court, “master of the horse.”

• ASWĀR

  P. O. Skjærvø

  (Middle Persian) “horseman.” In Old Persian asabāra designated the horseman as opposed to the foot-soldier.

• BOHRĀS

  cross-reference

   See ISMAʿILISM xvi. MODERN ISMAʿILI COMMUNITIES.

• FĀRĀBĪ ii. Logic

  Deborah L. Black

• DAŠTĪ

  Jean During

  one of the twelve modal systems in the repertoire of traditional music (radīf); it is an āvāz, or auxiliary modal system, derived from or attached to the dastgāh Šūr.

• ESTEQLĀL-e ĪRĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  an evening daily published in Tehran from 31 May 1910-17 August 1911; it was the organ of the small Unity and Progress party (Ḥezb-e ettefāq o taraqqī) and was published by the party’s leader, the well-known constitutionalist Zayn-al-ʿĀbedīn Mostaʿān-al-Molk

• CONVERSION i. Of Iranians to the Zoroastrian faith

  Gherardo Gnoli

• GĪĀʾĪ, ḤAYDAR

  Mina Marefat

  or Heydar Ghiaï-Chamlou (b. Tehran, 1922; d. Cap d’Antibe, 1985), an influential pioneer of modern architecture in Persia and professor at the University of Tehran. Stylistically, his work was thoroughly “modern,” introducing aspects of the contemporary and International Style architecture of Europe and using new technology and materials such as aluminum.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU’L-FATḤ KHAN BAḴTĪĀRĪ

  J. R. Perry

  a chieftain of the Haft Lang branch of the Baḵtīārī and paramount chief (īlḵānī) of the tribe.

• ANTIOCHUS

  J. Sievers

  name of thirteen kings of the Seleucid dynasty, several of whom were active in Iran.

• BALḴĪ, ABŪ ʿALĪ ABD-ALLĀH

  H. Schützinger

  B. MOḤAMMAD B. ʿALĪ (d. 907-08), a traditionist (moḥaddeṯ) and author.

• FAŻLĪ NAMANGĀNĪ, ʿABD-AL-KARĪM

  Michael Zand

  (d. after 1822), Central Asian bilingual poet (Persian and Chaghatay), taḏkera compiler, and historian.

• ČINWAD PUHL

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  traditionally thought to mean “the bridge of the separator” but recently shown to be “the bridge of the accumulator/collector,” the name of a bridge that, according to a Mazdayasnian/Zoroastrian eschatological myth, leads from this world to the next and must be crossed by the souls of the departed.

• ARABIA

  M. Dandamayev, Daniel T. Potts

  i. The Achaemenid province Arabāya. ii. The Sasanians and Arabia.

• EBN MOṬARREF

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-WAZĪR MARVAZĪ.

• MIR FENDERESKI

  Sajjad H. Rizvi

  , Sayyed Amir Abu’l-Qāsem b. Mirzā Beg b. Ṣadr-al-Din Moḥammad Ḥosayni Astarābādi, renowned philosopher and mystic during the Safavid revitalization of philosophy (b. 1562-63,  d. 1640).

• HĀNSAVI

  S. H. Qasemi

  , Shaikh (b. 1184-5, d. i1260-61), mystic, poet, and author.

• JONDIŠĀBUR

  cross-reference

  See GONDĒŠĀPUR.

• ĀL-E MAʾMŪN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a short-lived dynasty of Iranian rulers in Ḵᵛārazm, 385-408/995-1017.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀΘRAVAN-

  M. Boyce

  (Avestan) “priest” regularly used to designate the priests as a social “class,” one of the three into which ancient Iranian society was theoretically divided.

• BONĪČA

  Willem Floor

  a tax assessed on a group as a single unit and particularly the base on which the tax was calculated—in Iran: a tax on guilds, an agricultural tax on villages and tribes, and a military tax on villages.

• JADE ii. Pre-Islamic Iranian Jades

  Manuel Keene

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DAʿWAT AL-ESLĀM

  Nassereddin Parvin

  A biweekly Persian journal published in Bombay by Ḥājj Sayyed Moḥammad Dāʿī-al-Eslām from 19 October 1906 until the end of 1909.

• EVIL EYE

  Cross-Reference

  See ČAŠM-ZAḴM.

• KUFTA

  Etrat Elahi

  popular Persian dish usually made of ground lamb or beef, and more recently, ground chicken or turkey in a mixture of herbs, spices, or other ingredients.

• GĪLĀS

  Cross-Reference

  See CHERRY.

• INDO-EUROPEAN TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT

  Michael Rubin

  (IETD), a branch of the British Government of India, based in London, which managed a series of telegraph lines in Iran.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN ĪLČĪ

  H. Javadi

  Persian diplomat, b. 1190/1776 in Šīrāz. 

• AQA BOZORG QĀʾEM-MAQĀM

  cross-reference

  See QĀʾEM-MAQĀM.

• BAND-E TORKESTĀN

  X. De Planhol

  (boundary wall of Turkestan), the mountain range in northwestern Afghanistan which runs in a west-east direction for 200 km between the upper valley of the Morḡāb to the south and the plains of the Āmū Daryā to the north.

• FERŌD

  Cross-Reference

  See FORŪD.

• CLOQUET, LOUIS-ANDRÉ-ERNEST

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  (1818-1855), French anatomist and French minister to the court at Tehran 1846-55, serving as personal physician to Moḥammad Shah (r. 1834-48) and Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qājār (r. 1848-96).

• HOMOSEXUALITY

  Multiple Authors

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. In Zoroastrianism. ii. In Islamic law. iii. In Persian literature. iv. In modern Persia. See Supplement.  

• EBRĀHĪM

  Amnon Netzer

  Abraham, the name of the first patriarch of the Hebrew people.

• GOTTHEIL, RICHARD JAMES HORATIO

  Dagmar Riedel

  (b. Manchester, UK, 1862; d. New York City, 1936), a prolific scholar, an important academic teacher and administrator, as well as an influential public intellectual.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HĀRUN AL-RAŠID

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  , HĀRUN B. MOḤAMMAD B. ʿABD-ALLĀH (d. 809), the fifth caliph of the ʿAbbasid dynasty (r. 786-809), the third son of the caliph al-Mahdi.

• JUBĀRA

  cross-reference

  See ISFAHAN xviii. JEWISH COMMUNITY

• ALA-FIRENG

  Cross-Reference

  See ALĀFRANK.

• AVROMAN

  D. N. MacKenzie

  a mountainous region on the western frontier of Persian Kurdistan.

• BORŪMAND, NŪR-ʿALĪ

  Bruno Nettl

  (1905-1977), one of the foremost authorities on the performance and history of Persian classical music in the 20th century.

• JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ v. And herbal medicine

  Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi

• DE MORGAN, Jacques

  Pierre Amiet

  (b. Huisseau-sur-Cosson, near Blois, 3 June 1857, d. Marseilles, 14 June 1924), French archeologist and prehistorian.

• FABRITIUS, LUDVIG

  Rudi Matthee

  or LODEWYCK (b. Brazil, 1648; died Stockholm, 1729), Swedish envoy to the Safavid court.

• NAQŠ-E ROSTAM

  Hubertus von Gall

  a perpendicular cliff wall in Fārs, about 6 km northwest of Persepolis, a site unusually rich in Achaemenid and Sasanian monuments.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOKARN

  Cross-Reference

  See HAOMA.

• IRAJ

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  the youngest son of Ferēdun and the eponymous hero of the Iranians in their traditional history.

• ABŪ MANṢŪR HERAVĪ

  L. Richter-Bernburg

  (fl. ca. 370-80/980-90), author of the oldest preserved Persian text on materia medica, Ketāb al-abnīa ʿan ḥaqāʾeq al-adwīa.

• ʿARABESTĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḴŪZESTĀN.

• BANŪ OMAYYA

  cross-reference

  See OMMAYADS.

• FIG

  Hušang Aʿlam

  the “fruit” of several species and subspecies of Ficus L. (fam. Moraceae) in the geobotanical area covered by K. H. Rechinger’s Flora Iranica.

• COLUMNS

  Wolfram Kleiss

  one of several kinds of upright, load-bearing architectural members encompassed, along with piers, in the term sotūn. In the Achaemenid palaces at Persepolis and Susa columns, whether plain or fluted, reached a height of 19 m and a diameter up to 1.60 m; they were topped by double-protome capitals, themselves an additional 8 m high.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KASRAVI, AḤMAD iii. AS HISTORIAN

  Alireza Manafzadeh

  At the time when Kasravi began to write history, most historical research in Iran was carried out within the framework of political historiography with a nationalist purpose.

• EBRĀHĪMĪ, ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ.

• TĀRIḴ-E QOM

  Andreas Drechsler

  (The History of Qom), an early local history (comp. 378/988) from medieval Persia by Ḥasan b. Moḥammad Qomi, which has been preserved in an early 9th/15th-century Persian translation.

• ḤASIBI, KĀẒEM

  Bagher Agheli and EIr

  (1906-1990), political figure and university professor. When the oil industry was nationalized in 1951, Ḥasibi, as Deputy Minister of Finance, became a member of the delegation charged with the eviction of the former oil company. He accompanied Dr. Moṣaddeq to the U.N. Security Council and also, as oil adviser, defended Persia at the Hague International Tribunal against the British complaint.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUSTI, FERDINAND (WILHELM JAKOB)

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  German scholar of Oriental, particularly Iranian, studies, comparative philologist, and folklorist (1837-1907).

• ĀLČĪ

  D. O. Morgan

  (“sealer”), a Turkish term (from āl “red seal”) designating an il-khanid chancery official.

• AYĀDĪ-E AMR ALLĀH

  D. M. MacEoin

  “Hands of the Cause of God”, term used in Bahaʾism to designate the highest rank of the appointed religious hierarchy.

• BRĀHMĪ

  Douglas A. Hitch

  Indian script used for a variety of languages in Chinese Turkestan, including Iranian languages. From the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang, China) we have first-millennium documents in Brāhmī script in several Iranian languages.

• YAHYA TEPE

  Cross-Reference

  archeological site in the Soḡun valley, Kerman province, ca. 220 km south of Kerman and 130 km north of the Straits of Hormuz. See TEPE YAHYA.

• ḎEKRĪS

  Cross-Reference

  See BALUCHISTAN i.

• FALĀṬŪRĪ, ʿabd-al-jawād

  Judith Pfeiffer

  (b. Isfahan, 1926; d. Berlin, 30 December 1996), professor of Islamic studies at Cologne University (1974-96).

• TERKEN ḴĀTUN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  title of the wife of the Khwarazmshah Tekiš b. Il-Arslān (r. 1172-1200) and mother of ʿAlāʾ-al-Din Moḥammad (r. 1200-20).

• GOLESTĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the title of two early 20th-century Persian newspapers.

• SPEAR

  Boris A. Litvinsky

• ABU’L-QĀSEM KAʿBĪ

  J. van Ess

  Administrator and intellectual of Persian descent, Hanafite jurist and foremost representative of the Moʿtazela in Khorasan (d. Šaʿbān, 319/February, 931).

• ARBACES

  M. A. Dandamayev

  Greek form of an Old Iranian proper name.

• BARBARO, GIOSAFAT

  A. M. Piemontese

  Venetian merchant, traveler, and diplomat (1413-94), appointed Venetian ambassador to Persia (1473-78); author of a travel account.

• WARŠTMĀNSR NASK

  Cross-Reference

  See SŪDGAR NASK AND WARŠTMĀNSR NASK.

• COOKIES

  Ṣoḡrā Bāzargān

   (kolūča, nān-e kolūča, kolīča) in Persia; in this article the cookies most frequently made in major Persian cities today, both traditional types and those reflecting foreign influence, will be described.

• FORĀT B. EBRĀHĪM

  Meir M. Bar-Asher

  Shiʿite(most probably Imami) Koran commentator and Hadith scholar. The dates of his birth and death are unknown, but the time he flourished can be estimated by the dates of the scholars whom he quoted or who transmitted Hadith on his authority.

• HAZĀR O YAK ŠAB

  cross-reference

  See ALF LAYLA WA LAYLA.

• AB-ANBĀR ii. Construction

  M. Sotūda

• ʿALĪ B. MASʿŪD

  C. E. Bosworth

  [I], BAHĀʾ-AL-DAWLA ABU’L-ḤASAN, Ghaznavid sultan, reigned briefly ca. 1048-49.

• ĀZĀD KHAN AFḠĀN

  J. R. Perry

  (d. 1781), a major contender for supremacy in western Iran after the death of Nāder Shah Afšār (r. 1736-47).

• BŪḎARJOMEHRĪ, Karīm Āqā

  Bāqer ʿĀqelī

  , Major General (sar-laškar) (1886-1951), military officer, mayor of Tehran, and minister of Public Welfare. 

• DEVECSERI, Gábor

  ANDRÁS BODROGLIGETI

  (1917-1971), Hungarian poet, scholar, and translator. 

• DEOBAND

  Barbara Daly Metcalf

  country town northeast of Delhi in what is now the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh, India, where an influential Dār al-ʿolūm was founded by a group of religious scholars in 1867 as an expression of a major religious reform movement partly inspired by British educational models.

