Search Results

• BALĀḠĪ, MOḤAMMAD-JAWĀD

  E. Kohlberg

  B. ḤASAN B. ṬĀLEB B. ʿABBĀS RABAʿĪ NAJAFĪ (d. 1933), Imami author, poet, and polemicist.

• ČIÇANTAXMA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  an Iranian personal name signifying “brave in lineage.”

• EBN ḴORDĀḎBEH, ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. ʿAbd-Allāh (fl. 9th century), author of the earliest surviving Arabic book of administrative geography.

• FICTION

  Multiple Authors

  i. Traditional Forms. ii. Modern Fiction. ii(a). Historical Background. ii(b). The Novel. ii(c). The Short Story. ii(d). The Post-Revolutionary Short Story. ii(e). Post-Revolutionary Fiction Abroad. ii(f). By Persians in Non-Persian Languages. ii(g). In Afghanistan. ii(h). In Tajikistan.

• DRIYŌŠĀN JĀDAG-GŌW UD DĀDWAR

  Philippe Gignoux

  Middle Persian title of a Sasanian official, “intercessor and judge of the poor.”

• HAMKALĀM

  Mary Boyce and Firoze Kotwal

  “of the same word, ” a Zoroastrian-Persian priestly technical term.

• JIROFT

  Multiple Authors

  sub-province (šahrestān), town, and dam in Kerman Province. i. Geography. ii. Human geography and environment. iii. General survey of excavations. iv. Iconography of chlorite artifacts.

• ĀL-E ʿALĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALIDS.

• ĀTAŠ

  M. Boyce

  “fire”. Zoroastrian veneration of fire plainly has its origin in an Indo-Iranian cult of the hearth fire, going back in all probability to Indo-European times.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BOḴT-NARSA

  cross-reference

  See NEBUCHADNEZZAR.

• DAULIER DESLANDES

  ANNE KROELL

  (b. Montoire-sur-le-Loir, 1621, d. Paris, 23 October 1715), author of Les Beautez de la Perse ..., a brief but valuable description of Safavid Persia in the years 1075-76/1664-65.

• ETTINGHAUSEN, RICHARD

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  (1906-79), a German-born and educated scholar specializing in the study of Islamic art.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AVICENNA iv. Metaphysics

  M. E. Marmura

• PESTS, AGRICULTURAL

  Cyrus Abivardi

  “Pest” refers to any animal or plant causing harm or damage to people or their animals, crops, or possessions, even if it only causes annoyance. Pests belong to a broad spectrum of organisms. The present article is confined to summary information on the most important insect pests that damage fruit trees and field crops in Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GIFT GIVING iv

  Rudi P. Matthee

  iv. In the Safavid Period.

• ABU’L-ḠĀZĪ BAHĀDOR KHAN

  B. Spuler

  khan of Ḵīva (r. 1054-74/1644 to 1663-64) and Čaḡatāy historian.

• APAMA

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  name of several noble women of the Achaemenid and Hellenistic periods, probably related to the Av. apama- “the latest,” hence “the youngest [child], nestling.”

• BĀMĪĀN

  X. De Planhol, Z. Tarzi, D. Balland

  town and province in central Afghanistan. Bāmīān’s position midway between Balḵ and Peshawar at the approach to the most difficult passes and the resultant opportunities to purvey provisions and accommodation for caravans explain why it became a particularly important stopping place and a chosen site for monumental religious sanctuaries.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CIVIL CODE

  Naser Yeganeh

  (qānūn-e madanī) of Persia, a series of regulations controlling all civic and social relations between individuals in the various circumstances of their lives.

• EBN SAʿD, ʿOMAR

  Jean Calmard

  (k. Kūfa 686), commander of the Omayyad troops at Karbalāʾ.

• ḴĀKSĀR

  Zahra Taheri

  a strictly popular order of Persian dervishes, favored by artisans and shopkeepers.

• HAREM

  A. Shapur Shahbazi, Anna Vanzan

  (Ar. and Pers. ḥaram “sanctuary”), wives and other female associates in former aristocratic families and the secluded quarter of a house reserved for them.

• JOURNALISM ii. Pahlavi Period

  cross-reference

  See forthcoming online.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA ʿALĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  (511-34/1117-40), ruler of the Espahbadīya line of the local dynasty of the Bavandids in the Caspian region of Māzandarān.

• JONAS, Hans

  Kurt Rudolph

  (1903-1993), philosopher who significantly contributed to 20-century research on gnosticism.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BORHĀN-E JĀMEʿ

  Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī

  (Comprehensive proof), title of a dictionary (completed 1833) by Moḥammad-Karīm b. Mahdīqolī Garmrūdī Šaqāqī.

• DĀWŪD B. MOʾMEN

  Cross-Reference

  See JEWISH PERSIAN LITERATURE.

• EYVĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See AYVĀN.

• BAHAISM xii. Bahai Literature

  D. M. MacEoin

  This article is concerned primarily with poetry and belles lettres rather than apologetic, didactic, historiographical, liturgical, or scriptural materials.

• SYKES, Ella Constance

  Denis Wright

  (1863-1939), traveler and writer about Iran, sister of Percy M. Sykes.

• GŌBADŠĀH

  D. N. Mackenzie

  the name of a mythical ruler first appearing in medieval Zoroastrianism.

• INJU DYNASTY

  John Limbert

  (ca. 1325-53), one of the minor dynasties that controlled Persia following the collapse of the Il-Khanid state.

• ABŪ ʿĪSĀ EṢFAHĀNĪ

  J. Lassner

  founder of the ʿĪsāwīya, an obscure Jewish sect in Islamic times.

• AQDAS

  A. Bausani

  more fully al-Ketāb al-aqdas (Pers. Ketāb-e aqdas), “The Most Holy Book,” written in Arabic by Bahāʾallāh, the founder of the Bahāʾī religion.

• BANĪ LĀM

  J. Perry

  a numerous and historically important Shiʿite Arab tribe of northwestern Ḵūzestān, southern Lorestān, and adjacent parts of Iraq.

• CODOMANNUS

  Cross-Reference

  See DARIUS III.

• EBRĀHĪM ḴALĪL KHAN JAVĀNŠĪR

  GEORGE A. BOURNOUTIAN

  Khan of Qarābāḡ in late 18th century.

• NEY-DĀWUD, Morteżā

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi

  (1900-1990), celebrated composer of music and performer and instructor of the tār (a plucked, long-necked lute).

• ḤASAN BAṢRI

  Christopher Melchert

  , ABU SAʿID B. ABI’L-ḤASAN YASĀR, an important early Muslim preacher, theologian, jurist, Koran-reciter, and ascetic (642-728).

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES xii. PERSIAN CONTRIBUTION TO JUDAISM

  Jacob Neusner

  While the Jews of the Parthian and Sasanian empires spoke (eastern) Aramaic, not Middle Persian, Persian influence on Judaism through the Babylonian Talmud (Bavli) is by no means negligible.

• ALAMŪT

  B. Hourcade

  a high, isolated valley in the Alborz 35 km northeast of Qazvīn, the center of an autonomous Ismaʿili state.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AWRANGZĒB

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• BOXTREE

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  Buxus L. spp., šemšād, common name for numerous species of evergreen shrubs or trees of the family Buxaceae. The species B. sempervirens grows wild in lowland or plain forests of the Caspian provinces.

• DEH-E NOW

  Hubertus von Gall

  site of a group of four rock-cut tombs of the 4th-3rd centuries BCE, located about 25 km south of Bīsotūn in Kermānšāhān. It is possible that at least the two smaller tombs were astōdāns.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FAḴR-E MODABBER

  EIr

  pen-name of Moḥammad b. Manṣūr b. Saʿīd, entitled Mobārakšāh, author of two prose works in Persian written in India in the late 12th and early 13th century, a book on genealogy with no formal title and the famous Ādāb al-ḥarb wa’l-šajāʿa.

• BUKHARA vii. Bukharan Jews

  Michael Zand

  “Bukharan Jews” is the common appellation for the Jews of Central Asia whose native language is the Jewish dialect of Tajik.

• PERSIAN AUTHORS OF ASIA MINOR PART 1

  Tahsin Yazıcı (prep. Osman G. Özgüdenlı)

• ḠOLĀM YAḤYĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ABŪ NAṢR FĀMĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  (472-546/1079-1151), local historian of Herat in the Saljuq period.

• ĀRĀN (3)

  ʿA. N. Rażawī

  a small town about 10 km north of Kāšān.

• BAR-E MEHR

  cross-reference

  a fire temple in Yazd. See DAR-E MEHR.

• CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF PERSIAN MONUMENTS

  Eugenio Galdieri and Kerāmat-Allāh Afsar

  in almost every historical period some restoration of Persian monuments has been undertaken either by state authorities or through the efforts of charitable individuals.

• MO’AYYERI, Mohammad Hasan

  Kāmyār ʿĀbedi

  (1909-1968), prominent poet and lyricist, better known as Rahi.

• FLORENCE

  Cross-Reference

  See ŠAH-NĀMA MANUSCRIPTS.

• HAWRAMAN

  cross-reference

  See AVROMAN.

• KABUL RIVER

  Andreas Wilde

  in eastern Afghanistan. It forms one of Afghanistan’s four major river systems and is the only Afghan river that flows, as tributary of the Indus, into the sea.

• ʿALĪ B. ʿABDALLĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALAWAYH AʿSAR.

• ĀYRĪMLŪ

  P. Oberling

  (in Persian often Āyromlū), Turkic tribe of western Azerbaijan.

• BROACH

  cross-reference

  See BHARUCHAS.

• DEMOCEDES

  RÜDIGER SCHMITT

  (Gk. Dēmokḗdēs), Greek physician attached to the court of Darius I and praised as “the most skillful physician of his time” by Herodotus.

• FAQĪR-ALLĀH JALĀLĀBĀDĪ

  Cross-reference

  See AFGHANISTAN xii. LITERATURE.

• CHILDREN iii. Legal Rights of Children in the Sasanian Period

  Mansour Shaki

• SHAH ABBAS I

  Cross-Reference

  Safavid king of Iran (996-1038/1588-1629). Styled "Shah ʿAbbās the Great," he was the third son and successor of Solṭān Moḥammad Shah. See ʿABBĀS I.

• GOLPAR

  Hušang Aʿlam

  any of several perennial aromatic herbaceous plants of the genus Heracleum L. (fam. Umbelliferae) growing wild in humid alpine regions in Persia and some adjacent areas.

• IRAN. JOURNAL OF THE BRITISH INSTITUTE OF PERSIAN STUDIES

  C. Edmund Bosworth and Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis

  The British Institute of Persian Studies (BIPS) was inaugurated in December 1961 in the wake of Queen Elizabeth II’s official visit to Iran in March of that year.

• ABŪ SAHL NAWBAḴT

  D. Pingree

  2nd/8th century astrologer and author.  

• ARDAHANG

  Cross-Reference

  See ARŽANG.

• BĀREZĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀRZĀNĪ.

• CORNELIAN CHERRY

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  the male cornel tree, a dogwood shrub with edible berries.

• EDUCATION xxiv. EDUCATION IN POSTREVOLUTIONARY PERSIA, 1979-95

  Golnar Mehran

• FARĀHRŪD

  Daniel Balland

  river in southwestern Afghanistan, rising at about 3,300 meters above sea level in the Band-e Bayān, and, after a course of 712 km in a south-western direction, ending in the Hāmūn-e Ṣāberī (Sīstān) at an altitude of 475 m.

• FAZEL, JAVAD

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  (1914-1961), noted serial writer, and a pioneering figure in simplifying and popularizing religious texts.

• FORŪGĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN Khan Ḏokāʾ-al-Molk

  Manouchehr Kasheff

  (b. Isfahan, 1839; d. Tehran, 1907), poet, journalist, literateur, translator, and author.

• HEALTH IN PERSIA

  Philippe Gignoux, Amir Arsalan Afkhami

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Pre-Islamic period. ii. Medieval period. iii. Qajar period. iv. Pahlavi period.

• ĀBĀN

  Mary Boyce

  Middle Persian term meaning “the waters” (Av. āpō). In Indo-Iranian the word for water is grammatically feminine; the element itself was always characterized as female and was represented by a group of goddesses, the Āpas.

• ʿALĪ AKBAR ḤOSAYNĪ ARDESTĀNĪ

  K. A. Nizami

  Indo-Muslim taḏkera writer, remembered solely for his unpublished Maǰmaʿ al-awlīāʾ, an encyclopedia of Sufi saints compiled in 1043/1633-34 and dedicated to the Mughal emperor Shah Jahān (1037-68/1628-58).

• ĀẔAR ḴORDĀD

  cross-reference

  See ĀDUR FARNBAG.

• BURDAR

  James R. Russell

  Pahl. burdār “carrier, sustainer,  bringer,” attested in Armenian as a proper name. 

• DĒWĀŠTĪČ

  Boris Marshak

  ruler of Sogdia (706?-22), referred to as “prince of Panč” (Panjīkant) and as “king of Sogdia, ruler of Samarkand” in the portion of his archives discovered at the castle on Mount Mug (Mōḡ), east of Samarkand, on the upper course of the Zarafšān river.

• CINEMA ii. Feature Films

  Jamsheed Akrami

• KĀRGOZĀR

  Morteza Nouraei

  a term used from the early 19th century until the abolishment of capitulation (kāpitulāsion) in 1927 to refer specifically to an agent of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, who was charged with regulating relations between Iranian subjects and foreigners.

• GONBAD-E SORḴ

  Marcus Milwright

  the “Red Tomb,” completed on 4 March 1148, the earliest of five medieval mausolea located in Marāḡa in Azerbaijan. It combines elements of the two common forms of Islamic Iranian monumental tomb, the domed cube, and the conically-roofed circular or polygonal tower. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRANZAMIN, TEHRAN INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

  J. Richard Irvine

  (Irānzamin, Madrasa-ye Baynalmelali-e Tehrān), a combined Iranian and American international school founded in 1967.

• ABŪ TORĀB NAḴŠABĪ

  B. Radtke

  noted 3rd/9th century ascetic.

• ARFAʿ, ḤASAN

  F. Azimi

  Iranian general, born in Tiflis in 1895, the eldest son of the veteran diplomat Prince Reżā Arfaʿ.

• BARSOM

  M. F. Kanga

  (Av. barəsman), sacred twigs that form an important part of the Zoroastrian liturgical apparatus. The number varies according to the ceremony to be performed. Today brass or silver wires are used in place of twigs.

• CROCUS

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  generic name of a large number of hardy bulbous flowering plants of the family Iridaceae.

• EḴTESĀN, TĀJ-AL-MOLK MOḤAMMAD

  Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi

  b. Aḥmad b. Ḥasan ʿAbdūsī Dehlavī (1300-51), author in Persian and secretary (dabīr) at the courts of the Tughluqid sultans Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Tōḡloq and his son Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Mo-ḥammad.

• FARHANG-E HAYĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See HAYĪM, SOLAYMĀN.

• ĀQEVLI, FARAJ-ALLĀH

  Bāqer ʿĀqeli

  (1887-1974), director of Anjoman-e Āṯār-e Melli (The National Monuments Council of Iran) who also held important posts in the gendarmerie and in civilian life.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KĀR-NĀMAG Ī ARDAŠĪR Ī PĀBAGĀN

  C. G. CERETI

  short prose work written in Middle Persian. It narrates the Sasanian king Ardašīr I’s life story—his rise to the throne, battle against the Parthian king Ardawān, and conquest of the empire. 

• FRANKLIN BOOK PROGRAM

  Datus C. Smith, Jr.

  (Moʾassasa-ye entešārāt-e Ferānklīn), an American non-profit corporation seeking to aid development of indigenous book publishing in the developing countries of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The program in Persia (1954-1979, the first after Egypt) was the largest of the seventeen around the world.

• HELĀLI ASTARĀBĀDI JAGATĀʾI

  Michele Bernardini

  Mawlānā Badr-al-Din (Nur-al-Din) accomplished Persian poet of Turkish origin (1470-1529).

• ʿABBĀSĪ

  P. Avery, B. G. Fragner, J. B. Simmons

  A name first applied to the principal gold and silver coins issued by the Safavid king ʿAbbās I (1581-1629); it continued in use until the beginning of the 20th century.

• ʿALĪ B. IL-ARSLAN QARĪB

  C. E. Bosworth

  or ḴᵛĪŠĀVAND, ZAʿĪM-AL-ḤOJJĀB, Turkish military commander of the early Ghaznavids Maḥmūd, Moḥammad and Masʿūd I.

• ʿAŻOD-AL-MOLK, MOḤAMMAD ḤOSAYN

  Ḥ. Maḥbūbī Ardakānī

  (d. 1867), a senior official in the first part of Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah Qājār’s reign. 

• ČAGĀD Ī DĀITĪ

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  (or Dāityā), lit. “summit of the law," a peak of the mythical mountain Harburz, located in Ērānwēǰ in the middle of the world.

• DĪĀLA

  Cross-Reference

  river. See ARVAND-RŪD.

• TAVALLALI, Fereydun

  Kāmyār ʿĀbedi

  (1919-1985), noted poet and writer. His literary career paralleled the dominant social, political, and literary trends of the middle decades of 20th century Iran.

• GORUH-E FARHANGI-E ḴᵛĀRAZMI

  Cross-Reference

  See ḴᵛĀRAZMI SCHOOLS.

• ĀÇINA

  M. A. Dandamayev

  son of Upadarma, a rebel against Darius I.

• ARMENIANS OF MODERN IRAN

  A. Amurian and M. Kasheff

  Armenians can be found in almost every major city of Iran.

• BĀṬEN

  B. Radtke

  (inner, hidden), the opposite of ẓāher (outer, visible). Both terms can be predicated of living beings. Most frequently, however, they are associated with the concept ʿelm (knowledge).

• CYLINDER SEALS

  Edith Porada

  The seals of ancient Persia correspond in their types and use to those of Mesopotamia, beginning with amuletic pendants, which could also be used as seals, and developing into elaborately engraved seal stones, with a change in the Uruk period from stamp to cylinder seals.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿELMĪ

  Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī

  a high school in Tehran with 500 students studying experimental sciences, mathematics, and economy.

• FARMĀN

  Bert G. Fragner

  “decree, command, order, judgement.” The term often denotes a royal or governmental decree, that is a public and legislative document promulgated in the name of the ruler or another person  holding elements of sovereignty.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĀNEŠKADA-YE EṢFAHĀN

  N. Parvin

  a monthly literary journal and the organ of a society of the same name, published in two series in Isfahan by the poet and calligrapher Mirzā ʿAbbās Khan Dehkordi Šeydā (1882-1949).

• Isfahan Mode

  Cross-Reference

  a dastgāh (q.v.) in Persian music. See BAYĀT-E EṢFAHĀN.

• FŪMANĪ, ʿABD-AL-FATTĀḤ

  Sholeh Quinn

  author of the Tārīḵ-e Gīlān, a local history of Gīlān covering the years 1517-1628.

• HERAT iii. HISTORY, MEDIEVAL PERIOD

  Maria Szuppe

  When the Arab armies appeared in Khorasan in the 650s, Herat was counted among the twelve capital towns of the Sasanian empire.

• LĀHŪRĪ, ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD

  Cross-reference

  17th-century Indo-Persian historian and author of the Pādšāh-nāma, the official account of the reign of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahān (1037-67/1628-57). See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD LĀHŪRĪ.

• ʿALLĀMĪ, ABU’L-FAŻL

  Cross-Reference

  Historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar I; see ABU’L-FAŻL ʿALLĀMĪ.

• BĀBAK ḴORRAMI

  Ḡ. -Ḥ. Yūsofī

  leader of the Ḵorramdīnī or Ḵorramī uprising in Azerbaijan in the early 9th century (d. 838), which engaged the forces of the caliph for 20 years before it was crushed in 837.

• ČAHRĪQ

  Amir Hassanpour, Juan R. I. Cole

  a dehestān, village, and fortress in Salmās (Šāhpūr in the Pahlavi period) šahrestān in Azerbaijan between Ḵᵛoy and Urmia.

• DIO CASSIUS

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  (more correctly, Cassius Dio; b. Nicea, Bithynia, ca. 160, d. Nicea, after 229), Roman official whose Rhomaikē Historia is important for the study of Parthian history.

• CORRESPONDENCE iv. On the subcontinent of India

  Momin Mohiuddin

• NEDĀY-E ESLĀM

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (The voice of Islam), a pro-constitutional newspaper lithographed and published in Shiraz, 1907.

• ḠOZZ

  Peter B. Golden, C. Edmund Bosworth

  a significant Turkic tribe in western Eurasia in the 5th century.

• ADĪB NĪŠĀBURĪ

  J. Matīnī

  Persian litterateur and poet (19th century).

• BAYLAQĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a town of the medieval Islamic region of Arrān, the classical Caucasian Albania, lying in the triangle between the Kor and Aras (Araxes) rivers.

• DADARSIS

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  Old Persian name derived from darš “to dare”; three men with this name are known.

• EMĀMZĀDA

  Multiple Authors

  a shrine believed to be the tomb of a descendent of a Shiʿite Imam. such structures are also known as āstāna (lit., threshold), marqad (resting place, mausoleum), boqʿa (revered site), rawża (garden/tomb), gonbad (dome), mašhad (place of martyrdom), maqām (site/abode), qadamgāh (stepping place), and torbat (dust, grave).

• FARŠĒDVARD

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  a Kayanian prince in the Iranian legendary history, son of Goštāsp and brother of Esfandīār.

• ʿABD-AL-MALEKĪ

  P. Oberling

  a Lek tribe of Māzandarān.

• ĀMĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See DEMOGRAPHY.

• BACTRIAN LANGUAGE

  N. Sims-Williams

  the Iranian language of ancient Bactria (northern Afghanistan), attested by coins, seals, and inscriptions of the Kushan period (first to third centuries A.D.) and the following centuries and by a few later manuscript fragments.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CAMBADENE

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  the name of a region (dahyāuš) in ancient Media and present Persian Kurdistan.

• DOʿĀ

  Hamid Algar

  the act of offering supplicatory or petitionary prayer, a principal manifestation of Muslim piety.

• SWEDEN iii. SWEDISH ARCHEOLOGICAL MISSIONS TO IRAN

  Carl Nylander

  This article provides an overview of Swedish archeological missions to Iran from the beginning of contact between Swedish and Persian culture in the 17th century to present times.

• AFḠĀNĪ, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN

  N. R. Keddie

  Outstanding ideologist and political activist of the late 19th century Muslim world, whose influence has continued strong in many Muslim countries (1254-1314/1838 or 39-97).

• ARTAXERXES

  R. Schmitt

  throne name of several Persian kings of the Achaemenid dynasty.

• BE SŪ-YE ĀYANDA

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (Toward the future), Per­sian daily newspaper and unofficial organ of the Communist Ḥezb-e Tūda (Tudeh party, 1950-53.

• DAHBĪDĪYA

  Hamid Algar

  a hereditary line of Naqšbandī Sufis centered on the shrine at Dahbīd, a village about 11 km. from Samarqand.

• ENJĪL

  Cross-Reference

  See BIBLE.

• FĀṬEMĪ, ḤOSAYN

  Fakhreddin Azimi

  (1917-54), journalist, a leader of the National Front, and the minister of foreign affairs under Moḥammad Moṣaddeq.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• OŠNUYA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (now OŠNAVIYA), a small town of southwestern Azerbaijan, on the historic route from the Urmia basin toward the plains of northern Iraq.