• DIAKONOFF, Igor’ Mikhaĭlovich

  Muhammad Dandamayev

  or D’YAKONOV (b. Petrograd, 30 December 1914/12 January 1915; d. St. Petersburg, 2 May 1999), Russian orientalist of international standing, one of the greatest scholars in the field of Ancient Near Eastern studies.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLŠEHRI, SOLAYMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  Sufi and poet in Turkish and Persian. See GÜLŠEHRI.

• IRANIAN IDENTITY iii. MEDIEVAL ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Ahmad Ashraf

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU’L-ŠAYḴ EṢFAHĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  Traditionist and Koran commentator, important principally for his Ṭabaqāt al-moḥaddeṯī (274-369/887-979). See EṢFAHĀNĪ, ABU’L-ŠAYḴ.

• ARDAVĀN

  Cross-Reference

  (ARDAWĀN). See ARTABANUS.

• BARM-e DELAK

  L. Vanden Berghe

  a site with a spring about 10 km southeast of Shiraz, where three panels bearing two Sasanian rock reliefs are carved in the mountain at a height of about 6.5 m above the ground.  

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ARCHEOLOGY iv. Sasanian

  D. Huff

  Archeological field work has played a comparatively smaller part in forming the image of Sasanian history and culture than the large number of preserved monuments, buildings, and rock reliefs, collections of coins and objects of art.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS

  Multiple Authors

• EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA

  Īraj Afšār

  (1839-92), first son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār and maternal grandson of Moḥammad-ʿAlī Mīrzā Dawlatšāh.

• ACKERMAN, PHYLLIS

  Cornelia Montgomery

  (b. Oakland, California, 1893; d. Shiraz, 25 January 1977), author, editor, teacher and translator in the fields of Persian textiles, European tapestries, Chinese bronzes, iconography, and symbolism.

• HEDAYAT, SADEQ iii. HEDĀYAT AND FOLKLORE STUDIES

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ABASKŪN

  C. E. Bosworth

  (ĀBASKŪN), a port of the medieval period on the southwest shore of the Caspian Sea in Gorgān province.

• ALĪ KĀY

  B. Hourcade

  a semi-nomadic Gīlakī-speaking tribe that winters in the foothills of the central Alborz.

• AZILISES

  D. W. MacDowall

  Indo-Scythian king of the dynasty of Azes in the Indus valley about the beginning of the Christian era.  

• BŪTĪMĀR

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  a semilegendary aquatic bird; in Persian literature its lore that can be traced back at least as far as the time of Jāḥeẓ (d. 255/868).

• NURESTÂNI LANGUAGES

  Richard F. Strand

  five languages constituting the Nurestâni (Pers. “Nurestāni,” Engl. “Nuristani”) subgroup of the Indo-Iranian language family.  The approximately 130,000 speakers of these languages inhabit Nurestān Province in northeastern Afghanistan and a few adjacent valleys in Pakistan's Chitral District.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DEŽ-E BAHMAN

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  lit. "fortress of Bahman"; according to legend a fortress in Azerbaijan conquered by the Kayānian king Kay Ḵosrow, son of Sīāvaš and grandson of Kāvūs, king of Iran.

• MOʿJEZ ŠABESTARI

  Hasan Javadi

  (1874-1934), a satirical poet in Azerbaijani, fairly unknown during his lifetime. A social problem is addressed in every one of his poems.

• GORGĀN i. Geography

  Ḥabib-Allāh Zanjāni

  the ancient Hyrcania, an important Persian province at the southeast corner of the Caspian sea.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿISĀ B. ṢAHĀRBOḴT

  L. Richter-Bernburg

  medical author of the third/ninth century, from Gondēšāpur. descendant of an apparently Nestorian Christian Syro-Persian family.

• ABŪ ZAYN KAḤḤĀL

  L. Richter-Bernburg

  author of the medical text Šarāyeṭ-e ǰarrāḥī; its dedication to the Timurid Šāhroḵ (r. 807-50/1404-47) provides the only context for his life.

• ARIARATUS

  C. J. Brunner

  one of the three sons of the Achaemenid King Artaxerxes II.

• BĀŠGĀH-E AFSARĀN

  M. Ṣ¡āneʿī

  (Officers’ Club), an impressive building in Tehran, built in 1939.

• AVICENNA ii. Biography

  D. Gutas

• CUCURBITAE

  Cross-Reference

  See CUCUMBER.

• ELECTIONS

  Fakhreddin Azimi, Shaul Bakhash, M. Hassan Kakar

  i. Under the Qajar and Pahlavi monarchies. ii. Under the Islamic republic, 1979-92. iii. In Afghanistan. 

• BAHĀʾI TABRIZI

  Tahsin Yazici

  , AḤMAD (1874-1925), Persian calligrapher and poet.

• FREE VERSE

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak

  in Persian poetry. The term šeʿr-e āzād, Persian for the French vers libre and English free verse, entered Persia in the 1940s and immediately began to be used in a variety of senses and applied to diverse subspecies of the emerging canon of šeʿr-e now (new poetry), especially to highlight those features in which this body of poetry was felt to differ from classical Persian poetry and the contemporary practice modeled after it.

• ḤELMI, RAFIQ

  Joyce Blau

  Kurdish historian, poet, and political activist (1898-1960).

• ʿABD-AL-BAHĀʾ

  A. Bausani, D. MacEoin

  epithet assumed by ʿAbbās Effendi, the eldest son of Bahāʾallāh, founder of the Bahaʾi movement. The epithet means “servant of the glory of God” or “servant of Bahāʾallāh.”

• ʿALIDS

  W. Madelung

  OF ṬABARESTĀN, DAYLAMĀN, AND GĪLĀN. From its beginnings in 250/864 until the early Safavid age, ʿAlid rule in the coastal regions south of the Caspian Sea was based chiefly on Zaydī Shiʿite support.

• BĀBĀ FAḠĀNI

  Z. Safa

  Persian poet of the 15th-16th centuries.

• ČAHĀR MAḤĀ(L) WA BAḴTĪĀRĪ

  Eckart Ehlers and Hūšang Kešāvarz

  second smallest province (ostān) of Persia in area, located in the Zagros mountains of southwestern Persia.

• KĀKAGI

  Arley Loewen

  the customs and characteristics of a kāka—a vagabond or vigilante characterized by the ideals of chivalry, courage, generosity, and loyalty.

• DILL

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  Anethum graveolens L. (fam. Umbellifera), an herb widely cultivated in Persia.

• ḴĀLU

  Pierre Oberling

  a small Turkic tribe of Kermān province.

• GOWD-E ZEREH

  Cross-Reference

  See HĀMUN;

• ADAM, GUILLAUME

  J. Richard

  14th-century traveler.

• ARSANES

  Cross-Reference

  See NARSE.

• BAYĀT

  G. Doerfer

  an important Turkish tribe. A substantial proportion of the Bayāt people must have entered Iran in the train of the Saljuq invaders in the first half of the 11th century.

• BAHAISM x. Bahai Schools

  V. Rafati

  The Bahai schools were a series of government-recognized educational institutions conducted on Bahai principles from 1897 until 1929 in Ashkhabad and until 1934 in Iran.

• DABBĀḠĪ

  ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  tanning, the process by which animal skins are made into leather.

• ʿEMĀD-AL-MOLK

  See NEẒĀM-AL-MOLK (pending).

• ḴAFRI, ŠAMS-AL-DIN

  George Saliba

  , Moḥammad b. Aḥmad-e Kāši, one of the most competent of all the mathematical astronomers and planetary theorists of medieval Islam (d. 956/1550).

• GARSĒVAZ

  Cross-Reference

  See KARSĒVAZ.

• HERMIAS

  cross-reference

  See ḴOSROW I, forthcoming online.

• ČĀLDERĀN

  Michael J. McCaffrey

  battle of, an engagement fought near Ḵᵛoy in northwestern Azerbaijan on 23 August 1514, resulting in a decisive victory for the Ottoman forces under Sultan Salīm I over the Safavids led by Shah Esmāʿīl I. No single event prompted Salīm’s decision to wage war. It was the direct and inevitable result of the establishment of the Safavid state.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĪV

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  demon, monster, fiend; expresses not only the idea of “demon,” but also that of “ogre,” “giant,” and even “Satan.”

• RHETORICAL FIGURES

  Natalia Chalisova

  devices of embellishment, tropes, and figures considered as an intrinsic part of literary expression in medieval Persia.

• ĀDUR

  M. Boyce

  (and ādar) Middle Persian word for “fire;” the Avestan form is ātar (of unknown derivation), and the late form is arabicized in New Persian as āẕar.

• ARTA

  Cross-Reference

  See ARDWAHIŠT and AŠA.

• BAYŻĀWĪ, NĀṢER-AL-DĪN

  E. Kohlberg

  Shafeʿite jurist, Asḥʿarite theologian, and renowned Koran commentator (13th-14th centuries).

• BUDDHISM ii. In Islamic Times

  Asadullah Souren Melikian-Chirvani

  The Muslim conquerors of eastern Iran, Afghanistan, and Transoxania in the mid-8th century found Buddhism flourishing in a series of prosperous trading communities along the old caravan routes to India and China.

• DADWAR, DADWARIH

  Mansour Shaki

  respectively judge, administrator of justice, lawgiver, lit., “bearer of law.”

• EMRĀNĪ

  David Yeroushalmi

  the name or most likely the penname (taḵalloṣ) of the fifteenth century Jewish-Persian poet of Isfahan and Kāšān.

• MONGOLS

  Peter Jackson

  an Altaic people who conquered an empire that embraced China, Central Asia, the south Russian steppe, Iran, Afghanistan and Iraq.

• GAČ

  Cross-Reference

  See GYPSUM.

• ḤESĀR (1)

  Yuri Bregel

  region in the eastern part of Transoxania, in the upper course of the Sorḵān Daryā (medieval Čaḡānrud) and the Kāfernehān.

• ʿABD-AL-QAYS

  P. Oberling

  an eastern Arabian tribe.

• ʿĀMERĪ NĪŠĀPŪRĪ

  H. Corbin

  (d. 381/992), important philosopher from Khorasan between Fārābī and Avicenna. 

• BĀDĀVARD

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  (windfall), the name of one of the seven treasures of Ḵosrow Parvēz in the Šāh-nāma.

• ČANDŪ LAʿL ŠĀDĀN

  Sharif Husain Qasemi

  Maharaja, states­man and poet in Persian and Urdu (b. 1175/1761-62, d. 7 Rabīʿ II 1261/15 April 1845 at Hyderabad).

• JEN-NĀMA

  Mohammad Reza Ghanoonparvar

  (The book of jinn, Sweden, 1998), the last novel and, arguably, magnum opus ofHushang Golshiri.

• DOLAFIDS

  Fred M. Donner

  family of Arab origin that became politically prominent in western Persia during the 9th century.

• ZODIAC

  Antonio Panaino

  a circle, oblique with respect to the equator, represented on the celestial sphere and divided into twelve equal parts, conventionally of 30° each.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GRUMBATES

  Cross-Reference

  See CHIONITES.

• IVANOV, PAVEL PETROVICH

  Yuri Bregel

  (1893-1942), scholar in Central Asian studies at the Institute of Oriental Studies (Institut Vostokovedeniya) of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. His book Arkhiv khivinskikh khanov XIX v. (1940) contains detailed description of 137 documents, mostly tax registers (daftars), written in Čaḡatay.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFRIGHID DYNASTY

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E AFRĪḠ.

• ARTYPHIOS

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  or ARTYBIOS, Greek rendering of an Old Persian name.

• BEGGING

  C. Edmund Bosworth, Hamid Algar, ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  (Pers. gadāʾī, takaddī, soʾāl).  i. In the early centuries of the Islamic period. ii. In Sufi literature and practice. iii. In later Iran.

• DAIVA

  Clarisse Herrenschmidt and Jean Kelllens

  Old Iranian noun (Av. daēuua-, OPers. daiva-) corresponding to the title devá- of the Indian gods and thus reflecting the Indo-European heritage (*deiu̯ó-).

• EPHESUS, SEVEN SLEEPERS OF

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  Christian legend attested by texts in many languages.

• QOM LAKE

  E. Ehlers

  (DARYĀČA-ye QOM, or Qom Basin), also called Daryāča-ye Sāva, one of the interior watersheds in northwestern Persia.

• ḠAMĀM HAMADĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠEMĀM HAMADĀNĪ.

• ḤOḎEQ, JUNAYDOLLO MAḴDUM

  Keith Hitchins

  (ḤĀḎEQ, JONAYD-ALLĀH; b. mid-1780s; killed 1843), one of the leading Tajik poets of his time.

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ NAYSABŪRĪ

  E. Baer

  Metalworker of the second half of the 6th/12th century.

• AMĪNĀ

  A. Netzer

  pen name of BENYĀMĪN B. MĪŠĀʾĪL KĀŠĀNĪ, an outstanding Jewish poet of Iran.

• BĀFQĪ, MOḤAMMAD-TAQĪ

  H. Algar

  , AYATOLLAH (1875-1946), a religious scholar known for his forthright opposition to Reżā Shah Pahlavī.