• CHORASMIA iii. The Chorasmian Language

  D. N. MacKenzie

• GAGIK

  Cross-Reference

  See ARTSRUNI and BAGRATIDS.

• LARK

  Cross-Reference

  See ČAKĀVAK.

• AMĪN-AL-DAWLA, FARROḴ KHAN ḠAFFĀRĪ

  F. Gaffary

  (1227-88/1812-71), a high ranking Qajar official.

• BADĪHA-SARĀʾĪ

  F. R. C. Bagley

  composition and utterance of something improvised (badīh), usually in verse. Among the Arabs, poetic improvisation was practiced and admired from pre-Islamic times. Among the Iranians, it has been a mark of poetical talent and skill.

• ČARAND PARAND

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  (Čarand o parand), literally “fiddle-faddle,” the title of satirical pieces of social and political criticism in the form of short narratives, brief announcements, telegrams, news reports, etc., by ʿAlī-Akbar Dehḵodā.

• EXCAVATIONS iv. In Chinese Turkestan

  B. A. LitvinskiĬ

  Chinese Turkestan refers to Xinjiang (Sinkiang), the Uighur Autonomous Region of the People’s Republic of China. Other names have often been applied to this part of Central Asia: Serindia (English and French); Ost-Turkestan, Chinesische Ost-Turkestan, Mittelasien (German); Vostochnyĭ Turkestan (Russian). Some of these terms are purely geographical (Mittelasien), some historical (Serindia), and others ethno-cultural (Turkestan).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HERAUS

  D. W. Mac Dowall

  Central Asian clan chief of the Kushans, one of the five constituent tribes of the Yuezhi confederacy in the early first century CE. He struck tetradrachms and obols in relatively good silver.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠUL

  Mahmoud and Teresa P. Omidsalar

  designation of a fantastic, frightening creature in the Perso-Arabic lore.

• JAʿFAR B. MOḤAMMAD B. ḤARB

  Joseph van Ess

  , ABU’L-FAŻL AL-HAMDĀNI (d. 850), also called al-Ašajj ("scar-face" or "skull-broken"), Muʿtazilite theologian who lived in Baghdad.

• AFYŪN

  S. Shahnavaz

  "opium," its production and commerce in Iran.

• ARZAN

  M. Bazin

  "millet." The main species of millet probably originate from the Far East and seem to have been introduced into Iran from India.

• BEHDĪN

  James R. Russell

  “the Good Religion,” i.e., Zoroastrianism, or one of its adherents, in modern usage, specifically of the laity.

• DĀMĀD, MĪR(-E), SAYYED MOḤAMMAD BĀQER

  Andrew J. Newman

  b. Mīr Šams-al-Dīn Moḥammad Ḥosaynī Astarābādī (d. 1041/1631), leading Twelver Shiʿite theologian, philosopher, jurist, and poet of 17th-century Persia.

• EQBĀL PUBLISHERS

  See PUBLISHERS.

• FAŻL-ALLĀH ḤORŪFĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ASTARĀBĀDĪ, FAŻLALLĀH.

• ẒOHUR-AL-ḤAQQ

  Moojan Momen

  (also called Tāriḵ-e Ẓohur-al-Ḥaqq and Ketāb-e Ẓohur-al-Ḥaqq) the most comprehensive history of the first century of the Bahai faith yet written, compiled in nine volumes by Mirzā Asad-Allāh,

• RATHINES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  a general of Pharnabazos, the satrap of the Daskylitis (see DASCYLIUM) under Dareios II and Artaxerxes II (see DARIUS iv and ARTAXERXES II).

• ḠANĪMAT KONJĀHĪ

  Arif Naushahi

  Persian poet from the Indian subcontinent, famous for composing Nīrang-e ʿešq (d. ca 1713).

• HŌMĀN

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  son of Vēsa, in Iranian traditional history one of the most celebrated heroes of Turān.

• ʿABD-AL-VAHHĀB MAŠHADĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  a calligrapher of the 10th/16th century who lived most of his life in Mašhad.

• AMĪR MOḤAMMAD AFŻAL KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See AFŻAL KHAN.

• BAḠAVĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  H. Schützinger

  ʿALĪ B. ʿABD-AL-ʿAZĪZ B. MARZBĀN B. SĀBŪR, traditionist (moḥaddeṯ) and philologist in the 9th century.

• ČAŠMA(-YE) ʿALĪ

  Abbas Alizadeh

  lit. “fountain of ʿAlī,” the name for various natural springs in Iran, the two best-known of which are located near Dāmḡān and Ray respectively.

• DRESDEN, MARK JAN

  Hiroshi Kumamoto

  (b. Amsterdam, 26 April 1911; d. Philadelphia, 16 August 1986), professor at the University of Pennsylvania, where he taught Persian, then various Old and Middle Iranian languages from 1949 until his retirement in 1977.  He worked especially on Khotanese literary texts.

• BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI iii. In the Islamic period up to the Mongol invasion

  C. E. Bosworth

  Early Islamic society was essentially a slave-holding one, and it seems likely that Iranian society of the time exhibited two of the types of slavery known elsewhere in the pre-modern Old World—agricultural/industrial slavery and domestic slavery.

• SAQQĀ-ḴĀNA ii. SCHOOL OF ART

  Hamid Keshmirshekan

  The term saqqā-ḵāna was first used to refer to a contemporary art movement in Iran in 1962. It was initially applied to painting and sculpture which used existing elements from votive Shiʿite art. It gradually came to be applied more widely to art works that used traditional-decorative elements.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤABIB EṢFAHĀNI

  Tahsin Yazıcı

  , MIRZĀ, Iranian poet, grammarian, and translator (1835-93), who spent much of his life in exile in Ottoman Turkey. He is noted for his Persian grammar, Dastur-e Soḵan (Istanbul, 1872), which is regarded as the first systematic grammar of the Persian language and served as a model for many later works.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĀJRUD

  Bernard Hourcade

  a major river of the southern slopes of the central Alborz in the Central Plateau (140 km. long, basin of 1,890 km²).

• AHASUREUS

  W. S. McCullough

  name of a Persian king in pre-Christian Jewish tradition; it appears in the biblical books of Esther (1.1 et passim), Ezra (4.6), and Daniel (9.1) and in the apocryphal book of Tobit (14.15).

• ASĀṬĪR

  Cross-Reference

  See MYTHOLOGY.

• BERENJ “rice”

  Marcel Bazin and Christian Bromberger, Daniel Balland, Ṣoḡrā Bāzargān

  Information as to the precise era in which rice was introduced along the Caspian littoral and on the Iranian plateau does not exist; however, there is circumstantial evidence that rice was not widely grown before the Islamic period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĀNEŠMAND BAHĀDOR

  Peter Jackson

  Mongol com­mander (d. 1306).

• ERGATIVE CONSTRUCTION

  John R. Payne

  The most generally accepted definition of an ergative construction begins with the notion that languages utilize three primitive syntactic relations, referred to as S, A, and O: S- subject of an intransitive clause, A- subject of a transitive clause, and O-object of a transitive clause. An ergative construction is then one in which S has grammatical properties identical to those of O, and distinct from those of A.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FEREŠTA,TĀRĪḴ-E

  Gavin R. G. Hambly

  popular title of Golšan-e ebrāhīmī, a general history of Muslim India by Moḥammad-Qāsem Hendušāh Astarābādī (b. Astarābād ca. 1570), the celebrated historian of the Deccan known by the pen name (taḵalloṣ) of Ferešta.

• RĀHNEMĀ-YE ZENDAGI

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (Guide to life), a biweekly magazine published in Tehran, 1940-41.

• BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES ii. In Iran (continued)

  Aḥmad Monzawī and ʿAlī Naqī Monzawī

• GARDŌY

  Cross-Reference

  sister of Bahrām Čōbīn. See BAHRĀM (2) vii.

• HORN, PAUL

  Erich Kettenhofen

  German philologist and specialist in Iranian languages (1863-1908).

• ʿABDALLĀH BAYĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDALLĀH MORVĀRĪD.

• AMPHIBIANS

  S. C. Anderson

  Twenty species occur in Iran: six salamanders in three genera in two families and fourteen frogs and toads in four genera in four families. The amphibian fauna is most diverse in the northwestern provinces, which have the greatest rainfall and running water throughout the year. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAHĀDOR

  C. Fleischer

  a Turco-Mongol honorific title, attached to a personal name, signifying “hero, valiant warrior.”

• ČEGEL

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  (Jekel), name of a Turkish people in Central Asia known in Persian poetry for the extraordinary beauty of their youths.

• DUGDŌW

  D. N. MacKenzie

  the name of Zoroaster’s mother, which appears in several different spellings in the Pahlavi texts, mostly more or less corrupted from an original attempt at representing the Avestan form.

• NOWRUZ i. In the Pre-Islamic Period

  Mary Boyce

• MANGHITS

  ANKE VON KÜGELGEN

  self-denomination of Mongol and Turkic tribes which played an eminent role in the Golden Horde.

• JAMALZADEH, MOHAMMAD-ALI

  Multiple Authors

  prominent Iranian intellectual, a pioneer of modern Persian prose fiction and of the genre of the short story (1892-1997).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḤMAD MŪSĀ

  P. P. Soucek

  8th/14th century painter. 

• ASK SPRINGS

  E. Ehlers

  Situated at the foot of Damāvand (5,670 m) in the valley of the Harāz-rūd, Ask is one of a number of places in the Alborz where one finds thermal mineral springs.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BHADRACARYĀDEŚANĀ

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  the name of a Buddhist text belonging to the Mahāyāna Tantric tradition of which a Khotanese translation is extant.

• DĀRĀʾĪ, WEZĀRAT

  Cross-Reference

  See FINANCE MINISTRY.

• ESFAHSĀLĀR

  See SEPAHSĀLĀR.

• FICTION, ii(h)

  Keith Hitchins

  ii(h). IN TAJIKISTAN. Tajik fiction in the 20th century has drawn from a variety of sources.

• ḴĀNOM

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a title for highborn women in the pre-modern Turkish and Persian worlds.

• KASRAVI, AḤMAD

  Multiple Authors

  influential social thinker, prominent historian, a pioneer of Iran’s linguistic studies, well-known social and religious reformer with a sense of prophetic mission, and prolific author.

• ḠAZĀLĪ, MAJD-AL-DĪN Abu’l-Fotūḥ AḤMAD

  Nasrollah Pourjavady

  b. Moḥammad b. Aḥmad (ca. 1061-1126), outstanding mystic, writer, and eloquent preacher.

• ḤOSAYNQOLI KHAN MĀFI

  Cross-Reference

  See NEẒĀM-AL-SALṬANA MĀFI, ḤOSAYNQOLI KHAN.

• ĀBĪ

  E. Ehlers

  Persian term for those agricultural lands which are irrigated.

• ʿANBAR

  Ž. Mottaḥedīn

  (ambergris), a waxy, aromatic substance produced in the intestines of stomach of the sperm whale and used in perfumery.

• BAHMANYĀR, AḤMAD

  J. Matīnī

  scholar, educator, and man of letters (1884-1955). His written works are characterized by clarity and simplicity of language.

• ČERKES

  Cross-Reference

  See ČARKAS.

• EAST INDIA COMPANY

  Anne Kroell

  a company established in 1664 to conduct all French commercial operations with the Orient. 

• ḴAZINADĀR

  Willem Floor

  title of the royal treasurer since the early Islamic period.

• TAḎKERAT al-AWLIĀʾ

  Mohammad Esteʿlami

  (Saints’ Lives), a hagiographic account of the sayings and miraculous deeds (karāmāts) of eminent sufis and other religious figures from the early Islamic centuries.

• ḤĀJEB

  C. Edmund Bosworth, Rudi Matthee

  administrative and then military office in the pre-modern Iranian world.