• CARMANIA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  ancient region east of Fārs province, approximately equivalent to modern Kermān. The Old Persian form is attested only once in inscriptions.

• SHOGHI EFFENDI

  Moojan Momen

  Šawqi Rabbāni (1897-1957), eldest grandson and successor of ʿAbd-al-Bahāʾ as leader of the Bahai Faith (1921-57). Iranian Bahais usually refer to him as Ḥażrat-e Waliy-e Amrallāh, the title given to him by ʿAbd-al-Bahāʾ, usually translated as “the Guardian of the Cause of God, or simply “the Guardian.” In the West, he is chiefly known as Shoghi Effendi.

• DŌŠĪ

  Daniel Balland

  small town and district on the northern slope of the central Hindu Kush in Afghanistan.

• ZARIRI, ʿAbbās

  Jalil Doostkhah

  (b. Isfahan 1909; d. Isfahan 1971) noted story-teller (naqqāl). Zariri like most other eulogists of his era, was functionally illiterate. He memorized and recited whatever he heard from other storytellers and scroll-writers. However, he became literate towards the end of his life.

• GUŠA

  Jean During

  lit. "corner" or "part"; a term in Persian music designating a unit of melody of variable importance, which occupies a special place in the development of one of the twelve modal systems (dastgāh or āvāz).

• JAHĀNBEGLU

  P. Oberling

  (or Jānbeglu), one of several Kurdish tribes transplanted from northwestern Persia to Māzandarān by Āḡā Moḥammad Khan Qajar (r. 1789-97).

• AḠĀNĪ, KETĀB AL-

  K. Abu-Deeb

  (“The Book of Songs”), the major work of Abu’l-Faraǰ Eṣfahānī (284-356/897-967).

• ASADĪ ṬŪSĪ

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  (d. 1072-73), poet, linguist and copyist, from Ṭūs in Khorasan.

• BELBĀS

  Pierre Oberling

  a former Kurdish tribal confederacy of northwestern Iran and northeastern Iraq.

• CHRISTIANITY iii. In Central Asia And Chinese Turkestan

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

• DĀNEŠ, AḤMAD MAḴDŪM

  Vincent Fourniau

  b. Mīr b. Yūsof ḤANAFĪ ṢEDDĪQĪ BOḴĀRĪ (1242-1314/1827-97), known as Aḥmad Kallā and Mohandes (lit., “engineer”), a historian and progressive Tajik writer of Bukhara.

• ĒRĀN-WĒZ

  D. N. MacKenzie

  the Middle Persian designation of the territory of the Aryans.

• KUSA

  Anna Krasnowolska

  a carnival character known to the medieval and modern folklore of central and western Persia.

• GANJ-NĀMA

  Stuart C. Brown

  (lit. treasure book), location in a pass at an altitude of about 2,000 m across the Alvand Kūh leading westward to Tūyserkān, 12 km southwest of Hamadān.

• HORDĀD

  Antonio Panaino

  “Integrity (of body), Wholeness”, one of the Avestan entities (AMƎŠA SPƎNTA), normally mentioned in association with Amərətāt (AMURDĀD) already in the Gāθās.

• ʿABDALLĀH, ŠĀH

  K. A. Nizami

  (d. 1485), Persian Sufi who introduced the Šaṭṭārī order into India.

• AMLĀK-E ḴĀṢṢA

  Cross-Reference

  See ḴĀLEṢA.

• BAḠLĀN

  A. D. H. Bivar, D. Balland, X. de Planhol

  district and town of Afghanistan, in the upper valley of the Sorḵāb (Qondūz) river on the northern slope of the Hindu Kush range.  i. The Kushan period.  ii. The modern province.  iii. The modern town.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FARHĀD KHAN QARAMĀNLŪ, ROKN-AL-SALṬANA

  Rudi Matthee

  military commander of Shah ʿAbbās I, executed at the Shah’s orders in 1598.

• CATALOGUES

  Cross-reference

  See BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES.

• ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL

  Cross-Reference

  See BENGAL ii. Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal.

• ḎU’L-JANĀḤ

  Jean Calmard

  Imam Ḥosayn’s winged horse, known from popular literature and rituals.

• KALIM KĀŠĀNI

  Daniela Meneghini

  (b. ca. 1581-85, d. 1651), Persian poet and one of the leading exponents of the “Indian style” (sabk-e hendi).

• HADITH

  Shahab Ahmed, A. Kazemi-Moussavi, Ismail K. Poonawala, Hamid Algar, Shaul Shaked

  term denoting reports that convey the normative words and deeds of the Prophet Moḥammad; it is understood to refer generically to the entire corpus of this literature and to the thousands of individual reports that comprise it.

• JALĀYER-NĀMA

  cross-reference

  See QĀʾEM-MAQĀM.

• AḤMAD B. MOḤAMMAD B. ṬĀHER

  C. E. Bosworth

  governor in Ḵᵛārazm and son of the last Tahirid governor in Khorasan. 

• ASFAND

  H. Gaube

  a medieval district (kūra) of the quarter (robʿ) of Nīšāpūr of Khorasan province.

• BESṬĀM (3)

  Chahryar Adle

  or Basṭām, a small town in the medieval Iranian province of Qūmes and modern Ostān-e Semnān. It is located in a large valley on the southern foothills of the Alborz

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĀR(- E) TANHĀ

  Ernie Haerinck

  lit., “the lonely tree”; an ar­cheological site in the district of Badr, near the village of Jabar, ca. 70 km east-southeast of Īlām, in the province of Pošt-e Kūh.

• ESTHER, BOOK OF

  Shaul Shaked

  a short book of the Old Testament, written in Hebrew.

• ALEXANDER THE GREAT ii. In Zoroastrian Tradition

  F. M. Kotwal and P. G. Kreyenbroek

  The heritage of the Sasanian period includes two widely divergent storylines about Alexander, both of which were presumably transmitted by Zoroastrians and can therefore be labelled “Zoroastrian.”

• GAYŌMART

  Mansour Shaki

  or Gayūmarṯ, Kayūmarṯ; the sixth of the heptad in Mazdean myth of creation, the protoplast of man, and the first king in Iranian mythical history.

• ḤOSAYN B. OVAYS

  cross-reference

  See JALAYERIDS.

• ʿABDĪ

  T. Yazici

  pen name of ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN PASHA, Ottoman official and historian (d. 1692).

• AN LU-SHAN

  E. G. Pulleyblank

  frontier general of mixed Sogdian and Turkish ancestry who rose to high rank during the latter part of the reign of Hsüan-tsung (713-56).

• BAḤĪRĪ FAMILY

  R. W. Bulliet

  a major Shafiʿite family of Nishapur in the eleventh century.  

• FARĪD KĀTEB

  Sheila S. Blair

  scribe active in Shiraz in the 16th century.

• ČENGĪZ KHAN

  David O. Morgan

  (Mong. Chinggis), probably born in 1167 in northeastern Mongolia, d. 1227, founder of the Mongol empire, the most extensive land empire known to history. Čengīz’s achievement, though hardly positive from the point of view of Persia, was by no means wholly a military and a destructive one. In the 1250s, a relatively coherent Mongol kingdom, the Il-khanate, was set up under Čengīz’s grandson Hülegü.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SE QAṬRA ḴUN

  SOHILA SAREMI

  short story by Ṣādeq Hedāyat in a collection with the same title.
  

• ẒAHIR-AL-DAWLA, EBRĀHIM KHAN

  Mehrnoush Soroush

  (d. Tehran, 1240/1824), military leader and governor of Kermān under Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah Qajar.

• NĪRANGDĪN CEREMONY

  Firoze M. Kotwal and Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  a Zoroastrian ritual to consecrate gōmēz, or bull’s urine; the consecrated liquid is known as nīrang or nīrangdīn.

• HAFT PEYKAR

  François de Blois

  a famous romantic epic by Neẓāmi Ganjavi from the last decade of the 6th/12th century. The title can be translated literally as “seven portraits,” but also with the figurative meaning of “seven beauties.”

• JĀMEʿA-YE LISĀNSIAHĀ-YE DĀNEŠ-SARĀ-YE ʿĀLI

  Ahmad Birashk

   the Association of graduates of the Teacher Training College, founded in 1932 by its first two graduating classes.

• AHMADNAGAR

  Z. A. Desai

  Major city and province in the state of Maharashtra in western India, founded about 900/1495 by Malek Aḥmad Neẓām-al-molk, a Bahmanī governor, on the site where he had earlier won a battle against his sovereign’s forces.

• ĀŠOFTA

  N. Parvīn

  a Persian magazine published in Tehran 1325 Š./1946-1336 Š./1957.

• BĪBĪ ŠAHRBĀNŪ

  Mary Boyce

  the dedication of a Moslem shrine on a hillside by Ray to the south of Tehran. The legend attached to it is that of Šahrbānū, a daughter of the last Sasanian king, Yazdegerd III (r. 632-51).

• CONVERSION v. To Babism and the Bahai faith

  Juan R. I. Cole

• DĀREMĪ, ABŪ SAʿĪD ʿOṮMĀN

  Josef van Ess

  b. Saʿīd b. Ḵāled SEJESTĀNĪ, Persian traditionist and jurist (b. ca. 816, d. February 894).

• ESḤĀQZĪ

  Daniel Balland

  (sometimes shortened as Sāqzī, Sākzī, or even Sāgzī; sg. Esḥāqzay), an important Pashtun tribe of Afghanistan, member of the Panjpāy section of the Dorrānī confederation.

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• PROSODY i. MIDDLE PERSIAN

  Gilbert Lazard

  There are remnants left of pre-Islamic poetry within western Middle Iranian languages: fragments of Manichean religious hymns, some poems preserved in the literature of Pahlavi, and poetical pieces in New Persian not following the rules of classical versification. The Manichean manuscripts in Parthian and Middle Persian enable us to recognize the general form of the poems.

• GEDROSIA

  Willem J. Vogelsang

  or Kedrosia; a place-name known only from Classical sources.

• HULĀGU KHAN

  Reuven Amitai

  fifth son of Tolui (and thus grandson of Čengiz Khan) and founder of the Il-khanid dynasty (b. ca. 1215, d. 1265).

• ABRADATAS

  C. J. Brunner

   a fictional king of Susa in Xenophon’s fictional, didactic life of Cyrus (Cyropaedia, books 5-7).

• ANDARZGAR

  J. P. Asmussen

  Mid. Pers. term, “counselor, teacher.”

• BAHRĀM B. MARDĀNŠĀH

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  a Zoroastrian priest (mōbed) of the town of Šāpūr in Fārs, mentioned in several Arabic and Persian sources as a translator of the Xwadāy-nāmag from Pahlavi into Arabic.

• FARROXMARD

  Cross-Reference

  See MĀDAYĀN-Ī HAZĀR DĀDISTĀN.

• CHĀNGĀ ĀSĀ

  Mary Boyce and Firoze M. Kotwal

  an eminent Parsi layman who lived in the 15th-16th centuries A.D. at Navsari in Gujarat.

• EBN ʿĀMER

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-ALLĀH B. ʿĀMER.

• VIS O RĀMIN

  Dick Davis

  an 11th-century verse romance by Faḵr al-Din Asʿad Gorgāni (q.v., s.v. Gorgāni).

• ḤĀJIĀNI

  Bruno Nettl

  a guša or subdivision of a mode in the canonic repertory (radif) of Persian classical music.

• JĀRČI-E MELLAT

  EIr.

  a weekly satirical newspaper published in Tehran, 1910-28 (with long interruptions).

• ʿAJĀʾEB AL-MAQDŪR

  U. Nashashibi

  (“The wondrous turns of fate in the vicissitudes of Tīmūr”), a history of the life and conquests of Tīmūr (1336-1405).

• ʿAṢṢĀR TABRĪZĪ

  Z. Safa

  poet, scholar, and mystic of the 8th/14th century.

• BĪNĀLŪD, KŪH-E

  Eckart Ehlers

  mountain range in northeast­ern Iran between Mašhad in the east and Nīšāpūr in the west with elevations of up to 3,211 m.

• TIGER

  Cross-Reference

  See BABR.

• ESMĀʿĪL ḴANDĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ALTUNTĀŠ.

• LION TOMBSTONES

  Pedram Khosronejad

  (šir-e sangi or bardšir “stone lion” in Lori), a type of tombstone in the form of a lion, found mostly on the graves of Lor and Qašqāʾi nomads in the west, southwest, and parts of southern Persia. These stylized, sculptured lions stare out from isolated Baḵtiāri graveyards in many valleys and along the migration routes of the tribes across the Zagros Mountains.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IBEX, PERSIAN

  Eskandar Firouz, D. T. Potts

  Capra aegagrus, also called Persian Wild Goat, in Persian pāzan. It is regarded as the ancestor of the domestic goat. Formerly it was numerous, found in almost all of Persia’s mountainous areas with rugged cliffs.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ ʿAṬĀ

  G. Tsuge

  one of the twelve modes in the dastgāh system of classical Iranian music; more precisely, it should be called āvāz-e Abū ʿAṭā or naḡma-ye Abū ʿAṭā.

• ANJEDĀN

  F. Daftary

  village located 37 km east of Arāk (former Solṭānābād) in Markazī province.

• BĀḴTAR-E EMRŪZ

  ʿA. M. Š. Fāṭemī

  (Today’s West), daily evening newspaper published in Tehran, 1949-53. The editor-publisher Ḥosayn Fāṭemī (1917-1954) was one of the principal associates of Dr. Moḥammad Moṣaddeq in the National Front (Jebha-ye Mellī).

• FĀṬEMA

  Jean Calmard

  daughter of the Prophet Moḥammad.

• CHOARA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  or CHOARENE; a town or village in Parthia mentioned by Ptolemy (6.5.3) and called “the most attractive place of Parthia” by Pliny.

• COTTON i. Introduction

  Eckart Ehlers and Ahmad Parsa

• EBN FARĪḠŪN

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E FARĪḠŪN.

• PUNJABI

  Christopher Shackle

  Indo-Aryan language of the Punjab with about 26 million speakers in India and more than 60 million in Pakistan.

• HAMADĀN ix. JEWISH DIALECT

  Donald Stilo

  The dialect spoken by the Jews of Hamadān belong to the Central Plateau Dialect group of Northwestern Iranian languages, as opposed to Southwestern Iranian (e.g., Persian).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JELD

  cross-reference

  See BOOKBINDING 1; BOOKBINDING 2.

• ĀḴᵛOND

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀḴŪND.

• ASTVAṰ.ƎRƎTA

  M. Boyce

  the Avestan name of the Saošyant, the future Savior of Zoroastrianism.

• BŌĒ

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  (Gk. Boēs), the name of two of Kavād’s (r. 488-­96 and 498-531) generals.

• EXCAVATIONS ii. In Afghanistan

  Warwick Ball

• DĀSTĀN-SARĀʾĪ

  William Hanaway

  (storytelling), term used for written and oral genres of fictional narrative.

• ESTEBṢĀR

  See ṬŪSĪ, ABŪ JAʿFAR.

• AFRĀSIĀB ii. Wall Paintings

  Matteo Compareti

  The Afrāsiāb wall paintings refer to 7th-century Sogdian murals, discovered in 1965 in the residential part of ancient Samarqand (Samarkand).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GĒV

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  one of the foremost heroes of the national epic in the reigns of Kay Kāvūs and Kay Ḵosrow.

• IMPERIAL BANK OF PERSIA

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ABU’L-FARAJ EṢFAHĀNĪ

  K. Abū Deeb

  Author of the Ketāb al-aḡānī.

• ANTHROPOLOGY

  B. Spooner

  (Persian mardomšenāsī), social and cultural, in Iran and Afghanistan.

• BĀLAWĪ FAMILY

  R. W. Bulliet

  prominent scholars in Nīšāpūr in the 10th-11th centuries.

• FAŻL, b. Šāḏān NĪŠĀPŪRĪ AZDĪ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD

  Etan Kohlberg

  (d. 873), Imami traditionalist, theologian, and jurisprudent.

• CINEMA

  Multiple Authors

• PROTOTHYES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  according to Herodotus 1.103.3 the father of the Scythian king Madýēs, who is said to have gone into battle against the Medes.

• EBN MOLJAM

  See Supplement.

• KURGAN TEPE

  Habib Borjian

  (Qūrḡonteppa in Tajik orthography; Kurgan-Tyube in Russian), provincial capital and former province of Tajikistan.

• ḤAMZA-NĀMA ii. In the Subcontinent

  Frances W. Pritchett

  The Indo-Persian romance tradition, extending from the medieval period to the early 20th century, produced prose works of considerable literary and cultural interest, chief among which were many versions of the Ḥamza romance.

• JOḠD

  cross-reference

  See BUF.

• ĀL-E JALĀYER

  Cross-Reference

  See JALAYERIDS.

• AṮĪR-AL-DĪN ABHARĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABHARĪ SAMARQANDĪ, AṮĪR-AL-DĪN.

• BONDĀRĪ, FATḤ B. ʿALĪ

  Cross-Reference

  b. Moḥammad EṢFAHĀNĪ. See SUPPLEMENT.

• FRANCE

  Multiple Authors

  Relations with Iran.

• DAVĀZDAH ROḴ

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  lit. "twelve combats"; designation of a relatively long episode in the Šāh-nāma (2,500 verses), in which a battle takes place on the borders of Tūrān between Iranians under the command of Gūdarz and Turanians under the command of Pīrān.

• EUTYCHIUS of Alexandria

  Sidney H. Griffith and EIr

  (877-940), Christian physician and historian whose Annales (written in Arabic and called Ketāb al-tārīḵ al-majmūʿ ʿalā’l-taḥqīq wa’l-taṣdīq or Naẓm al-jawhar) is a rich repository of much otherwise unobtainable information about the history of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, especially in the periods of Persian occupation in the seventh century and in Islamic times up to the early tenth century.

• KALLA-PĀČA

  Etrat Elahi

  a traditional dish made of sheep’s head and trotters and cooked over low heat, usually overnight.

• INDIA xxxi. INDIAN MERCHANTS IN 19TH-CENTURY AFGHANISTAN

  Shah Mahmoud Hanifi

  Indian communities in Afghanistan performed an array of commercial functions in both the private and state sectors that served to integrate the Afghan economy and link it to surrounding markets in Central and South Asia.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN HERAVĪ

  D. Pingree

  medieval mathematician.

• AQ EVLI

  P. Oberling

  a small Turkic tribe of Fārs. According to legend, the ancestors of the present-day Āq Evlīs were forced to migrate from Azerbaijan to Khorasan in Safavid times.

• BĀNBIŠN

  W. Sundermann

  Middle Persian “queen”: etymology and occurrences in Middle Iranian.

• FEREŠTA

  Cross-Reference

  angels in Islam and Persian folklore. See Supplement, ANGELS.

• SILK

  Cross-Reference

  Originally from China, silk has been known in Iran since ancient times. See ABRĪŠAM.

• ZURWĀNDĀD

  Touraj Daryaee

  the eldest son of the grand vizier (wuzurg framādār) Mehr Narseh (q.v.), who appointed him to the high religious office of chief hērbed.

• EBN AL-ṬEQṬAQĀ, ṢAFĪ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Charles Melville

  b. ʿAlī b. Ṭabāṭabā (b. 1262 ?; d. after 1309 ?), historian and naqīb of the ʿAlids in Ḥella.

• AUSTRIA ii. IRANIAN STUDIES IN

  X. Tremblay and N. Rastegar

  The present entry is intended as a synthetic history of the organization of Iranian studies (1) up to 1918 in all the Habsburg “hereditary countries,” which included the present Czech Republic and Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia, also parts of Poland, Romania, and Ukraine, and (2) since 1918 in the Republic of Austria exclusively.

• ḤARRĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  an ancient town of Upper Mesopotamia, now located in the modern Turkish province of Diyarbakir approximately 40 km/25 miles south-southeast of Edessa (q.v.), or Urfa.

• JOWZJĀN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Arabicized form of Persian Gowzgān(ān), a district of eastern Khorasan in early Islamic times, now roughly corresponding to the northwest of modern Afghanistan.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  B. Lewis

  chief of the Ismaʿilis of Alamūt (d. 1255).

• AVESTAN GEOGRAPHY

  G. Gnoli

  Geographical references in the Avesta are limited to the regions on the eastern Iranian plateau and on the Indo-Iranian border.

• BORQAʿĪ

  Hamid Algar

  (Ar. Borqoʿī), AYATOLLAH ʿALĪ-AKBAR (b. 1900), religious leader of the postwar period to whom leftist tendencies were imputed and whose name became embroiled in a significant incident in Qom in January, 1953.

• NOWRUZ

  Multiple Authors

  Nowruz, “New Day”, is a traditional ancient festival which celebrates the starts of the Persian New Year. It is the holiest and most joyful festival of the Zoroastrian year and is also its focal point, to which all other high holy days relate. Its celebration has two strands, the religious and the secular, both of which have plainly evolved considerably over many centuries, the one with extension of observances, the other with accumulation of charming and poetic customs, most of them special to it.

• DAYR-E GAČĪN

  Mehrdad Shokoohy

  lit., “gypsum hospice”;  Sasanian caravansary situated in the desert halfway between Ray and Qom, on the ancient route from Ray to Isfahan. It is recorded in most early Muslim geographies. Over time, it underwent major reconstruction at least twice.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿEZZ-AL-DAWLA, ʿABD-AL-ṢAMAD MĪRZĀ

  Kambiz Eslami

  (1844-1929), half-brother of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah and governor of several provinces.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EGYPT xi. Persian Journalism in Egypt

  Nassereddin Parvin

• GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG von

  Hamid Tafazoli

  (1749-1832), the most renowned poet of German literature, interested in the East and in Islam.

• INVESTITURE

  Maria Brosius, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis, Jenny Rose

  the ceremonies and symbolic actions used to assert the assumption of rulership and to elicit affirmation of it. i. The Achaemenid period. ii. The Parthian period. iii. The Sasanian period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU’L-LAYṮ SAMARQANDĪ

  J. van Ess

  productive Hanafite jurist, author of a Koran commentary and of popular paraenetical works.

• ʿARAB

  Multiple Authors

  As two of the most prominent ethnic elements in the Middle East, Arabs and Iranians have been in contact with each other, and at times have had their fortunes intertwined, for some three millennia. 

• BANŪ ʿANNĀZ

  cross-reference

  See ʿANNAZIDS.

• FICTION, ii(f)

  Houra Yavari

  ii(f). BY PERSIANS IN NON-PERSIAN LANGUAGES. Persian fiction is not limited to works written in the Persian language, or to works written within the geographical boundaries of Persia herself.

• COLETTI, Alessandro

  Adriano Rossi

  (b. Trieste, 1928, d. Rome, 1985), Italian scholar of Iranian languages and general oriental subjects, co-author with his wife, Hanne Grünbaum, of the most comprehensive Persian-Italian dictionary (1978) published in modern times.

• KASRAVI, AḤMAD vi. ON MYSTICISM AND PERSIAN SUFI POETRY

  Lloyd Ridgeon

  By the turn of the 20th century the Sufi tradition in Iran no longer enjoyed the popularity and following that it attracted in previous centuries.

• EBRĀHĪM ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Carl W. Ernst

  historian of the ʿĀdelšāhī dynasty of Bījāpūr (b. 1540-41).

• SALEMANN, Carl Hermann

  D. Durkin-Meisterernst

  (in Russian: Zaleman, Karl Germanovitsh), a leading Iranist scholar of his time, specializing in Middle and early Modern Persian (1849-1916).

• ḤASANLU TEPPE

  Robert H. Dyson, Jr

  archeological site in West Azerbaijan Province in northwest Persia, a short distance southwest of Lake Urmia (former Reżāʾiya). OVERVIEW of the entry: i. The site. ii. The golden bowl.

• JULFA iv. ARCHITECTURE AND PAINTING

  Armen Haghnazarian

  By 1640 New Julfa had grown into an important cultural center with many public buildings, including churches, markets, and bath houses.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ALBANIA

  M. L. Chaumont

  an ancient country in the Caucasus (for Albania in Islamic times, see Arrān). 

• AY TĪMŪR

  J. M. Smith, Jr.

  Sarbadār commander and ruler, “the son of a slave”.

• BOZORGMEHR-E BOḴTAGĀN

  Djalal Khaleghi Motlagh

  identified in literature and legend as a vizier of Ḵosrow I Anōšīravān (r. 531-78). According to Persian and Arabic sources, he was characterized by ex­ceptional wisdom and sage counsels.

• KĀKĀʾI

  Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  a term used both for a tribal federation and for a religious group in Iraqi Kurdistan. 

• DEIOCES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (Gk. Dēïókēs), name of a Median king.

• FALAK

  Cross-Reference

  Arabic word for "sphere" (pl. aflāk). In Persian works of literature it is often referred to as being responsible for determining people's destiny. See ASTROLOGY AND ASTRONOMY IN IRAN; COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY.

• RUSSIA ii. IRANIAN-SOVIET RELATIONS (1917-1991)

  N. M. Mamedova

  From the outset, the very first international resolutions of the young Soviet state had an immediate impact on relations with Iran.

• GOLČIN GILĀNI

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak and Homa Katouzian

  (b. Rašt, 1910; d. London, 1972), pen name of the poet MAJD-AL-DIN MIR-FAḴRĀʾI. Throughout the 1940s, Golčin sent his compositions to Persia for publication; many appeared in the literary journals of the period, such as Soḵan, Yaḡmā, Armaḡān, Foruḡ, Yādgār, and Jahān-e now.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• TURKMENS OF PERSIA ii. LANGUAGE

  Michael Knüppel

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿALĪ B. MOḤAMMAD

  R. W. Bulliet

  A wealthy dehqān from Sabzavār who was prominent as a founder of madrasas in the second decade of the 5th/11th century.

• ʿARAŻ

  F. Rahman

  a term of philosophy meaning “accident.” 