• JANNĀBI, ABU SAʿID

  Cross-Reference

  11th-century vizier and man of letters. See, ĀBI, ABU SAʿID.

• AHURĀNĪ

  B. Schlerath

  feminine deity of the waters.

• ĀŠPAZĪ

  B. Fragner

  "cooking." The history of food consumption in Iran is primarily part of the history of agriculture and stockbreeding on the Iranian plateau.

• BĪDERAFŠ

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  in the traditional history, a Turanian hero of the army of Arjāsp.

• DARIUS viii. Darius Son of Artabanus

  Marie Louise Chaumont

• EŠKĀŠ(E)M

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a settlement in medieval Badaḵšān in northeastern Afghanistan, now in the modern Afghan province of Eškāšem.

• FISH i. FRESHWATER FISHES

  Brian W. Coad

  With about 1,800 km of coastline along the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, and about 990 km on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, plus some inland fresh waters, Persia has a great variety of aquatic fauna: mollusks, crustaceans, chelonians, mammals, and especially fishes.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ARSACIDS viii. MILITARY ARCHITECTURE OF PARTHIA

  Krzysztof Jakubiak

• HUTAOSA

  cross-reference

  See ATOSSA.

• ABŪ AḤMAD B. ABĪ BAKR KĀTEB

  C. E. Bosworth

  poet and official of the Samanids, fl. first half of the 4th/10th century.

• ANGLO-IRANIAN WAR

  Cross-Reference

  See ANGLO-PERSIAN WAR.

• BAIDU

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀYDŪ.

• CHESS

  Bo Utas, Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī

  a board game.

• EBN AL-BAYYEʿ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH B. AL-BAYYEʿ.

• DAVID, JACOB

  Eden Naby

  (1873-1967) Assyrian pastor and relief worker.

• MAGIC ii. IN LITERATURE AND FOLKLORE IN THE ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Mahmud Omidsalar

  Long before scholars in the Renaissance established the difference between scientific and magical varieties of logic, Abu Rayḥān Biruni (d. 1048) demonstrated the incompatibility of these two logics.

• ḤĀLI, ALṬĀF ḤOSAYN

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• JĀVID-NĀMA

  David Matthews

  (Pers. Jāved-nāma), title of a Persian maṯnawi by Muhammad Iqbal, often rendered into English as “The Song of Eternity,” first published in 1932.

• AKBAR FATḤALLĀH

  Ḥ. Maḥbūbī Ardakānī

  prime minister of Iran from Ābān, 1299 Š./October, 1920 to Esfand, 1299 Š./February, 1921.  

• ASTARĀBĀDĪ, FAŻLALLĀH

  H. Algar

  (d. 796/1394), founder of the Ḥorūfī religion.

• BĪT BUNAKKI

  Louis D. Levine

  (or Bīt Burnakki/Purnakki), the name of an Elamite border city mentioned frequently in the eighth and seventh centuries in neo-Assyrian texts.

• DASĀTĪN

  Jean During

  the term for modes in early musical theory, translated into Arabic as aṣābeʿ (fingers) and sometimes also as mawājeb “obligations, laws.”

• EŠQĀBĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See ASHKABAD.

• ARCHEOLOGY i. Pre-Median

  T. C. Young

  As early as the 17th century, a number of European travelers reported with surprise on the remarkable ancient monuments to be seen throughout the countryside. The first scientific and scholarly attempt to deal with one such monument, however, was Rawlinson’s recording of the Bīsotūn (Behistun) inscription (1836-41). While hardly a prehistoric project, that effort, which resulted in the decipherment of Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian cuneiform, led to a quickening of interest in ancient western Asia and in the history and prehistory of Iran.

• SAFINA-YE ḴOŠGU

  Stefano Pello

  An important Indo-Persian taḏkera (collection of biographical notices of poets with anthologies of their verse) of the 18th century, by Bindrāban Dās Ḵošgu.

• GERMANIOI

  Pierre Briant

  (also Karmanians, Carmanians), name of an ancient Persian tribe engaged in farming.

• ILĀM iii. POPULATION

  Habibollah Zanjani

  According to the first national census of 1956, the present province (ostān) of Ilām used to be a sub-province (šahrestān) of the province of Kermānšāhān.

• ABU’L-BARAKĀT BAḠDĀDĪ

  W. Madelung

  5th-6th/11th-12th century physician and philosopher of Jewish origin, born in Balad, a town on the Tigris above Mosul.

• ʿANKABŪTĪĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ARACHNIDS.

• BĀLĀBĀN

  Ch. Albright

  a cylindrical-bore, double-reed wind instrument about 35 cm long with seven finger holes and one thumb hole, played in eastern Azerbaijan in Iran and in the Republic of Azerbaijan.

• CH’ÜAN-CHOU

  Cross-reference

  (Quan-zhou, formerly Jin-jiang; in Islamic sources Zaytūn), Chinese city  in southeastern Fu-jian (Fukien) province on the lower reaches of the Jin-jiang river. See CHINA VIII. PERSIAN SETTLEMENTS IN SOUTHEASTERN CHINA.

• EBN ḴAMMĀR, ABU’L-ḴAYR ḤASAN

  W. Montgomery Watt

  b. Savār (or Sovār), b. Bābā b. Bahrām (or Behnām) Ḵᵛārazmī, philosopher.

• KALILA wa DEMNA i. Redactions and circulation

  Dagmar Riedel

  In Persian literature Kalila wa Demna has been known in different versions since the 6th century CE.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• TIGRAN II

  N. Garsoian

  THE GREAT, king of Armenia (r. 95-55 BCE),  the most distinguished member of the so-called Artašēsid/Artaxiad dynasty.

• ḤAMID QALANDAR

  Khaliq Ahmad Nizami

  (d. 1366), author of Ḵayr al-majāles, the obiter dicta (malfuẓāt) of the Češti shaikh Naṣir-al-Din Maḥmud Čerāḡ-e Dehli, Ḥamid’s father,

• JEWS OF IRAN

  cross-reference

  See JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES.

• ĀL

  A. Šāmlū and J. R. Russell

  a folkloric being that personifies puerperal fever; the name apparently derives from Iranian āl “red.”

• ATĀʾĪYA ORDER

  D. DeWeese

  a branch of the Yasavīya Sufi brotherhood especially active in Ḵᵛārazm from the 8th/14th century.

• BOḴĀRĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ŠARĪF

  Robert D. McChesney

  , ĀḴŪND MOLLĀ, also known as Šarīf-e Boḵārī and Mollā Šarīf, the leading Koran exegete and traditionist in Transoxiana (late 17th century).

• DĀTAMIΘRA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Iranian personal name resulting from an inversion of Miθra-dāta- “given by Mithra” and continued in the New Persian Dādmehr.

• ETTEḤĀD

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of eleven Persian language newspapers.

• ARMY iv. Afšar and Zand Periods

  J. R. Perry

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MELZER, UTO

  Nosratollah Rastegar

   (1881-1961), teacher, author, and independent scholar.

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DIN TOḠLOQ

  Cross-Reference

  See DELHI SULTANATE i; TUGHLUQIDS.

• ABU’L-FAŻL SĀVAJĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  (1248-1312/1832-95), a scholar, calligrapher, poet, and physician active in Qajar court circles.

• ANZALĪ

  Marcel Bazin

  town in Gīlān at the mouth of the lagoon (mordāb) bearing the same name.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BĀMDĀD

  N. Parvīn

  a weekly Persian newspaper published in Tehran, 1907.

• ČIΘRA

  Cross-Reference

  See ČEHR.

• EBN RABĪṬ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDĀN B. AL-RABĪṬ.

• KAMĀL-AL-MOLK, MOḤAMMAD ḠAFFĀRI

  A. Ashraf with Layla Diba

  (ca. 1859–1940), widely acclaimed Iranian painter of the European academic style during the late Qajar and early Pahlavi periods. He descended from a family that had produced a number of artists since the Afsharid period, including his paternal great-grandfather, Mirzā Abu’l-Ḥasan Mostawfi, a court painter during the reign of Nāder Shah Afshar (r. 1736-47) and Karim Khan Zand (r. 1750-79).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• PERSONAL NAMES, IRANIAN vi. ARMENIAN NAMES OF IRANIAN ORIGIN

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Linguistic research has documented that the majority of Iranian lexical and other borrowings in Armenian originated in the Parthian language.

• HARĀSP

  cross-reference

  See ZAV.

• JOSEPH ii. In Qurʾānic Exegesis

  Annabel Keeler

  In the Qurʾān, the story of the prophet Joseph is unique in being related as one continuous narrative, making up almost the entirety of chapter (sura) 12.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ KĀLĪJĀR GARŠĀSP.

• ĀTUR

  Cross-Reference

  "fire." See ĀDUR and ĀTAŠ.

• BORĀQ

  Bertold Spuler

  ruler of the Chaghatay khanate in Transoxiana (1266-71), a great-grandson of Jengiz Khan and a son of Yesün-Toʾa.

• DAWR (2)

  Jean During

  (Ar. and Pers. lit. “circle”), a term applied to scales and also to rhythmic cycles, both commonly diagramed as circles (dāʾera, dawr) in the classical musicology of Persian, Arab, and Turkish groups.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EXILARCH

  Isaiah M. Gafni

  (Hebrew resh galuta), the leading authority in the Jewish community in Babylonia.

• PUYANDA, Moḥammad-Jaʿfar

  Jalil Doostkhah

  (1954-1998), scholar and translator of literary texts and sociological studies. He never joined any political organization or party, but was a diligent defender of democracy and freedom of speech and belief. He had a key role in reorganizing the Writers Association of Iran (Kānun-e nevisandagān-e Irān) in August 1998. On 8 December 1998, he was kidnapped, and later his suffocated body was found in a suburb of Tehran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GLADWIN, FRANCIS

  Parvin Loloi

  (d. ca. 1813), lexicographer and prolific translator of Persian literature into English.

• INDUSTRY, TRADITIONAL

  cross-reference

  See CRAFTS.

• ABU’L-HAYṮAM GORGĀNĪ

  H. Corbin

  Ismaʿili philosopher, for a long time one of the great unknown figures in the history of Irano-Islamic philosophy.

• ĀQĀ ZANJĀNĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  , MĪRZĀ, also known as Ḵamsaʾī, a calligrapher active between1869-70 and 1890.

• BANG KAUP, JOHANN WILHELM MAX JULIUS

  P. Zieme

  (known as Willy), German orientalist (1869-1934). From 1893 onward Bang Kaup also devoted time to research in the promising area of the Old Turkish stone inscriptions.

• COCKSCOMB

  Cross-Reference

  See BOSTĀNAFRŪZ.

• EBRĀHĪM DEDE ŠĀHEDĪ

  Tahsin Yazici

  Turkish poet and lexicographer.

• MARICQ, André

  Philippe Gignoux

  gifted epigrapher who died prematurely at the age of 34 (1925-1960).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤASAN B. ʿALI AL-QOMMI

  David Pingree

  , ABU NAṢR, astrologer of the late 10th century.

• ʿALAM KHAN

  J. R. Perry

  viceroy of the Afsharid state of Khorasan, 1161-68/1748-54.  

• AWLĪĀʾALLĀH ĀMOLĪ

  W. Madelung

  the author of the history of Rūyān, Tārīḵ-e Rūyān, written about 760/1359.

• BOT

  William L. Hanaway, Jr.

  a term frequent in poetry with meanings ranging from an idol in the literal sense to a metaphor for ideal human beauty. These senses have been used since the earliest surviving Persian poetry.

• DEER

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀHŪ, RED DEER.

• FAḴR-AL-DĪN ASʿAD

  Cross-Reference

  See GORGĀNĪ, FAḴR-AL-DĪN ASʿADĪ.

• BUKHARA ii. From the Arab Invasions to the Mongols

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  The first appearance of Arab armies there is traditionally placed in Moʿāwīa’s caliphate when, according to Naršaḵī, ʿObayd-Allāh b. Zīād b. Abīhe crossed the Oxus and appeared at Bukhara (673-74).