• BARĀQ BĀBĀ

  H. Algar

  (b. 1257-58, d. 1307-08), a crypto-shamanic Anatolian Turkman dervish close to two of the Mongol rulers of Iran.

• FISCAL SYSTEM v. PAHLAVI PERIOD

  MASSOUD KARSHENAS

  Massoud Karshenas

• CONTINENTS

  Cross-Reference

  See KEŠVAR.

• FARAHVAŠI, Bahrām

  Mahnaz Moazami

  (b. Urmia, Iran, 30 March 1925; d. San Jose, U.S.A., 29 May 1992; Figure 1), scholar and professor of ancient Iranian languages at the University of Tehran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FONDOQESTĀN

  B. A. Litvinskiĭ

  (FONDUKISTAN), early medieval settlement and Buddhist monastery in Afghanistan, in the province of Parvān (Parwan). The site is usually dated to the 7th century CE on the evidence of artistic style and numismatic finds, the oldest of which is from 689 C.E. However, the shape and the decorations of the stupa suggest that the complex can be even earlier.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤAYDARI and NEʿMATI

  John R. Perry

  (also Amir-Ḥaydari; Neʿmat-Allāhi), mutually hostile urban moieties of Safavid and post-Safavid Iran.

• KAFIR KALA

  Boris Litvinsky

  (Kāfer Qalʿa), ancient settlement and one of the largest archeological monuments of the Vakhsh river valley, on the western outskirts of Kolkhozabad, Tajikistan. The city (šahrestān) together with the citadel form a square, each side 360 m long, oriented approximately to the cardinal points.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĪ B. ḤOSAYN ANṢĀRĪ

  cross-reference

  See ZAYN-AL-DĪN ʿAṬṬĀR.

• ĀZĀD

  M. L. Chaumont, C. Toumanoff

  (older ĀZĀT), a class of the Iranian nobility.

• BŪ NAṢR MOŠKĀN

  cross-reference

  See ABŪ NAṢR MOŠKĀN.

• QEṢṢA-YE SANJĀN

  Cross-Reference

  an account of the early years of Zoroastrian settlers on the Indian subcontinent. See PARSI COMMUNITIES i. Early History.

• DENḴA TEPE

  Oscar White Muscarella

  a Bronze and Iron Age site situated in the Ošnū valley of Azerbaijan, southwest of Lake Urmia, and 15 miles west of the major Iron Age site of Hasanlu (Ḥasanlū) in the Soldūz valley.

• BĀBĀ-YE DEHQĀN

  Anna Krasnowolska

  a mythological and ritual character whose cult has been reported in agrarian communities of mountainous and lowland Tajikistan, northern Afghanistan, and adjacent countries.

• GOLŠAN-E MORĀD

  John R. Perry

  a history of the Zand Dynasty (1751-94) by Mirzā Moḥammad Abu’l-Ḥasan Ḡaffāri.

• IRĀN-E MĀ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a political newspaper published in Tehran, 1943-60, with long interruptions. It was an influential liberal paper with nationalistic orientations.

• ABŪ ŠAKŪR BALḴĪ

  G. Lazard

  poet of the Samanid period.

• ARDAŠĪR BĀBAKĀN

  H. Gaube

  Sasanian and early Islamic district (ostān) formed in the early 7th century south of Baghdad and west of the Tigris. Its capital was Weh-Ardašīr (Ar. Bahrasīr).

• BARIŠ NASK

  P. O. Skjærvø

  one of the lost nasks of the Haδamąθra group of the Avesta, analyzed in Dēnkard 8.9.

• COSSACK BRIGADE

  Muriel Atkin

  a cavalry unit in the Persian army established in 1879 on the model of Cossack units in the Russian army. The formation of the Cossack Brigade was part of a larger process in which the Persian government, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, engaged various European soldiers to train units of the Persian armed forces.

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• EHRBEDESTĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See HERBEDESTĀN.

• FOŻŪLĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Eir

  b. Solaymān (ca. 1480-1556), widely regarded as the greatest lyric poet in Azerbayjani Turkish, who also wrote extensively in Arabic and Persian.

• HEDĀYAT, MOḴBER-AL-SALṬANA ii. AS MUSICIAN

  Amemeh Yousefzadeh

  Apart from a book about musical theory, the Majmaʿ al-adwār (Tehran, 1938), we owe him one of the earliest complete notations of the repertoire of Persian music (radifs).

• ABARQUH i. History

  C. E. Bosworth

• ʿALĪ EBRĀHĪM KHAN

  F. Lehmann

  Indian statesman and literary figure (d. 1208/1793-94).

• AZERBAIJAN

  Multiple Authors

  (Āḏarbāy[e]jān), historical region of northwestern Iran, east of Lake Urmia, since the Achaemenid era.

• BŪŠEHR

  Xavier de Planhol, Moḥammad-Taqī Masʿūdīya

  (Ar. Būšahr, European spellings Bushire, Busheer, Bouchir), port city in southern Iran on the Persian Gulf. i. The city. ii. Music of Būšehr. 

• SHIR-E SHIAN

  Christopher P. Thornton

  (Šir-āšiān), a prehistoric site located 15 km southwest of Damghan in northeastern Iran.  

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DEYLAMITES

  Wolfgang Felix, Wilferd Madelung

  people inhabiting a shifting region in northern Persia and adjacent territories, including the Deylamān uplands.

• KOLUKJĀNLU

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe in the Ḵalḵāl region of eastern Azerbaijan.

• GORDIANUS III

  Cross-Reference

  Roman emperor. See SHAPUR I.

• IRAQ xii. PERSIAN SCHOOLS IN IRAQ

  Eqbal Yaghmaʾi

  At the time of the 1905-11 Constitutional Revolution in Persia, local committees in Iraq created Persian-language schools with the backing of the leading, progressive religious scholars.

• ABU YAZĪD BESṬĀMI

  Cross-Reference

  See BESṬĀMĪ, BĀYAZĪD.

• ARIA

  R. Schmitt

  region in the eastern part of the Persian empire.

• BĀRZĀNĪ

  W. Behn

  a Kurdish tribe from Bārzān, a town of northeastern Iraq. The shaikhs of Bārzān came to prominence in the disorder following sup­pression of the semi-independent Kurdish principalities in the mid-19th century.

• ARMY ii. Islamic, to the Mongol period

  C. E. Bosworth

• CTESIAS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (Gk. Ktēsías),  Greek physician at the Achaemenid court and author of Persiká (b. perhaps ca. 441 BCE).

• ELAM

  Multiple Authors

  ancient country encompassing a large part of the Persian plateau at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. but reduced to the territory of Susiana in the Achaemenid period.

• ĀZĀD TABRIZI

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  physician, anthologist, and translator (b. Tehran, ca. 1854; d. Paris, 1936).

• FRAWAHR

  Cross-reference

  See FRAVAŠI.

• HELMAND RIVER ii. IN ZOROASTRIAN TRADITION

  Gherardo Gnoli

  According to Avestan geography, the region of the Haētumant River extends in a southwest direction from the point of confluence of the Arḡandāb with the Helmand.

• HERON

  Cross-Reference

  See BŪTĪMĀR.

• ʿALĪ-REŻĀ ABBĀSĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  10th-11th/16th-17th century calligrapher born and trained in Tabrīz but active principally in Qazvīn and Isfahan.

• BĀB-E HOMĀYŪN

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  (august [royal] gate), name of a gate and its connecting street in the Qajar citadel of Tehran.

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• ČĀH

  Marcel Bazin

  Well. Together with the well-known qanāt (subterranean water canals), wells (čāh) play a great part in the mobilization of the groundwater resources of Persia.

• ḴALILI, ʿABBĀS

  Hasan Mirabedini

  political activist, journalist, translator, poet, and novelist (b. Najaf, 1895; d. Tehran, 1971).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DIEU

  J.T.P. de Bruijn

  (b. Vlissingen, Flushing, April 7, 1590; d. Leiden, Dec. 23, 1642), Dutch orientalist.

• EMAMI, KARIM

  ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Āzarang and EIr

  (1930-2005), noted translator, editor, publisher, critic, journalist, and lexicographer.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOŠTĀSP

  A. Shapur Shabazi

  Kayanian king of Iranian traditional history and patron of Zoroaster.

• ADAB AL-KABĪR

  I. Abbas

  an Arabic work by Ebn al-Moqalia ž dealing largely with Persian manners and court etiquette.

• ARSACIDS

  A. Sh. Shahbazi, K. Schippmann, M. Alram, M. Boyce, A. Sh. Shahbazi, A. Sh. Shahbazi, C. Toumanoff

   (Persian Aškānīān), Parthian dynasty which ruled Iran from ca. 250 B.C. to ca. 226 A.D.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BĀWĪYA

  J. Perry

  a Shiʿite tribe of Ḵūzestān. They range east and south of Ahvāz, between the Kārūn and Jarrāḥī rivers, to the south of Band-e Qīr and north of Māred.

• ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD

  Emilie Savage-Smith

  b. Serāj-al-Dīn Masʿūd ŠĪRĀZĪ, the most prominent member of a 16th-century family of physicians in Shiraz.

• KAMĀL PĀŠĀ-ZĀDA, ŠAMS-AL-DIN AḤMAD

  T. Yazici

  (1468-1534), prolific Ottoman scholar, author of several works in and on Persian.

• GARRŪSĪ, AMĪR NEẒĀM

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪR NEẒĀM GARRŪSĪ.

• HERMAEUS

  cross-reference

  See INDO-GREEK DYNASTY.

• ʿABD-AL-JALĪL RĀZĪ

  W. Madelung

  Emāmī Shiʿite scholar, preacher, and author, b. probably early in the 6th/12th century.

• ALTUNTAŠ

  C. E. Bosworth

  Turkish slave commander of the Ghaznavid sultans and governor in Ḵᵛārazm (408-23/1017-32). 

• BĀBOL

  X. de Planhol, S. Blair

  town in Māzandarān, occupying a central position in the coastal plain. i. The town.  ii. Islamic monuments.

• PAYANDEH, ABU’L-QASEM

  Ṣafdar Taqizāda

  (1908/1911-1984), journalist, translator, and fiction writer.

• GRAPHIC ARTS

  Mortażā Momayyez, Peter Chelkowski

  Broadly speaking, graphic art and design have a long history in Persia; their antecedents can be seen in graphic motifs and patterns on ancient clay and metal vessels, stone reliefs, seals, brickwork, glazed tiles, plaster and wood carvings, cloths, carpets, marquetry, miniature paintings, calligraphy, and illumination of manuscripts.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISLAM IN IRAN xiv - xviii

  Cross-Reference

• ADMINISTRATION in Iran

  Multiple Authors

• ART IN IRAN ix. SAFAVID To Qajar Periods

  A. Welch

• BĀYSONḠORĪ ŠĀH-NĀMA

  Dj. Khaleghi Motlagh, T. Lentz

  an illuminated and gilded manuscript of Ferdowsī’s Šāh-nāma measur­ing 26.5 × 38 cm, containing 346 pages and twenty-one paintings, written in nastaʿlīq, and kept in the former Royal Library (Golestan Palace Museum, no. 6) in Tehran. i. The manuscript.  ii. The paintings.

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• BOUNDARIES ii. With Russia

  Xavier de Planhol

  The problem of drawing a stable territorial boundary between the Russian and Iranian powers must have arisen with the first arrival of the Russians in the Caspian area, after the conquest of Astrakhan in 1556.

• DĀDGAR, ḤOSAYN

  Bāqer ʿĀqelī

  ʿAdl-al-Molk (b. Tehran ca. 1299/1881, d. 1349 Š./1970), at various times president of the Persian Majles, cabi­net minister, and senator under the Qajar and Pahlavi dynasties.

• EMĪN YOMNĪ, MEḤMED

  Tahsın Yazici

  Moḥammad Amīn (b. Solaymānīya in Persia, 1845, d. Istanbul, 5 April 1924), Turkish poet and man of letters who also wrote in Persian.

• MITHRA iii. IN MANICHEISM

  Werner Sundermann

  The Iranian Manicheans adopted the name of the Zoroastrian god Mithra (Av. Miθra; Mid. Pers.Mihr)and used it to designate one of their own deities.

• GĀVBĀRA

  Cross-Reference

  See DABUYIDS.

• HERZFELD, ERNST ii. HERZFELD AND PASARGADAE

  David Stronach

  Ernst Herzfeld probably devoted more attention to the study of Achaemenid Iran than to any other single topic. His name will always be associated with Pasargadae, the dynastic seat of Cyrus II (the Great), the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.

• ʿABD-AL-QĀDER KHAN JĀʾEŠĪ

  M. Baqir

  Late Mughal biographer (18th-19th century).

• ʿĀMELĪ, ʿABD-AL-MONʿEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-MONʿEM ʿĀMELĪ.

• BĀDĀM

  X. de Planhol, N. Ramazani

  “almond.”  i. General.  ii. As food.  The genus Amygdalus is very common in Iran and Afghanistan and throughout the Turco-Iranian area.

• ČANDARBHĀN BARAHMAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ČANDRA BHĀN BARAHMAN.