• EASTWICK, EDWARD BACKHOUSE

  Parvin Loloi

  (1814–1883), orientalist and diplomat, best known for his translations from Persian and Indian languages.

• ḠOLĀM

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement; on ḡolāms as military slaves, see BARDA AND BARDA-DĀRĪ.

• ARAL SEA

  B. Spuler

  Daryā(ča)-ye Ḵᵛārazm, inland sea in western Turkestan, bounded since 1924 and 1936 by Karakalpaqistan (part of the Soviet Republic of Uzbekistan) in the south and Kazakhstan in the north.

• BAQLĪ, RŪZBEHĀN

  cross-reference

  , ShAIKH. See RŪZBEHĀN.

• CONGRATULATIONS

  Žāla Āmūzgār

  the custom of conveying congratulations on such happy occasions as the birth of a child, a birthday anniversary, a marriage, a coronation, or a national or religious festival.

• QARAKHANIDS

  Cross-Reference

  see ILAK-KHANIDS.

• FLANDIN AND COSTE

  Jean Calmard

  a French painter and an architect renowned for their outstanding illustrated account of their travels in Persia during 1839-41. Coste took responsibility for the architectural renderings and monumental plans; Flandin, the representation of architectural details, large tomb reliefs, and picturesque views.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HATRA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (Ḥaṭrā; Ar. Ḥażr), a strongly fortified city in Upper Mesopotamia (today northern Iraq), situated at lat 35°40′ N, long 42°45′ E in the midst of the desert steppe of the northern Jazīra.

• ALFĪYA VA ŠALFĪYA

  Cross-Reference

  name given to illustrated books, in particular one by Azraqī, describing various kinds of sexual relationships between men and women. See AZRAQI.

• ʿAYN-AL-QOŻĀT HAMADĀNĪ

  G. Böwering

  (492/1098-526/1131), brilliant mystic philosopher and Sufi martyr.

• BRITAIN

  cross-reference

  See ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS; GREAT BRITAIN.

• DELOUGAZ

  Ezat O. Negahban

  (b. Ukraine, 16 July 1901, d. Čoḡā Mīš, Persia, 29 March 1975), archeologist and excavator of the ancient site of Čoḡā Mīš in Persia.

• FANĀ ḴOSROW

  Cross-reference

  See ʿAŻOD-AL-DAWLA, FANĀ ḴOSROW.

• KHWARAZMSHAHS i. Descendants of the line of Anuštigin

  Clifford Edmund Bosworth

  After the Saljuq takeover in Khwarazm in the early 1040s, the Saljuq Sultans appointed various governors in the province, including several Turkish ḡolām commanders.

• GOLGUN, FARID-AL-DAWLA Mirzā MOḤAMMAD-ḤASAN KHAN HAMADĀNI

  Parviz AḏkāʾI

  (1877-1937), constitutionalist and journalist.

• ABŪ RAŠĪD NĪSĀBŪRĪ

  D. W. Madelung

  Muʿtazilite scholar. He was probably born not later than 360/970.

• ARD YAŠT

  P. O. Skjærvø

  Middle Persian name of the Avestan hymn dedicated to Aši.

• BARDESANES

  P. O. Skjærvø

  (Syr. Bar Dayṣān, Ar. Ebn Dayṣān), gnostic thinker (154-222) who occupies a position between the Syriac gnostic systems of the first two centuries A.D. and the Iranian gnostic system of Mani of the third century.

• CORBIN, HENRY

  Daryush Shayegan

  (b. Paris 14 April 1903, d. Paris 7 October 1978), French philosopher and orientalist best known as a major interpreter of the Persian role in the development of Islamic thought.

• FARAḤĀBĀD

  Wolfram Kleiss

  The city of that name on the coast of the Caspian Sea in Māzandarān, at the terminus of the so-called “royal road” from Isfahan, was part of a Safavid building program that also included Ašraf/Behšahr, the ʿAbbāsābād dam, the Qara Tappa palace, and other projects.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• WOMEN ii. In Shiʿism

  Moojan Momen

  In theory, Shiʿism has a more favorable attitude towards women than Sunni Islam. These favorable differences are largely annulled, however, by some specific Shiʿite practices as well as the social realities of women’s lives in Shiʿite communities. 

• FORTRESSES

  Cross-reference

  See CASTLES.

• ḤAZIN

  Jean During

  in Persian music, a small guša (melodic type) of the Persian classical model repertoire radif.

• ABAD

  Joseph van Ess

  “Eternity a parte post,” Arabic theological term meaning “eternity a parte post” (already in early Muʿtazilite theology); it corresponds to Greek atéleuton. It sometimes also serves as a general term for unlimited time (dahr).

• ʿALĪ B. SOLṬĀN-MOḤAMMAD

  A. Welch

  , MĪRZĀ, a master painter of the early Safavid period.

• ĀŽANG

  N. Parvīn

  (Wrinkle), a Persian newspaper which commenced publication in Esfand, 1332 Š./February, 1954, and lasted until 1353 Š./1974.

• BUN-XĀNAG

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  term in the inscriptions of Kirdīr at Naqš-e Rostam (KKZ and KNRm), variously interpreted.

• DESMAISONS, JEAN-JACQUES-PIERRE

  CATHÉRINE POUJOL

  or Petr Ivanovich Demezon (b. Chambéry, in the kingdom of Sardinia, 1807, d. Paris, 1873) diplomat and compiler of an important Persian-French dictionary.

• CHRISTIANITY v. Christ in Manicheism

  Werner Sundermann

• KANGDEZ

  Pavel Lurje

  (lit. “Fortress of Kang,”), a mythical, paradise-like fortress in Iranian folklore.

• GONĀBĀDI, ʿEMĀD-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD

  Shiro Ando

  or Jonābādi, b. Zayn-al-ʿĀbedin b. Neẓām-al-Din Moḥammad (b. 1415), Timurid financial officer and vizier.

• IRĀNŠAHR (4)

  Jamshid Behnam

  monthly Persian journal, published in forty-eight issues in Berlin by Ḥosayn Kāẓemzāda Irānšahr,  June 1922 to February 1927. Two principal tendencies can be distinguished in these articles:  a strong interest in ancient Persia and its language and culture, and belief in the potency of a nationalistic spirit.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ ṬĀLEB KHAN LANDANĪ

  M. Baqir

  Official and author in British India (18th-19th century).

• ʿĀREF QAZVĪNĪ

  J. Matīnī, M. Caton

  ABU’L-QĀSEM (ca. 1300-1352/1882-1934), poet, musician, and singer during and after the Constitutional Revolution. 

• BARRASĪHĀ-YE TĀRĪḴĪ

  N. Parvīn

  journal of historical studies of Iran, 1966-78. Some of the articles, particularly those bearing on the eighteenth and nineteenth cen­turies and descriptive geography, were well researched and original. The journal also published a number of historical documents.

• WILD THYME

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀVĪŠAN.

• EKEŁEACʿ

  James Russell

  Gk. Akilisēnē, region along the Euphrates in northwest Armenia.

• FARHANG

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the title of five newspapers and magazines printed in Persia and Europe.

• AMIR KABIR PUBLISHERS

  EIr

  Major Persian publishing house active from 1949 to 1979.

• SOLṬĀN WALAD

  Cross-Reference

  13th-14th-century Sufi shaikh and poet, son and eventual successor of Mawlānā Jalāl-al-Din Rumi(Mawlawi). See BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN SOLṬĀN WALAD.

• FRANCE xii(c). IRANIAN STUDIES IN FRANCE: SOCIAL SCIENCES AND MODERN PERSIA

  Bernard Hourcade

• ḤEKMAT

  Nasseredin Parvin

  the first Persian-language newspaper to be published in an Arab country,  published in Cairo, 1892-1911.

• ʿABBĀS MĪRZĀ QAJAR

  H. Busse

  Son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah and father of the line of Qajar rulers from Moḥammad Shah on (1789-1833).

• ʿALĪ-NAQĪ

  R. Skelton

  a Safavid miniature painter, whose works follow the manner of his father, Shaikh ʿAbbāsī; he is known from the inscriptions on seven paintings dated between 1684-85 and 1700-01.

• ʿAZĪZ-AL-SOLṬĀN

  A. Amanat

  (1879-1940), better known as Malījak(-e) Ṯānī [II], the boy favorite of Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah Qājār. 

• TENTS i. General Survey

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  The most common type of tent in Iran and Afghani­stan is the “black tent” (constructed of bands of woven goat hair stitched together), which is known from Mauritania to India.

• DHARMAŚARĪRA-SŪTRA

  Hiroshi Kumamoto

  a short Buddhist text belonging to the Mahāyānist tradition.

• ŠARIF KHAN, Moḥammad

  Fabrizio Speziale

  (d. ca. 1807), physician at the court of the Mughal emperor, Shah ʿĀlam II (r. 1760-1806), author, and the eponymous founder of the Šarifi family of physicians.

• GORGĀNI, ABU’L-HAYṮAM AḤMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-HAYṮAM GORGĀNI.

• ACƎKZĪ

  C. M. Kieffer

  (ACAKZĪ, or AČƎKZĪ, AČAKẒĪ), a tribal grouping of Paṧtūn clans in Afghanistan and Pakistan.

• ARMĀʾĪL

  Jes P. Asmussen

  legendary figure in the myth of Ẓaḥḥāk.

• BAST

  J. Calmard

  (sanctuary, asylum), the designation of cer­tain sanctuaries in Iran that are considered inviolable and were often used by people seeking refuge from prosecution.

• CURTIUS RUFUS, QUINTUS

  Philip Huyse

  (probably fl. 1st century c.e.), author of the only extant Latin mono­graph on Alexander the Great, usually called Historiae Alexandri Magni, in many respects the most complete and liveliest account of Alexander’s exploits in Asia.

• ELJIGIDEI

  Peter Jackson

  or Īlčīktāy, Īljīkdāy; the name of two Mongol generals.

• FARĪDAN

  Mīnū Yūsofnežād

  a county (šahrestān) located at the foot of the Zagros mountains in the western part of Isfahan province, bordered on the north by Ḵᵛānsār, on the northwest by Alīgūdarz (in Lorestān province), on the west by the county of Farīdūn-æahr, on the east by Najafābād, and on the south by Šahr-e Kord and Fārsān.

• CANADA v. Iranian Community in Canada

  M. Mannani, N. Rahimieh, K. Sheibani

  the immigration records of the organization Statistics Canada for the period between 1896 and 1915 date the arrival of the first Iranian immigrants to between 1901 and 1902; Canada remains among the most popular destinations for Iranians seeking to emigrate, and Iranian immigrants to Canada are the fifth most numerous of any nationality.

• KĀSEMI, NOṢRAT-ALLĀH

  Mostafa Alamouti and EIr.

  (1908-1996), physician, poet, writer, orator, and politician.

• FROGS

  Cross-reference

  See AMPHIBIANS.

• HERACLES

  Albert de Jong

  (Gk. Hēraklēs, Lat. Hercules), one of the most popular Greek gods in the Hellenistic East and by far the best-attested Greek god in the Iranian world.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. AḤMAD

  C. E. Bosworth

  Vizier of the Ghaznavids in the late 5th/11th to early 6th/12th century. He is described as serving Sultan Ebrāhīm b. Masʿūd (451-92/1059-99).

• ALLĀHVERDĪ KHAN (2)

  C. Fleischer

  (d. 1072/1662), son of Ḵosrow Khan (d. 1063/1653), a Safavid ḡolām of Armenian origin.

• BĀBĀʾĪ BEN FARHĀD

  Amnon Netzer

  18th-century author of a versified history of the Jews of Kāšān with brief references to the Jews of Isfahan and one or two other towns.