• OPTICS

  Elaheh Kheirandish

  The science of “aspects” or “appearances” (ʿelm al-manāẓer), as optics was called in the Islamic Middle Ages, has a long and impressive history in both Arabic and Persian.

• DOKKĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀZĀR i.

• VANDEN BERGHE, Louis

  Ernie Haerinck

  (1923-1993), Belgian archeologist who devoted almost all his research to Iran’s history.

• Greece xiv. Greek Loanwords in Medieval New Persian

  Lutz Richter Bernburg and EIr

• Italy xi. TRANSLATIONS OF PERSIAN WORKS INTO ITALIAN

  Mario Casari

  The period of Italian translations of Persian literary works from the Islamic era began, and not by accident, in the post-Risorgimento (Italian unification) age (1880s) with epic poetry. In fact, apart from the appearance of occasional literary passages, the first truly representative translation is the monumental version of the Šāh-nāma by Italo Pizzi (1886-88).

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• AFRĀSĪĀB i. The Archeological Site

  G. A. Pugachenkova and Ī. V. Rtveladze

  the ruined site of ancient and medieval Samarqand in the northern part of the modern town.

• ARTHROPODS

  ʿA. Aḥmadī and R. G. Tuck, Jr.

  or ARTHROPODA, largest and undoubtedly most diverse animal phylum, comprising an estimated seventy-five to eighty percent of all known species in the kingdom; representatives of both major extant subdivisions occur within Iran.

• BEDLĪSĪ, ŻĪĀʾ-AL-DĪN ʿAMMĀR

  Edward Badeen

  Sufi shaikh (d. between 1194 and 1207-08), teacher of Najm-al-Din Kobrā.

• DĀʿĪ-E ṢAḠĪR

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤASAN b. QĀSEM ʿALAWĪ.

• ENTEBĀH

  L. P. ELWELL-SUTTON

  lit. “Awakening”; a Persian newspaper published in Karbalā, Iraq, in 1914 by Mīrzā ʿAlī Āqā Šīrāzī Labīb-al-Molk, editor of Moẓaffarī published in Būšehr and Mecca.

• PANJIKANT

  Boris I. Marshak

  (Sogd. Pancyknδ), a Sogdian city, the ruins of which are located in the southern periphery of the present-day city of Panjakent in western Tajikistan. The systematic archeological excavations show that this city, situated on the rim of a high terrace overlooking a fertile, well-irrigated valley, was founded in the 5th century C.E. and was inhabited until the 770s.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GĀLEŠĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See GĪLĀN x. LANGUAGES

• HISTORIOGRAPHY xii. CENTRAL ASIA

  Yuri Bregel

  The first Persian historical work produced in Central Asia (Transoxiana, Ḵʷārazm, Farḡāna, and Eastern Turkestan) was the 10th-century translation of the history of Ṭabari.

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ BEG

  J. R. Perry

  (1176-1243/1762-63 to 1827-28), literary biographer, poet, and historian of the early Qajar period.

• AMĪN-AL-SOLṬĀN, ʿALĪ-AṢḠAR KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ATĀBAK-E AʿẒAM.

• BADRĪ KAŠMĪRĪ

  Z. Safa

  Persian poet in India in the second half of the 16th century.

• ČARḴ

  Daniel Balland

  a common toponym all over the Iranian world.

• ŠERVĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  (ŠIRVĀN, ŠARVĀN), a region of Eastern Transcaucasia, known by this name in both early Islamic and more recent times, and now (since 1994) substantially within the independent Azerbaijan Republic, being bounded by the Islamic Republic of Iran on the south, the independent Armenian Republic on the west, and Daghestan of the Russian Federation of States on its north.

• ḎORRAT

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  maize or (Indian) corn, Zea mays L. (fam. Gramineae), with many varieties and hybrids.

• ṢĀʾEB TABRIZI

  Paul E. Losensky

  , MIRZĀ M0ḤAMMAD ʿALI (b. Tabriz, ca. 1000/1592; d. Isfahan, 1086-87/1676), celebrated Persian poet of the later Safavid period.

• GURĀN

  Pierre Oberling

  a tribe dwelling in the dehestān of Gurān, between Qaṣr-e Širin and Kermānšāh (Bāḵtarān), in Kurdistan.

• JAḠATU

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  an archeological site in Ḡazni province, Afghanistan, situated about 20 km north of Ḡazni on the route between Ḡazni and Wardak.

• ĀḠĀ MOḤAMMAD KHAN QĀJĀR

  J. R. Perry

  (r. 1203-12/1789-97), founder of the Qajar dynasty.

• ASADĀBĀD

  C. E. Bosworth

  names of a town in the medieval Islamic province of Jebāl.

• BEHZĀD

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  in the traditional history, the name of the black horse belonging successively to Sīāvoš, Kay Ḵosrow, and Goštāsb.

• CHINESE TURKESTAN vi. Iranian Groups in Sinkiang since the 1750s

  Kim Ho-Dong

• DAMPOḴT(AK)

  Mohammad R. Ghanoonparvar

  or DAMĪ, terms referring to rice cooked in a single pot.

• ĒRĀN, ĒRĀNŠAHR

  D. N. MacKenzie

  ērānšahr properly denotes the empire, while ērān signifies “of the Iranians.”

• GÖTTINGEN, UNIVERSITY OF, HISTORY OF IRANIAN STUDIES

  Ludwig Paul

  History of Iranian Studies at the University of Göttingen.

• GANJAFA

  Cross-Reference

  See CARD GAMES.

• HONARESTĀN-E ʿĀLI-E MUSIQI-E MELLI

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ABDĀLĪ

  C. M. Kieffer

  ancient name of a large tribe, or more particularly of a group of Afghan tribes, better known by the name of Dorrānī since the reign of Aḥmad Šāh Dorrānī (1747-72). 

• AMĪRAK BAYHAQĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  (d. 448/1056), intelligence officer in Khorasan under the early Ghaznavids.

• BAḠDĀDĪ, ABU’L-FAŻL

  H. Algar

  (d. 1155), Sufi whose name appears in the initiatic chain of the Neʿmatallāhī order.

• FARḠĀNĪ, SAʿĪD-AL-DĪN MOHAMMAD

  William C. Chittick

  b. Ahmad (d. 1300), Sufi author from the town of Kāsān in Farḡān.

• CASTLES

  Wolfram Kleiss

  primarily fortified country manors but also permanently inhabited defensive installations, maintained by the authorities along important land routes, and urban citadels, which functioned as administrative centers and places of refuge for inhabitants under siege, particularly in prehistoric and early historic times.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MEYMA ii. The Dialect

  Habib Borjian

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḎU’L-AKTĀF

  Cross-Reference

  See SHAPUR II.

• HĀDI ḤASAN

  K. A. Jaisi

  Indian scholar of Persian literature (1894-1963).

• JALĀL-AL-MOLK

  cross-reference

  See IRAJ MIRZĀ.

• AḤMAD B. BAHBAL

  Hameed ud-Din

  Mughal historian and author of a Persian work, Maʿdan-e aḵbār-e Aḥmadī, also known as Maʿdan-e aḵbār-e Jahāngīrī. 

• AŠƎM VOHŪ

  B. Schlerath

  the second of the four great prayers of the Zoroastrians, the others being: Ahuna vairyō (Y. 27.13), Yeŋˊhē hātąm (Y. 27.15), and Airyəˊmā išyō (Y. 54.1).

• BESMEL ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Zabihollah Safa

  , ḤĀJĪ ʿALĪ-AKBAR, also known as Nawwāb, Persian writer and poet of note of the 18th-19th centuries.

• ḎARʿ

  cross-reference

  See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

• ESʿAD EFENDİ, MEHMED

  Tahsın Yazici

  Moḥammad Asʿad Efendi (b. Istanbul, 14 June 1570; d. Istanbul, 21 June 1625), Ottoman religious figure and author of both Persian and Turkish poetry.

• YASNA

  William W. Malandra

  the name for the central ritual in Zoroastrianism and for the long liturgical text recited during the daily performance of the ritual.

• ḠAWṮ KHAN, NAWWĀB MOḴTĀR-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See NAWWĀB-E DAKHAN.

• ḤOSAYN B. ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA

  cross-reference

  See JALĀYERIDS.

• ʿABDALLĀH MORVĀRĪD

  P. P. Soucek

  (d. 1516), Timurid court official, poet, scribe, and musician.

• ĀMŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀMOL.

• BAHĀRESTĀN (2)

  ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  the name of a garden, public square, and complex of buildings in central Tehran.

• FARĪD

  EIr

  b. Shaikh Maʿrūf BHAKKARĪ, 16-17th century author of an important biographical dictionary in Persian of Mughal notables, the Ḏaḵīrat al-ḵawanīn.

• ČELLA

  Mahmoud Omidsalar, Hamid Algar

  term referring to any forty-day period. i. In Persian folklore. ii. In Sufism.

• KĀŠEFI, KAMĀL-AL-DIN ḤOSAYN WĀʿEẒ

  M. E . Subtelny

  prolific prose-stylist of the Timurid era, religious scholar, Sufi figure, and influential preacher (b. Sabzavār, ca. 1436-37; d. Herat, 1504-5).

• DŪRMEŠ, KHAN

  Roger M. Savory

  or Dormeš; b. ʿAbdī Beg TAVĀČĪ ŠĀMLŪ, powerful Qezelbāš amir, brother-in-law and confidant of Shah Esmāʿīl I.

• MUELLER, Friedrich W. K.

  Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst

  (1863-1930), scholar of oriental cultures and languages, a major contribution to the establishment of the philological and historical study of texts in Middle Iranian and Old Turkish.

• HAFT EQLIM

  Cross-Reference

  See HAFT KEŠVAR.

• JĀMEʿ AL-ḤEKMATAYN

  cross-reference

  See NĀṢER-E ḴOSROW.

• AḤMAD TAKŪDĀR

  P. Jackson

  third il-khan of Iran (r. 680-83/1282-84), seventh son of Hülegü.

• ĀSMĀN

  A. Tafażżolī

  (sky, heavens), in Zoroastrian cosmology the first part of the material (gētīg) world created by Ohrmazd.

• LUT

  Cross-Reference

  Persian word meaning “desert.” See DESERT.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION v. Political parties of the constitutional period

  Mansoureh Ettehadieh

• D'ARCY, JOSEPH

  Kambiz Eslami

  (Pers. “Mester Bārūt,” “Qūlūnel Khan,” “Qonsūl Khan”; b. Portsmouth, England, 14 March 1780, d. Lymington, England, 17 February 1848), major (later lieutenant colonel) in the British Royal Artillery who arrived in Persia in 1226/1811 with the ambassador Sir Gore Ouseley; he was one of a group of British officers and enlisted men who were to reform and equip the Persian army.

• ESḤĀQ MAWṢELĪ

  Everett K. Rowson

  (767?-850), prominent musician at the ʿAbbasid court in Baghdad and the successor of his equally famous father Ebrāhīm Mawṣelī as leader of the conservative school of musicians of the time.

• MESSINA, GIUSEPPE

  Carlo G. Cereti

  , SJ (1893-1951), Italian scholar of Middle and Modern Iranian studies.

• GAZOPHYLACIUM LINGUAE PERSICAE

  Cross-Reference

  See DICTIONARIES iii.

• HÜBSCHMANN, (JOHANN) HEINRICH

  Erich Kettenhofen and Rüdiger Schmitt

  eminent German scholar of Iranian and Armenian studies (1848-1908).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABḴĀZ

  Dzh. Giunashvili

  (also APSUA, APSNI), ethnic group of the Caucasus.

• ANDARĪMĀN

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the name of a number of Turanian heroes in the Šāh-nāma.

• FARROḴĪ SĪSTĀNĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  b. Jūlūḡ, eleventh century Persian court poet.

• CHALDEANS

  Muhammad Dandamayev

  (Kaldu), West Semitic tribes of southern Babylonia attested in Assyrian texts from the early 9th century B.C.

• QOṬB-AL-DIN ḤAYDAR ZĀVI

  Tahsin Yazici

  a famous Sufi of Turkish origin.

• EBN ABI’L ḤADĪD

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. ABU’L ḤADĪD.

• OIL AGREEMENTS IN IRAN

  Parviz Mina

  (1901-1978): their history and evolution. The history of Iranian oil agreements began with an unprecedented concession granted by Nāṣer-al-Din Shah in 1872 to Baron Julius de Reuter.

• ḤĀJI PIRZĀDA

  Anna Vanzan

  , Moḥammad ʿAli Nāʾini, Persian traveler (d. 1904). His diary follows the convention of the Qajar safar-nāmas in its description of the wonders seen abroad (such as  monuments, museums, transportation systems). A pious and traditional man, he expresses a sincere apprehension for those Iranians abroad whom he felt had forgotten their culture and religion.

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• JAPAN x. COLLECTIONS OF PERSIAN BOOKS IN JAPAN

  Cross-Reference

  Forthcoming, online.

• AIRYAMAN IŠYA

  C. J. Brunner

  Gathic Avestan prayer.

• ĀŠRAFĪ

  A. Hairi

  religious leader, born sometime before 1235/1819 and died 1315/1897-98.