• ČAHĀRMEŻRĀB

  Jean During

  a genre of traditional rhythmic instrumental music.

• DĪNAVARĪ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH

  Josef van Ess

  b. Mobārak (d. first half of the 10th century), author of a tafsīr (koranic exegesis) entitled al-Wāżeḥ fī tafsīr al-Qorʾān, which is preserved in several manuscripts.

• CONVERSION iii. To Imami Shiʿism in India

  Juan Cole

• GOWJA FARANGI

  Cross-Reference

  See TOMATO.

• ISLAM AKHUN

  Ursula Sims-Williams

  (Eslām-āḵūn), treasure-seeker and swindler active in Khotan and neighboring areas between 1894 and 1901, best known, however, as an adept forger of manuscripts and block prints. He was eventually unmasked by Sir Aurel Stein (1862-1943) in 1901.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ADHAM, MĪRZĀ EBRĀHĪM

  W. Thackston

  11th/17th century poet.

• ARŠTĀT

  Cross-Reference

  See AŠTĀD.

• BAYHAQĪ, ABU’L-FAŻL

  Ḡ.-Ḥ. Yūsofī

  MOḤAMMAD B. ḤOSAYN, secretary at the Ghaznavid court and renowned Persian historian (995-1077).

• DĀD (1)

  Mansour Shaki

  (Av. dāta- “law, right, rule, regulation, statute, command, institution, decision”), in the Zoroastrian tradition the most general term for law.

• EMĀMĪ, JAMĀL

  Fakhreddin Azimi

  (b. 1901, Koy; d. 1966, Paris), politician.

• MAJLESI, MOḤAMMAD-TAQI

  Rainer Brunner

  b. Maqṣud-ʿAli Eṣfahāni, commonly referred to as Majlesi-ye Awwal, an important Twelver Shiʿite jurist and Hadith scholar of the Aḵbāri school.

• KHAKSAR, Mansur

  Khosrow Davami

  poet, writer, editor and political activist. Khaksar completed his primary and secondary education in Abadan, and had two eminent Persian poets, Maḥmud Mošref Tehrāni and Ḥassan Pastā, as his teachers in the last two years of high school. In 1959, his first poem was published in Omid-e Irān, a noted weekly journal published by Moḥammad Āṣemi in Tehran.

• GAUGAMELA

  Ernst Badian

  site of one of the greatest battles in history, resulting in the decisive victory of Alexander the Great over Darius III on 1 October 331 B.C.E.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DIZK

  Cross-Reference

  See JIZAK.

• SHAPUR II

  Touraj Daryaee

  (r. 309-79 CE), longest reigning monarch of the Sasanian dynasty.

• Great Britain xii. The Persian Community in Britain (2)

  Namdar Baghaei-Yazdi

  This entry will be treated in two separate articles: (1) Persian Community and (2) The Library for Iranian Studies.

• ISRAEL ii. JEWISH PERSIAN COMMUNITY

  David Yeroushalmi

  Jews of Persian origin and their descendants who live in the State of Israel and constitute an integral and active part of its general population.

• AELIANUS, CLAUDIUS

  M. L. Chaumont

  a sophist of the first third of the 3rd century CE, from Praenest near Rome. His chief service to Iranian history was the preservation of some data from the works of Ctesias of Cnidus, the Greek physician of Artaxerxes II.

• ARTASYRAS

  M. A. Dandamayev

  Greek rendering of an Old Iranian name.

• BĀZ-NĀMA

  Moḥammad-Taqī Dānešpažūh

  books or treatises on the keeping and training of falcons.

• DĀḠESTĀNĪ, FATḤ ʿALĪ KHAN

  Roger M. Savory

  b. Alqāṣ Mīrzā b. Ildirim Khan Šamḵāl, grand vizier (wazīr-e aʿẓam, eʿtemād-al-dawla) under Shah Solṭān-Ḥosayn I Ṣafawī (1105-35/1694-1722).

• ENDOWMENTS

  Cross-Reference

  See CHARITABLE FOUNDATIONS. See under individual entries, such as BONYĀD-E FARHANG-E ĪRĀN;BONYĀD-E ŠAHĪD; BONYĀD-E ŠĀH-NĀMA-YE FERDOWSĪ.

• FATĀWĪ-E ʿĀLAMGĪRĪ

  S. H. Qasemi

  abridged Persian translation by Qāżī Najm-al-Dīn Khan Kākorī of a six-volume Arabic work on Hanafite law (ed. Būlāq, 1859) considered the authoritative compendium of religious law, policy, and practice in India.

• OMAN, SEA OF

  Willem Floor

  the sea, or gulf, which divides Iran and the Arabian peninsula and forms the link between the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea.

• KALEMĀT-E MAKNUNA

  Moojan Momen

• ḠAFFĀRĪ, ḠOLĀM-ḤOSAYN KHAN

  Kambiz Eslami

  (1859-1947), Qajar official from the time of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah to that of Aḥmad Shah, considered one of the more congenial figures of the Qajar bureaucracy. His inability to deal effectively with critical situations was often a political liability. His collection of Qajar photographs is impressive in size and for the explanatory captions.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HINZ, (A.) WALTHER

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  German scholar of Persian and Elamite studies (1906-1992).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN B. SAMORA

  M. G. Morony

  Arab general who campaigned in Sīstān (d. 50/670).

• AMĪN BALYĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See BALYĀNĪ, AMĪN-AL-DĪN.

• BADĪʿ-AL-ZAMĀN

  M. E. Subtelny

  (d. ca. 1514), Timurid prince, who rebelled against his father,  Sultan Ḥosayn Bāyqarā (r. Herat 1469-1506).

• CAPUCHINS IN PERSIA

  Francis Richard

  from 1626 onward the French Capuchins established a number of missionary posts in the Near East.

• DONBAK

  Cross-Reference

  See TONBAK.

• EXEGESIS vi. In Aḵbārī and Post-Safavid Esoteric Shiʿism

  Todd Lawson

• BOTANICAL JOURNAL OF IRAN

  Valiolla Mozaffarian

  (Žurnāl-e giāhšenāsi-e Irān), begun in 1976 as an outcome of the National Botanical Garden of Iran. The contributions are in English with brief abstracts in Persian.

• GUILLEMIN, MARCELLE

  Anne Draffkorn Kilmer

  (b. Liège, Belgium, 1907; d. Liège, 1997), a well known scholar of ancient Near Eastern organology and ancient music theory.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JACKAL

  Steven C. Anderson

  , Golden or Asiatic (Canis aureus, MPers. tōrag, NPers. tura, šaḡāl), a medium-size member of the dog family (Canidae) occurring throughout Afghanistan and Iran. Scavenging supplies a small percentage of the diet, especially in habitats away from humans; and carrion consists mainly of road kill and, around villages, garbage. Jackals are omnivorous, opportunistic feeders, eating fruits and vegetables as well as hunting small animals.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFSŪS

  M. Baqir

  (AFSŌS), the taḵalloṣ of MĪR ŠĪR-ʿALĪ, late 18th century poet and translator of India.

• ĀRYĀNĀ

  ʿA. Ḥabībī

  Bulletin of the Historical Society of Afghanistan.  

• BEHBAHĀNĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Hamid Algar

  , AYATOLLAH (1874-1963), a leading mojtahed of Tehran who played a role of some importance in the events of the first two postwar decades.

• DAL’VERZIN TEPE

  G. A. Pugachenkova

  a large site in southern Uzbekistan located not far from the bank of the Surkhan­darya river near Denau, a small city approximately 60 km northeast of Termez; it has yielded valuable data on the civilization and arts of northern Bactria and Tokharistan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EQBĀL

  Cross-Reference

  a newspaper. See EḤTĪĀJ.

• FĀŻEL TŪNĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN

  Hūšang Etteḥād

  (b. Tūn, 1871; d. Tehran, 1960), scholar and teacher of Islamic philosophy.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SPIEGEL, FRIEDRICH (VON)

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (1820 -1905), German orientalist and scholar of Iranian studies.

• PHILATELY vi. POSTAL HISTORY

  Mano Amarloui

  The postal service is a government institution whose very nature entails facilitating communication among its citizens, and between its citizens and those living in other countries.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GANDOM

  Daniel Balland and Marcel Bazin

  “wheat,”  both the plant and the grain. Wheat bread has been the staple of local diets throughout Iranian plateau for millennia. A very broad range of bread wheat varieties has traditionally been grown in the Iranian lands, especially in Afghanistan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HOLDICH, THOMAS HUNGERFORD

  Denis Wright

  , Colonel Sir, British Army officer and Anglo-Indian surveyor (1842-1929). He joined the Survey of India in 1865 and was Superintendent of Frontier Surveys from 1891 until retirement in 1898.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABD-AL-VĀḤED B. ZAYD

  P. Nwyia

  (d. 177/793), Sufi, the leading personality among the ascetics trained in the school of Ḥasan Baṣrī.

• AMĪR KABĪR, MĪRZĀ TAQĪ KHAN

  H. Algar

  (1222-68/1807-52),  also known by the titles of Atābak and Amīr-e Neẓām; chief minister to Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah for the first four years of his reign and one of the most capable and innovative figures to appear in the whole Qajar period.

• BĀḠ-E SALṬANATĀBĀD

  cross-reference

  See SALṬANATĀBĀD.

• CARUS

  Fridrik Thordarson

  Imperator Caesar MARCUS AURELIUS (Augustus), Roman emperor (r. 282-83).

• ZRANKA

  Cross-Reference

  territory around Lake Hāmun and the Helmand river in modern Sistan. See DRANGIANA.

• JAMŠID ii. In Persian Literature

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

• MOMAYYEZ, Morteżā

  EIr

  (1936-2005), illustrator, painter, teacher and writer who played a pivotal role in the development of graphic design in contemporary Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GYPSUM

  Dietrich Huff

  soft mineral produced from natural gypsum rock by firing in kilns or piles and subsequent pulverization by pounding and grinding.

• JAHM B. ṢAFWĀN

  Joseph van Ess

  , ABU MOḤREZ, Islamic theologian of the Umayyad period (d. 746). Documentation about him is scarce and not entirely reliable.

• LIME

  Cross-Reference

  a solid, white substance consisting essentially of calcium oxide. See ĀHAK.

• AʿSAR, ʿALAWAYH ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALAWAYH AL-AʿSAR.

• BĒMA

  Werner Sundermann

  the chief festival of the Manicheans. The Greek word bēma meant “platform,” “stage,” or “judge’s seat.” 

• VETERINARY MEDICINE

  Cross-Reference

  See DĀM-PEZEŠKĪ.

• EREVAN

  Erich Kettenhofen, George A. Bournoutian and Robert H. Hewsen

  ancient city and modern capital of the Republic of Armenia. After the Qara Qoyunlu made Erevan the administrative center of the Ararat region in the 15th century, travelers and historians frequently mentioned it as a major city of the region. It figured in the Ottoman-Safavid conflict of the 16th century, as both parties struggled for the control of the city and of all eastern Armenia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FLAGS

  Multiple Authors

  This article is meant to supplement earlier entries on Iranian vexillology (see ʿALAM VA ʿALĀMAT, BANNERS, and DERAFŠ).

• NĀDER SHAH

  Ernest Tucker

  ruler of Iran, 1736-47. He rose from obscurity to control an empire that briefly stretched across Iran, northern India, and parts of Central Asia, with a reputation as a skilled military commander and with  success in battle against numerous opponents, including the Ottomans and the Mughals.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SWEDEN iv. Iranian Community

  Hassan Hosseini-Kaladjahi and Melissa Kelly

  formation of the Iranian community (immigration), demographic profile and geographic distribution, economic, social, cultural and political life, and finally, return to Iran or emigration to other countries.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GARDEN iii. INFLUENCE OF PERSIAN GARDENS IN INDIA

  Howard Crane

  Traces of Sultanate period gardens in the Persian style survive around Delhi in the citadel (Kōṭlā) of the Tughluqid Fīrūzšāh III (1351-88) and at Vasant Vihar (14th century). Mughal landscape architecture, which was characterized by terraced sites, čahārbāḡ  plans, and raised walks, is perhaps most renowned for its dramatic and inventive use of moving water.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HORMOZDGĀN

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  , BATTLE OF,  the engagement which brought Ardašir I and the Sasanian dynasty to power, 28 April 224 CE..

• ʿABDALLĀH B. NAJĀŠĪ

  ʿA. N. Monzavī

  Shiʿite governor of Ahvāz under the caliph Manṣūr (8th century).

• AMOL WARE

  Y. Crowe

  a type of incised pottery apparently dating from the 12th-13th centuries.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN ḴARAQĪ

  D. Pingree

  , ABŪ BAKR MOḤAMMAD (d. 1138-39), author of a work was on astronomy, geography, and chronology.

• ČĀVOŠ

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  or ČĀVŪŠ, used in classical Persian texts with the meanings of 1. army commander; 2. master of ceremony or person in charge of the servants; 3. caravan leader; or, more specifically, 4. a guide on the road to Mecca or holy shrines.

• ARCHITECTURE vii. Pahlavi, before World War II

  D. N. Wilber

  Two features of Reżā Shah’s efforts for the modernization of Iran were related to the architectural construction of the period. One was his reference to the country’s ancient history, which should inspire the present generation to achieve new glories. The other was his desire to adopt aspects of Western civilization in such a fashion that Iran would become equal to the West.

• CROWN iii. On monuments from the Islamic conquest to the Mongol invasion

  Elsie H. Peck

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DAWLATSHAH, MOHAMMAD-ALI MIRZA

  Cross-Reference

  (1789-1821), eldest son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah and powerful prince-governor of western provinces of Persia. See DAWLATŠĀH, MOḤAMMAD-ʿALĪ MĪRZĀ.

• JAMĀL-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD EṢFAHĀNI

  D. DURAND-GUÉDY

  poet and painter of the second half of the 12th century.

• AḤMAD-E JĀM

  H. Moayyad

  a Conservative Sufi with unreserved loyalty to the Šarīʿa (1049 -1141).

• ASII

  F. Thordarson

  (or ASIANI), an ancient nomadic people of Central Asia, who about 130 B.C. put an end to Greek rule in Bactria.

• BĒṮ SELŌḴ

  Michael Morony

  “house of Seleucos,” abbreviation of Karkā ḏe Bēṯ Selōḵ, “fortress of the house of Seleucos,” modern Kirkuk in Iraq.

• DĀRĀBGERD

  Cross-Reference

  See Dārā(b) II.

• EʿTEṢĀMĪ, PARVĪN

  Heshmat Moayyad

  (b. Tabrīz, 1907; d. Tehran, 1941), 20th-century female poet, daughter of the journalist and man of letters Yūsof Eʿteṣāmī.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FICTION, ii(c)

  Jamāl Mīrṣādeqī

  ii(c). THE SHORT STORY. Historically, the modern Persian short story has undergone three stages of development: a formative period, a period of consolidation and growth, and a period of diversity.

• INDO-IRANIAN FRONTIER LANGUAGES

  Elena Bashir

  This article surveys Indo-Iranian frontier languages the territory of present-day Pakistan, which have been under the cultural and linguistic influence of successive stages of the Persian language since the time of the Achaemenid Empire.

• W~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the W entries

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD, ii, iii

  W. Montgomery Watt

  ii. The Eḥyāʾ ʿolum al-dīn, iii. The Kīmīā-ye saʿādat. 

• ḤOSAYNI BALḴI

  ʿAbd-al-ḥayy Ḥabibi

  13th-century translator into Persian of Wāʿeẓ-e Balḵi’s no longer extant Arabic work, the Fażāʾel-e Balḵ.

• ABHARĪ, ABŪ BAKR

  B. Reinert

  Sufi of Persian ʿErāq (d. 941-42).

• ANAPHAS

  R. Schmitt

  Persian male name.

• BAHMAN-ARDAŠĪR

  M. Morony

  (or Forāt Maysān), ancient and medieval town and subdistrict in Maysān in lower Iraq. The town of Forāt is known from the first century A.D. as a fortified terminus for caravan trade on the left bank of the lower Tigris, eleven or twelve miles downstream from Charax.

• ČERĀḠ-ʿALĪ KHAN SERĀJ-AL-MOLK ZANGANA

  Denis M. MacEoin

  (d. after 1281/1864-65), a leading govern­ment official during the early reign of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah.

• EARTH IN ZOROASTRIANISM

  Cross-Reference

  See ELEMENTS i.

• RĀVANDI, Qoṭb-al-Din Saʿid

  Etan Kohlberg

  Imami author, traditionist, and jurist (d. Qom, 14 Šawwāl 573/5 April 1178).

• ḤAIM, ŠEMUʾEL

  Amnon Netzer

  generally known as Monsieur Ḥaim or Mister Ḥaim, journalist and Majles deputy (b. Kermānšāh, 1891; executed Tehran, Dec. 15, 1931).

• JAND

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a medieval Islamic town on the right bank of the lower Jaxartes in Central Asia some 350 km from where the river enters the Aral Sea.

• AHU

  B. Schlerath

  two homonymous Avestan terms: (1) “Existence, life” in a range of religious phrases, (2) “Lord, overlord,” linked with ratu- “lord, judge.”

• ASPARUKH

  D. M. Lang

  a Middle Iranian proper name attested in ancient Georgia and early medieval Bulgaria.

• BĪDĀRĪ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (lit. wakefulness) the name of three Persian newspapers published in Tehran (1907), Rašt (1920), and Kermān (1923-53) and also the name of several other Persian-language periodicals.

• DARIUS iii. Darius I the Great

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  third Achaemenid king of kings (r. 29 September 522-October 486 BCE). Once he gained power, Darius placed the empire on foundations that lasted for nearly two centuries and influenced the organization of subsequent states, including the Seleucid and Roman empires.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ESKANDARĪ, MOḤTARAM

  Mehrangīz Dawlatšāhī

  a pioneer advocate of women’s rights in Persia (1895-1925) and the founder and leader of the first women’s association in Persia, namely Jamʿīyat-e taraqqī-e neswān, later Jamʿīyat-e neswān-e waṭanḵᵛāh (Society of Patriotic Women).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FISCAL SYSTEM i. ACHAEMENID, ii. SASANIAN

  Mohammad A. Dandamayev, Rika Gyselen

  There probably was no clear distinction between state and royal incomes in the Achaemenid empire. All state receipts were considered royal property, as was the income from the king’s estates. Beginning from ca. 519 B.C.E., when Darius I established a new tax system, the peoples subject to the Persians paid 7,740 Babylonian talents of silver (i.e., 232,200 kg) a year.

• XIONGNU

  Étienne de la Vaissière

  (Hsiung-nu), the great nomadic empire to the north of China in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, which extended to Iranian-speaking Central Asia and perhaps gave rise to the Huns of the Central Asian Iranian sources.

• KASHMIR v. PERSIAN INFLUENCE ON KASHMIRI ART

  Mehrdad Shokoohy

  The Iranian influence on the art and architecture of Kashmir is indirect, appearing in ancient times via Hellenistic and Kushan culture and later through Muslim India. 

• GENDER RELATIONS i

  Farzaneh Milani

  Gender relations in Persia.  Overview of article: i. In Modern Persia, ii. In the Islamic Republic.

• HUNTINGTON, ELLSWORTH

  Ursula Sims-Williams

  American geographer (1876-1947). In Central Asia ihe collected extensive data and acquired several manuscripts and wooden documents in Kharoṣṭhī, Tibetan, Sanskrit, and Khotanese.

• ABU’L-ʿABBĀS ʿANBARĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿANBARĪ.

• ANGLO-AFGHAN TREATY OF 1905

  J. A. Norris

  an agreement pertaining to British control of Afghan foreign policy and related matters.

• BAḤRĀNĪ, HĀŠEM

  W. Madelung

  B. SOLAYMĀN (d. 1695-96), Imami Shiʿite scholar and author. The number of his books and treatises is said to have approached seventy-five.

• CHASE

  Cross-Reference

  See HUNTING IN IRAN.

• EBN BĀKŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀBĀ KŪHĪ.

• WILLOW

  Cross-Reference

  See BĪD.

• ḴAYĀL, Mir Moḥammad-Taqi

  Mohammad Sohayb Arshad

  (d. 1759), Indian author of the Persian dāstān titled Bostān-e Ḵayāl.

• ḤĀL

  Jean During

  (lit. condition, state), an essential notion in Persian arts, especially music, which is supposed to bring about a meditative state.

• JAUBERT, PIERRE AMÉDÉE ÉMILIEN-PROBE

  Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam

  (1779-1847), French orientalist, who also served as interpreter and diplomat at Napoleon Bonaparte’s court.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḴAWAYNĪ BOḴĀRĪ

  H. H. Biesterfeldt

  4th/10th century physician who worked in Bukhara.

• ĀSTĀRĀ

  M. Bazin

  a town and a district in the Ṭāleš region on the Caspian coast.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BĪŠĀPŪR

  Edward J. Keall

  ancient and medieval town in Fārs, in the Sasanian period the administrative center of one of the five districts in the province of Fārs.

• DARYĀ-YE ʿOMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿOMĀN, SEA OF.

• ESOTERIC SECTS

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀṬENĪYA; ḠOLĀT; ISMAʿILISM.

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN viii. Indology

  Bruce B. Lawerence

  Bīrūnī’s magnum opus in Indology is Ketāb taḥqīq mā le’l-Hend men maqūla maqbūla fi’l-ʿaql aw marḏūla (The book confirming what pertains to India, whether rational or despicable).

• ʿONṢORI

  EIr

  (ca. 961-1039), celebrated Persian poet of the early Ghaznavid period.

• GERDKŪH

  Farhad Daftary

  a fortress on the summit of an isolated rocky hill in the Alborz mountains, situated some 18 km west of Dāmḡān in northern Persia.

• IHĀM

  N. Chalisova

  literally meaning “making one suppose,” a term applied to a rhetorical figure (badiʿ), a kind of play on words based on a single word with a double meaning.

• ABŪ BAKR SAMARQANDĪ

  I. Abbas

  (d. 268/881), a Hanafite jurist about whose life the available sources furnish no information.

• ANJOMAN-E SAʿĀDAT

  H. Algar

  (The Association of Felicity), an organization of Iranians resident in Istanbul, devoted to furthering the cause of the Iranian constitution between 1908 and 1912.  

• CHROMITE

  Raḥmat-Allāh Ostovār

  FeCr2O4, a dark-brown or black mineral from which chromium is refined.

• EBN AL-JONAYD, ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD

  Wilferd Madelung

  or al-Jonaydī; b. Aḥmad Kāteb Eskāfī, 10th century Imami jurist.

• SPULER, Bertold

  Werner Ende, Bert Fragner, Dagmar Riedel

  (1911-1990), German scholar of East European history and Oriental studies.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SINDHI

  Christopher Shackle

  A language of the Indo-Aryan family. Many of its numerous distinctive features may be attributed to the isolated position in the lower Indus valley of Sindh.

• ḤAMDĀN QARMAṬ

  Wilferd Madelung

  b. al-Ašʿaṯ (d. 933), Ismaʿili dāʿi and founder of the Ismaʿili movement in Iraq.

• JESUITS IN SAFAVID PERSIA

  Rudi Matthee

  The Fathers of the Society of Jesus were the first European missionaries to enter the Persian Gulf in the 16th century.

• ĀḴŪND, ḤĀJJ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ AKBAR ŠAHMĪRZĀDĪ.

• ATĀBAKĀN-E FĀRS

  B. Spuler

  princes of the Salghurid dynasty who ruled Fārs in the 6th/12th and 7th/13th centuries.