• BĪLAQĀN(Ī)

  Cross-Reference

  See BAYLAQĀN.

• DARVĀZ

  Jan-Heeren Grevemeyer

  a largely autonomous principality with territory on both sides of the upper course of the Āmū Daryā, known as the Panj, until the partition between czarist Russia and the Afghan kingdom in the last quarter of the 19th century.

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• BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES ii. In Iran

  Aḥmad Monzawī and ʿAlī Naqī Monzawī

  Persian-language catalogues of manuscripts preserved in libraries in Iran and elsewhere range from detailed works in book form to articles in journals and short lists published separately or as supplements to other publications.

• KARIM KHAN ZAND

  John R. Perry

  (ca. 1705-1779), “The Wakil,” ruler of Persia (except Khorasan) from Shiraz during 1751-79. The Zand were a pastoral tribe of the Lak branch of the northern Lors, ranging between the inner Zagros and the Hamadān plains, centered on the villages of Pari and Kamāzān in the vicinity of Malāyer.

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• ZUR-KHANA

  Cross-Reference

  (zur-khaneh, zurkhaneh), lit. “house of strength,” the traditional gymnasium of urban Persia and adjacent lands. See ZUR-ḴĀNA.

• HYMN OF THE PEARL

  J. R. Russell

  or Hymn of the Soul, a Syriac poem, of which an early Greek translation also exists, composed probably in the third century CE in the region of Edessa.

• ABŪ ʿALĪ MESKAVAYH

  Cross-Reference

  Persian chancery official and treasury clerk of the Buyid period, boon companion, litterateur and accomplished writer in Arabic on a variety of topics, including history, theology, philosophy and medicine (d. 421/1030). See MESKAVAYH, ABU ʿALI AḤMAD.

• ANĪRĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ANĒRĀN.

• BAḴT

  W. Eilers, S. Shaked

  “fate, destiny,” often with the positive sense of “good luck” (ḵᵛošbaḵtī).  i. The term.  ii. The concept.

• FASTING

  Denise Soufi

  in Persia. Both individually and communally, fasting is typically a religious exercise—employed by devotees as means of supplication to the will of God, preparation for rites of devotion, worship of divinity, purification of the body so that spiritual issues can be better comprehended, penitence for transgressions against religious codes, and mourning for deceased persons.  OVERVIEW of entry: i. Among Zoroastrians, Manicheans, and Bahais. ii. In Sunni and Shiʿite Islam.

• CHITON

  Cross-Reference

  See CLOTHING i. Median and Achaemenid periods, iii. Sasanian period.

• ADLER, ELKAN NATHAN

  Dalia Yasharpour

  avid traveler and collector of Hebrew, Judeo-Persian, and Judeo-Tajik manuscripts from the Jewish Persian and Bukharan communities (1861-1946). In 1921, personal circumstances compelled Adler to sell his manuscript and book collections to the Hebrew Union College of Cincinnati and the Jewish Theological Seminary of New York.

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• EBN AL-EḴŠĪD, ABŪ BAKR AḤMAD

  Daniel Gimaret

  b. ʿAlī b. Beḡčor (884-938), Muʿtazilite theologian.

• MUNICH, PERSIAN ART IN

  Avinoam Shalem

  The collecting of Persian art in Munich goes back at least to the reign of Duke Albrecht V (r. 1516-75). Artifacts of oriental origin were mainly registered as exotica. For example, between 1545 and 1550, Hans Mielich (1516-73), the court painter of Albrecht V, provided the duke with an illustrated inventory of the varied treasures in the court, among which is depicted an Ottoman vessel decorated with precious stones.

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• JEBĀL

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  in Arabic, the plural of jabal “mountain,” a geographical term used in early Islamic times for the western part of Persia, roughly corresponding to ancient Media (Ar. māh).

• AḴLĀQ-E MOḤSENĪ

  G. M. Wickens

  an ostensibly serious treatise on ethics by the prolific prose-stylist Kamāl-al-dīn Ḥosayn Wāʿeẓ Kāšefī, completed in 900/1494-95.

• ASTŌDĀN

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  “bone-receptacle, ossuary.” The term has an important place in the vocabulary of ancient Iranian funerary rites.

• BLOCHMANN, HEINRICH FERDINAND

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (also Henry), a German orientalist and scholar of Persian language and literature who spent most of his career in India (1838-1878).

• EXEGESIS ii. In Shiʿism

  Meir M. Bar-Asher

• DAŠTAKĪ, ʿAṬĀ-ALLĀH

  Andrew J. Newman

  (d. 1506, 1511, or 1520), a scholar of Hadith in Khorasan in the late Timurid and early Safavid periods.

• EṢṬAḴRĪ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM

  O. G. Bolshakov

  b. Moḥammad Fāresī Karḵī, 10th-century Muslim traveler and geographer and founder of the genre of masālek (lit. “itineraries”) literature.

• TOPKAPI PALACE

  Zeren Tanındı

  and its Persian holdings. The Topkapı Palace, which was known as the Yeni Saray (New Palace) until the 19th century, served the Ottoman sultans for almost 380 years as the imperial residence and center of command.

• GEŠNĪZ

  Cross-Reference

  See CORIANDER.

• ARMOR ii. In Eastern Iran

  Boris A. Litvinsky

  By the 6th, or even 7th, century BCE, the Scythian and Northern Caucasian nomads had formed a complete complex of defensive armor.

• ABŪ ESḤĀQ NAẒẒĀM

  J. van Ess

  famous adīb and Muʿtazilite theologian.

• BALĀSĀḠŪN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a town of Central Asia, in early Islamic times the main settlement of the region known as Yeti-su or Semirechye “the land of the seven rivers,” now mainly within the eastern part of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

• FĀŻEL KHAN GARRŪSĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Īraj Afšār

  (1784-1843), poet, litterateur, and secretary during the reigns of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah (1797-1834) and Moḥammad Shah Qājār (1834-48).

• CILICIA

  Michael Weiskopf

  the southeastern portion of the present Turkish coast, a satrapy of the Achaemenid empire (6th-4th centuries b.c.e.), subsequently incorporated into the Macedonian and Roman empires.

• NAḴŠABI, ŻIĀʾ-AL-DIN

  Mohammad Karimi Zanjani Asl

  14th-century Češti mystic and author. Though originally from Naḵšab (or Nasaf, in Transoxiana), his family emigrated to India at the time of Mongol incursions.

• EBN MATTAWAYH, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ḤASAN

  Martin McDermott

  b. Aḥmad b. Mattawayh, Muʿtazilite theologian of the Basran school, a student of Qāżī ʿAbd-al-Jabbār (d. 1025).

• KÁRDAKES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  the name of a Persian military unit mentioned several times by Greek and Roman authors, nearly always in relation to the Achaemenid period (cf. Huyse, p. 199, n. 6).

• HĄM.VAINTĪ

  Bernfried Schlerath

  Zoroastrian divinity “Victory,” only attested as a companion with Āxšti “Peace.”

• JIWĀM

  Firoze M. Kotwal and Jamsheed K. Choksy

  “(consecrated) milk,” the designation for one of the organic items—now a mixture of milk and consecrated water—used in the  high or inner liturgical rituals of the Zoroastrians.

• ĀL-E DĀBŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See DABUYIDS.

• ĀTAŠKADA

  M. Boyce

   “house of fire,” a Zoroastrian term for a consecrated building in which there is an ever-burning sacred fire.

• BOLŪḠ

  cross-reference

  See BĀLEḠ.

• DĀVAR

  Cross-Reference

  See DĀTABARA.

• EUROPE, PERSIAN IMAGE OF

  Rudi Matthee

• BOARD GAMES in pre-Islamic Persia

  Ulrich Schädler and Anne-Elizabeth Dunn-Vaturi

  In contrast to the extensive literature describing the role of ancient Persia in the transmission of the games of chess and backgammon, our knowledge of other board games remains scanty. The study of ancient games relies on archeological material which is supplemented by data from epigraphic and iconographic sources, and direct evidence is lacking in most cases.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INDIA xxix. SHIʿITE COMMUNITIES IN

  Cross-Reference

  See CONVERSION iii. TO IMAMI SHI'ISM IN INDIA.

• ABŪ ḤANĪFA ESKĀFĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ESKĀFĪ, ABŪ ḤANĪFA.

• APOLLODORUS OF ARTIMITA

  M. L. Chaumont

  historian of the 1st century B.C. or later, author of a Parthian History.

• BANAFŠA

  H. Aʿlam

  “violet,” common name for the genus Viola L. in New Persian. From certain botanical features of violas there have developed some violet-based similes and metaphors in classical Persian literature.

• FERDOWSI, ABU’L-QĀSEM iii. MAUSOLEUM

  A. Shahpur Shahbazi

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• CLEARCHUS OF SPARTA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (b. Sparta ca. 450 BCE, d. Babylon 401 BCE), son of Rhamphias, Greek general in the service of Cyrus the Younger.

• SEMINO, Barthélémy

  Shireen Mahdavi

  French general, engineer, and linguist in the service of the Qajars in Persia.

• EBN SĪNA

  Cross-Reference

  See AVICENNA.

• TONB

  Guive Mirfendereski

  (GREATER and LESSER), two tiny islands of arguable strategic importance in the eastern Persian Gulf, south of the western tip of Qešm island.

• HARISA

  Etrat Elahi

  a cooked dish made from a mixture of grains, usually half-ground wheat and barley, and meat, usually lamb and more recently sometimes beef.

• JOVAYNI, ṢĀḤEB DIVĀN

  Michal Biran

  ŠAMS-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD b. Moḥammad (d. 1284), Persian statesman of the early Il-khanid period, the younger brother of the historian  ʿAlāʾ-al-Din ʿAṭā-Malek Jovayni.

• ʿALĪʾ-AL-DĪN ATSÏZ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a late and short-reigned sultan of the Ghurid dynasty in Afghanistan (607-11/1210-14).

• AVADH

  R. B. Barnett

  an ancient cultural and administrative region lying between the Himalayas and the Ganges in North India, named after Ayodhyā, the setting of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana.

• BORHĀN-AL-DĪN MOḤAQQEQ TERMEḎĪ

  cross-reference

  See MOḤAQQEQ TERMEḎĪ.

• WEBLOGS

  Alireza Doostdar

  The vast majority of Iranian bloggers write in Persian, although other languages – chief among them English – are also used.

• DAYEAKUTʿIWN

  Robert G. Bedrosian

  a form of child rearing practiced in Armenia and other parts of the Caucasus.

• ʿEZRĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See BIBLE.

• ALAVI, Bozorg

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  (1904-1997), noted Persian novelist.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOD

  Cross-Reference

  See AHURA MAZDĀ; BAGA.

• INSTITUTE FOR IRANIAN PHILOLOGY

  Claus V. Pedersen

  (INSTITUT FOR IRANSK FILOLOGI), University of Copenhagen. i. Forerunners. ii. History. Although the Institute was founded only in 1961, it has a long prehistory, since it is the natural culmination of about 200 years of Iranian studies in the Kingdom of Denmark.

• ABŪ KĀLĪJĀR GARŠĀSP (I)

  C. E. Bosworth

  second son of the Kakuyid amir of Jebāl, ʿAlāʾ-al-dawla Moḥammad b. Došmanzīār, ruled in Hamadān and parts of what are now Kurdistan and Luristan, 433-37/1041-42 to 1045, d. 443/1051-52.

• ʿAQL-E SORḴ

  H. Corbin

  “The Crimsoned Archangel” (lit., “The Red Intellect”), one of the visionary recitals or treatises on spiritual initiation of Sohravardī (d. 1191)

• BANNĀʾĪ

  C. Bromberger

  While the term bannāʾī covers the entire construction field, in this brief study domestic building techniques, in particular, which are more or less part of the traditional crafts, and the recent evolution of popular housing will be emphasized.

• FICTION, ii(a)

  SĪMĪN BEHBAHĀNĪ and EIr

  ii(a). HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MODERN FICTION.  The long reign of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1848-96) and the Constitutional Revolution a decade after his death witnessed the gradual emergence of modern fiction in Persia.

• ČOḠĀ ZANBĪL

  Elizabeth Carter

  or Chogha Zanbil, a city founded by the Elamite king Untaš Napiriša (ca. 1275-40 B.C.E.) about 40 km southeast of Susa at a strategic point on a main road leading to the highlands. After his death it remained a place of religious pilgrimage and a burial ground until about 1000 B.C.E.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KAŠKUL-E ŠAYḴ BAHĀʾI

  Devin J. Stewart

  the title of a large literary anthology compiled by Shaikh Bahāʾ-al-Din Moḥammad ʿĀmeli (q.v.), commonly known as Shaikh Bahāʾi, the gifted polymath and leading jurist of the Safavid empire during most of the reign of Shah ʿAbbās I (r. 1587-1629, q.v.)

• EBRĀHĪM MĪRZĀ

  Marianna S. Simpson

  (b. April 1540; d. 23 February 1577), Safavid prince, patron, artist, and poet generally referred to as Solṭān Ebrāhīm Mīrzā.

• PARSI COMMUNITIES ii. IN CALCUTTA

  Jesse S. Palsetia

  Calcutta became a center of Parsi settlement from the 18th century. Dadabhoy Behramji Banaji is recorded as the first Parsi to have come to Calcutta from Surat in western India in 1767.

• ḤASAN ṢABBĀḤ

  Farhad Daftary

  prominent Ismaʿili dāʿi  and founder of the medieval Nezāri Ismaʿili state (b. 1050s, d. 1124).

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS vi. LEGAL SYSTEM, ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Cross-Reference

  See forthcoming, online. See also AḴBĀRIYA; CIVIL CODE; CONSTITUTION; CONTRACT; FEQH; HADITH.

• ʿALAWĪ, ABD-AL-KARĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-KARĪM ʿALAVĪ.

• AXTAR

  W. Eilers

  (Middle and New Persian) “star” or “constellation.”

• BOZGŪŠ

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the traditional reading of the name of a mythical tribe in Māzandarān mentioned in the Šāh-nāma.

• PERSIAN AUTHORS OF ASIA MINOR PART 2

  Tahsin Yazıcı (prep. Osman G. Özgüdenlı)

• DEHḴODĀ, MĪRZĀ ʿALĪ-AKBAR QAZVĪNĪ

  ʿA.-A. SAʿĪDĪ SĪRJĀNĪ

  (ca. 1879–1956), scholar, poet, and social critic. In all his writing Dehḵodā was a perfectionist and a meticulous craftsman. He was a nationalist, outspoken in his convictions, indifferent to the wrath of powerful men, and a firm believer in Persian culture.

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• FAḴRĪ HERAVĪ, SOLṬĀN-MOḤAMMAD

  Sharif Husain Qasemi

  b. Moḥammad Amīr Khan (or Solṭān) Amīrī Heravī (b. Herat, ca. 1497, d. probably in Agra, after 1566), poet, scholar, and Sufi who wrote on various aspects of the poetic art.

• MATHESON, Sylvia Anne

  Yolande Crowe

  (1916-2006), writer, traveler and archeologist, especially remembered for her pioneering work, Persia: An Archaeological Guide, first published in 1972.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠOLĀM-ḤOSAYN KHAN ṬABĀṬABĀʾI

  Arif Naushahi

  (b. Delhi, 1727-28, d. after 1781), Sayyed, secretary (monši) by profession, political intermediary, and author of a popular history of India called Siar al-motaʾaḵḵerin.

• ABŪ NAṢR ʿOTBĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿOTBĪ, ABŪ NAṢR.

• ĀRAŠ, KAY

  A. Tafażżolī

  Avestan KAVI ARŠAN, a member of the Kayanid dynasty in Iranian legend. 

• BĀRAKZAY DYNASTY

  cross-reference

  See AFGHANISTAN x. Political History ; and DORRĀNĪ.

• FĪRŪZKŪH

  Bernard Hourcade

  name of two towns: (1) a fortified city in the medieval Islamic province of Ḡūr (q.v.) in Central Afghanistan, which was the capital of the senior branch of the Ghurid sultans (see GHURIDS) for some sixty years in the later 6th/12th and 7th/13th centuries; (2) fortress and surrounding settlement in the Damāvand region of the Alborz mountains in northern Persia.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION

  Multiple Authors

  (Enqelāb-e mašrūṭa) of 1323-29/1905-11, during which a parliament and constitutional monarchy were established in Persia.

• KASHMIR ii. PERSIAN LANGUAGE IN KASHMIR

  Siegfried Weber

  Persian was the basis of administrations all over western Asia and the highly prestigious language at the courts.

• EDEB

  Amir Hassanpour

  b. Armanī Bolāḡī (1860-1918), pen name of the Kurdish poet ʿAbd-Allāh Beg b. Aḥmad Beg Bābāmīrī Miṣbāḥ-al-Dīwān.

• FŌLĀDĪ

  Cross-Reference

  Buddhist cave site in Afghanistan. See AFGHANISTAN viii.

• ḤAYĀTI, ABDÜLHAY

  Tahsin Yazici

  or ʿAbd-al-Ḥayy, 15th century poet who wrote a series of Turkish poems modeled on Neẓāmi’s Ḵamsa.

• KADIMI

  Ramiyar P. Karanjia

  a Zoroastrian sect (Ar. qadim “old, ancient”). The movement emerged in 18th-century India.

• ʿALĪ B. ḤĀMED

  cross-reference

  KŪFĪ. See ČĀČ-NĀMA.

• AYYOHAʾL-WALAD

  I. Abbas

  a short treatise by Abū Ḥāmed Moḥammad Ḡazālī Ṭūsī (fl. 450-505/1058-1111), originally composed in Persian.

• BRONZES OF LURISTAN

  Oscar White Muscarella

  the accepted term for a distinct body of metalwork produced in the first half of the first millennium B.C. and characterized by a wide range of idiosyncratic forms and a highly stylized conception of human and animal representation.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SOUR CHERRY

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀLBĀLŪ.

• DĒN

  Mansour Shaki

  theological and metaphysical term with a variety of meanings:  “the sum of man’s spiritual attributes and individuality, vision, inner self, conscience, religion.”

• PERSIS, KINGS OF

  Joseph Wiesehöfer

  the Persian dynasts who between the 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE ruled as Parthian representatives in Persis, southwestern Iran.

• GOLŠAHRI, SOLAYMĀN

  EIr

   or GÜLŞEHRÎ; 13th century Ottoman Sufi and poet who wrote in Persian and Turkish.

• IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIRS

  Malcolm Byrne

  the linkage in the mid-1980s of two separate and distinct U.S. covert operations in Iran and Central America.

• ABŪ SAHL ZŪZANĪ

  Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī

  courtier and official under the Ghaznavid amirs Maḥmūd (388-421/998-1030) and Masʿūd (421-32/1031-41), d. ca. 440-50/1050-59.

• BARGOSTVĀN

  A. S. Melikian-Chirvani

  horse armor, a distinctive feature of Iranian warfare from very early times on. The earliest known helmet (chamfron) has been excavated at Ḥasanlū from a 9th-century B.C. stratum.

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN vi. History and Chronology

  David Pingree

  Bīrūnī’s main essay on political history is now known only from quotations. Discussions of historical events and methodology are found in connection with the lists of kings in his al-Āṯār al-bāqīa and Qānūn, in India, and scattered throughout his other works.

• ČORŪM

  Cross-Reference

  See ČERĀM.

• EFTEḴĀRĪĀN

  François de Blois

  a family of officials and poets from Qazvīn, reputed descendants of the caliph Abū Bakr, who flourished under the early Il-khans in the 13th century.

• FOTŪḤ AL-SALĀṮĪN

  Cross-reference

  Work by Indo-Muslim poet ʿAbd-al-Malek ʿEṣāmi. See ʿEṢAMI, ʿABD-AL-MALEK.

• HECATAEUS OF MILETUS

  Joseph Wiesehöfer

  a Greek author from the city of Miletus in Asia Minor (fl. between 560 and 418 BCE), author of a geographical survey of the regions and the peoples in the Achaemenid empire.

• ABAQA

  Peter Jackson

  (or ABAḠA, “paternal uncle” in Mongolian; ABĀQĀ in Persian and Arabic), eldest son and first successor of the Il-khan Hülegü.

• ʿALĪ AṢḠAR BORŪJERDĪ

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  author of several works including the ʿAqāʾed al-šīʿa, written in 1263/1874 and dedicated to Moḥammad Shah Qāǰār.

• ĀZARMĪGDUXT

  Ph. Gignoux

  Sasanian queen who according to Ṭabarī ruled for a few months in 630.

• BURUSHASKI

  Hermann Berger

  language spoken in Hunza-Karakorum, North Pakistan, containing some Iranian loanwords of various origins.

• KAMĀNČA

  Stephen Blum

  (lit. “small bow”), the most common term throughout much of the Iranian world for a spike fiddle with a small, often spherical, resonating chamber.

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• DEYLAMĪ, ʿABD-AL-RAŠĪD

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-RAŠĪD DAYLAMĪ.

• KHAYYAM, OMAR ix. ILLUSTRATIONS OF ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS OF OMAR KHAYYAM’S RUBAIYAT

  William H. Martin and Sandra Mason

  The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam contain some of the best-known verses in the world. The book is also one of the most frequently and widely illustrated of all literary works. The stimulus to illustrate Khayyam’s Rubaiyat came initially from outside Persia, in response to translations in the West.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GORĀZ

  Cross-Reference

  See BOAR.

• ABU’L-WAZIR MARVAZĪ

  L. A. Giffen

  Secretary and author (d. 186/802).

• ARḠANDĀB RIVER

  D. Balland

  a river in the south of Afghanistan, the biggest tributary of the Helmand. The present name, in the form Āb-e Arḡand, is attested from the 7th/13th century.

• BARTHOLOMAE’S LAW

  M. Mayrhofer

  the name given to a rule of phonetic assimilation in the Indo-Iranian and probably also the proto-Indo-European languages first noted by Christian Bartholomae in 1882.

• ARMENIA AND IRAN iii. Armenian religion

  J. R. Russell

• CROWN PRINCE

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  the officially recognized heir apparent to the throne.

• ELĀHĪ

  Hamid Algar, J. W. Morris, Jean During

  or ʿAlīšāh (1895-1974), innovative and charismatic leader of one branch of the Ahl-e Ḥaqq and author of several texts on its teachings. The most complete presentation is to be found not in his Persian books, destined for circulation among Twelver Shiʿites, but in his unpublished writings in Gūrānī, intended to be read only by Ahl-e Ḥaqq initiates.

• ATEŞ, AHMED

  Tahsin Yazici

  (1911-1966), Turkish orientalist and scholar of Persian literature.

• FRAŠOŠTAR

  Cross-reference

  See JĀMĀSP.

• HELLESPONT

  cross-reference

  See XERXES.

• ʿABD-AL-ʿALĪ BĪRJANDĪ

  D. Pingree

  (or BARJANDĪ) Islamic astronomer, said to have died in 934/1527-28.

• ʿALĪ-QOLĪ KHAN MOḴBER-AL-DAWLA

  Cross-Reference

  See MOḴBER-AL-DAWLA.

• BĀB, ʿAli Moḥammad Širāzi

  D. M. MacEoin

  the founder of Babism (1819-1850).

• ČAḠĀNRŪD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Čaḡānīrūd in Farroḵī, the seventh and last right-bank tributary of the Oxus or Amu Darya.

• KALĀT-E NĀDERI

  Xavier de Planhol

  an elevated, isolated plateau in the mountains of Khorasan, some 150 km north of Mašhad, edged with steep cliffs that transform it into an almost inaccessible natural fortress. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DIBĪR

  Cross-Reference

  See DABĪR.

• ALIZADEH, Ghazaleh

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  (1947-1996), noted novelist and short story writer.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GŌSFAND

  Cross-Reference

  See GUSFAND.

• ĀDĀ

  J. Duchesne-Guillemin

  “requital” in Avestan.

• ARNOLD, THOMAS WALKER

  B. W. Robinson

  , Sir (1864-1930), British orientalist.

• BISOTUN ii. Archeology

  Heinz Luschey

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BABYLONIA ii. Babylonian Influences on Iran

  G. Gnoli

  In the Achaemenid period, the influence of Babylonia was strong in the fields of the arts, science, religion, and religious policies, even affecting the concept of kingship.

• CYRTIANS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  a tribe dwell­ing mainly in the mountains of Atropatenian Media together with the Cadusii, Amardi (or “Mardi”), Tapyri, and others.

• ELYMAIS

  John F. Hansman

  semi-independent state frequently subject to Parthian domination, which existed between the second century B.C.E. and the early third century C. E. in the territories of Ḵūzestān, in southwestern Persia.

• GARMAPADA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  name of the fourth month (June-July) of the Old Persian calendar.

• GABAE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  the name of two places in Persia and Sogdiana.

• HĒRBEDESTĀN

  Firoze M. Kotwal

  (school for priests, religious school), a Middle Persian term designating (1) Zoroastrian priestly studies and (2) an Avestan/Pahlavi text found together with the Nērangestān manuscripts.

• ʿABD-AL-JABBĀR

  D. Duda

  Calligrapher at the Safavid court in Isfahan in the time of Shah ʿAbbās I (17th century).

• ALQĀS MĪRZA

  C. Fleischer

  second of Shah Esmāʿīl’s four surviving sons (1516-1550) and leader of a revolt.

• BĀBAY OF NISIBIS

  N. Sims-Williams

  Christian Syriac writer who flourished about the beginning of the seventh century CE; a homily of his is attested in Sogdian.

• ČAKĀVAK

  Hūšang Aʿlam, Hūšang Aʿlam

  (Mid. Pers. čakōk). i. The lark. ii. A melody in Persian music.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  an institute with a wide range of cultural, artistic, and educational activities for children and adolescents, founded in December 1965.

• DIONYSIUS

  RüDIGER SCHMITT

  (Gk. Dionýsios) of Miletus, Greek historiographer, who may have lived in the 5th century B.C.E. and is said to have written a book about Persian history after the death of Darius I.