• BOḴĀRĪ, ʿABD-AL-KARĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-­KARĪM BOḴĀRĪ.

• DASTŪR AL-KĀTEB FĪ TAʿYĪN AL-MARĀTEB

  David O. Morgan

  administrative manual written by Moḥammad Naḵjavānī (ca. 1280-after 1366), son of Faḵr-al-Dīn Hendūšāh b. Sanjar Naḵjavānī, author of Tajāreb al-salaf.

• EṮNĀ-ʿAŠARĪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See SHIʿITE DOCTRINE; SHIʿITE DOCTRINE ii. Hierarchy in the Imamiyya.

• ARMENIA and IRAN v. Accounts of Iran in Armenian sources

  M. Van Esbroeck

• LOCUST

  Cyrus Abivardi

  (in modern taxonomy, Pers. malaḵ-e mohājer), the term used for any gregarious, short-horned grasshopper. The generic Persian term malaḵ (vs. Mid. Pers. mayg in the Pahlavi Vendidad; Av. maδaxa-) is regarded as a borrowing from an Eastern Iranian language (cf. Pashto malax[ay]).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN DAŠTAKĪ

  Cross-Reference

  (1462-1541), scholar, philosopher, and motakallem (theologian) of the late Timurid and early Safavid period, and, for a brief interval under Shah Ṭahmāsb, one of two ṣadrs (chief clerical overseers). See DAŠTAKI, GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN.

• ABU’L-FAŻL ABŪ MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. VĀSEʿ.

• ANŪŠERVĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  B. MANŪČEHR B. QĀBŪS, ruler of the Daylamī dynasty of the Ziyarids in Ṭabarestān and Gorgān during the early 11th century.

• BALŪṬ

  H. Aʿlam

  common designation in New Persian both for acorn and oak, Quercus L. In west and southwest Iran, where well-defined stands of oak exist, their total surface area has been estimated at 3,448,000 hectares, divided into two main areas: west Kurdistan and the Sardašt region, and on the southwestern slopes of the Zagros.

• ČISTĀ

  Jean Kellens

  and Čisti; Avestan derivatives of the verb cit “to notice, to understand.”

• EBN AL-QAṢṢĀB, ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR MOʾAYYAD-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Richard W. Bulliet

  b. ʿAlī (b. ca. 1128), Shiʿite vizier of the caliph al-Nāṣer from 1194 to 1195 .

• PERSONAL NAMES, IRANIAN i. PRE-ISLAMIC NAMES: GENERAL

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  The system of formation of personal names attested in the Iranian languages to a great extent agrees with that known from most of the other Indo-European languages.

• ḤAQIQAT (1)

  Nasseredin Parvin

  (“truth”), title of six different Persian-language newspapers or periodicals, published at various times in Tehran, Rašt, Isfahan, Kabul, and Aarhus (Denmark).

• JORJĀN

  cross-reference

  See GORGĀN.

• ĀL TAMḠĀ

  G. Doerfer

  “red seal,” Turkish term for the supreme seal of the Mongol Il-Khans of Iran.

• ATSÏZ ḠARČAʾĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  ruler of Ḵᵛārazm with the traditional title Ḵᵛārazmšāh, 521 or 522/1127 or 1128 to 551/1156.

• BOOK OF ZAMBASTA

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  a Khotanese poem on Buddhism. It is the longest indigenous literary compo­sition in the Khotanese language and played a crucial role in the decipherment of the Khotanese language.

• DAWLATḴĒL

  Daniel Balland

  tribal name common among the eastern Pashtun at various levels of tribal segmentation.

• EWEN NĀMAG

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀʾĪN-NĀMA.

• MIRʿALĀʾI, Aḥmad

  Jalil Doostkhah

  (1942-1995), editor of three literary magazines and translator of works of Western literature.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GITI

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a leftist daily paper published from 24 June 1943 to December 1943 by Ḵalil Enqelāb Āḏar as the official organ of the Workers union.

• INDUS RIVER

  cross-reference

  See INDIA ii.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN TAFREŠĪ

  L. Richter-Bernburg

  (1261-1323/1845 to 1905-06), medical instructor, author, and public health official in late Qajar Persia.

• ĀQĀ MOḤAMMAD KHAN QĀJĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀḠĀ MOḤAMMAD KHAN.

• BANDAR-E MĀHŠAHR

  X. De Planhol

  (Bandar-e Maʿšūr), a port at the western end of the Persian Gulf, on the northern bank of the Ḵor-e Mūsā tideway, which forms the lower course of the Jar(r)āḥī river.

• COASTAL REGION

  Cross-Reference

  See BALUCHISTAN, FĀRS.

• EBRĀHĪM B. MASʿŪD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Maḥmūd b. Sebüktegīn, Abu’l-Moẓaffar, Ẓahīr-al-Dawla, Rażī-al-Dīn, etc., Ghaznavid sultan (r. 1059-99). 

• MAJD, Loṭf-Allāh

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi and EIr

  tār player known for his brilliant virtuosity and distinctive style (1917-1978).

• ALAK-DOLAK

  H. Javadi

  the game of tipcat, played for centuries in Iran, Afghanistan, and surrounding countries.

• ʿAWĀREŻ

  W. Floor

  term used since 4th/10th century to denote extraordinary imposts of various kinds, the nature of which differed per area and historic period.

• BOST

  Klaus Fischer, Xavier de Planhol

  archeological site and town located near the confluence of the Helmand and Arḡandāb rivers in southwest Afghanistan.

• DECORATIONS

  Yaḥyā Šahīdī

  In Persia there were no orders in the Western sense, but only decorations and medals. The practice of awarding such honors was initiated by Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah (r. 1797-1834), who introduced the Lion and sun (nešān-e šīr o ḵoršīd) in 1808, apparently inspired by the Red Crescent adopted by the Ottoman sultan Salīm III (r. 1789-1807).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FAHHĀD, FARĪD-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ

  David Pingree

  or ʿAbd-al-Karīm, b. ʿAbd-al-Karīm Šarvānī (fl. 12th cent.), the most prolific producer of astronomical tables (zīj) in the Islamic world.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BOUNDARIES iv. With Iraq

  Joseph A. Kechichian

  In 1921, Iraq became a state under British mandate, inheriting the old Ottoman dispute with Iran over the Šaṭṭ al-ʿArab. Relations between Iran and Iraq were thus strained from the beginning.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• YARKAND

  Pavel Lurje

  a town in Chinese Turkestan, at the southwestern end of the Tarim Basin (38°27' N, 77°16' E; alt. 1,190 m).

• GOL-E GOLĀB, ḤOSAYN

  Cross-Reference

  (1895-1985) botanist, musician, poet, scholar, and member of the Farhangestān. See GOL-GOLĀB.

• ABU’L-MOʾAYYAD BALḴĪ

  G. Lazard

  An early Persian poet and writer of the Samanid period, whose works have almost entirely disappeared.

• ARACHNIDS

  ʿA, Aḥmadī and R. G. Tuck, Jr.

  or ARACHNIDA, Pers. ʿankabūtīān. The largest chelicerate class of the invertebrate phylum Arthropoda. Zoogeographically, the Iranian arachnid fauna differs little from that of adjacent regions. General behavior and life history information available from authoritative entomology and invertebrate zoology texts applies to Iranian representatives as well.

• BĀQER, ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD

  W. Madelung

  The fifth imam of the Twelver Shiʿites (7th-8th century).

• CONCESSIONS

  Willem Floor, Mansoureh Ettehadieh [neẓām māfī]

  (emtīāzāt), grants by a state to citizens, aliens, or other states of rights to carry out specific economic activities and of capitulatory rights on its territory.

• ECOLOGY

  Eckart Ehlers

  Five primary ecological regions may be distinguished in Persia, each with a characteristic combination of features: the Caspian lowlands, the Alborz system and mountain ranges in Khorasan, the Persian plateau, the Zagros system with the Makrān mountain ranges, and the lowlands along the Persian Gulf.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CYPRUS in the Achaemenid Period

  Antigone Zournatzi

  The kings of the southeastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus reportedly submitted willingly to Cyrus II and offered military assistance to the Persians in their campaigns against Caria and Babylon (539 BCE).

• ZOROASTER v. AS PERCEIVED IN WESTERN EUROPE

  Michael Stausberg

  There is a continuous tradition of reports about Zoroaster among early and later medieval Christian historians, chroniclers, and annalists. In slightly modified form, this tradition continues through the early modern periods stretching from Humanism to Enlightenment.

• ḤĀTAMI, ʿALI

  Jamsheed Akrami

  (b. Tehran, 1944; d. Tehran, 1996), Iranian scriptwriter and film director. For all his interest in dealing with the characters and incidents shaping the political and social history of the Qajar and Pahlavi periods, Ḥātami’s films are not particularly concerned with faithful representation and historical accuracy. He preferred a more creative interpretation.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KABISA

  Simone Cristoforetti

  Arabic term used in calendrical context; “intercalary,” “embolismal.” It is applied to several readjustments that occurred in the Iranian solar calendar.

• JAMSHIDI TRIBE

  Christine Noelle-Karimi

  (Jamšidi) one of several semi-nomadic, Persian-speaking, Hanafite Sunni groups of northwestern Afghanistan known as aymāq.

• AYĀZ, ABU’L-NAJM

  J. Matīnī

  favorite Turkish slave of the Ghaznavid Sultan Maḥmūd, whose passion for Ayāz is a recurrent theme in Persian poetry, where he is also called Ayās or Āyāz.

• BRĒLVĪ

  cross-reference

  See BARĒLVĪ.

• DELHI SULTANATE

  Gavin R. G. Hambly, Catherine B. Asher

  Muslim kingdom established in northern India by Central Asian Turkish warlords at the turn of the 13th century and continuing in an increasingly persianized milieu until its conquest by Bābor in 1526. The political style of the rulers of Delhi reflected traditional concepts of Persian kingship, for Iltutmiš (r. 1211-36) and his successors lacked any other obvious tradition to draw upon.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FALSAFĪ, NAṢR–ALLĀH

  Manouchehr Parsadoust

  (b. Tehran, 1901; d. 1981), Persian historian, educator, journalist, translator, and poet.

• KASRA’I, Siavash

  Kāmyār ʿĀbedi

  (1926-1996), Marxist poet and political activist.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLESTĀN TREATY

  Elton L. Daniel

  agreement arranged under British auspices to end the Russo-Persian War of 1804-13. The origins of the war can be traced back to the decision of Tsar Paul to annex Georgia (December 1800) and, after Paul’s assassination (11 March 1801), the activist policy followed by his successor, Alexander I.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MONʿEMĪ

  Cross-Reference

  18th-century historian of Kashmir. See ABU’L-QĀSEM MOḤAMMAD ASLAM.

• ARCHELAUS

  M. Tardieu

  the assumed author of a Christian polemic against the Manicheans composed before 348 CE.

• BARD-E NEŠĀNDA

  K. Schippmann

  a complex of ancient ruins in Ḵūzestān, situated 18 km northwest of the town of Masjed-e Solaymān (where similar ruins exist) at 675 m altitude on the edge of the Baḵtīārī mountains.

• COPRATES

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀB-E DEZ.

• MAKRĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  (also Mokrān) the coastal region of Baluchistan, extending from the Somniani Bay to the northwest of Karachi in the east westwards to the fringes of the region of Bashkardia/Bāšgerd in the southern part of the Sistān and Balučestān province of modern Iran.

• FORESTS AND FORESTRY ii. In Afghanistan

  Cross-Reference

  See AFGHANISTAN xiii.

• HAZĀRA iv. Hazāragi dialect

  Charles M. Kieffer

  The number of hazāragi speakers is approximately 1.8 million. The Afghan hazāragi varieties of Persian are essentially very close to modern tājiki, or rather of modern dari Persian, or even kāboli Persian, but their typology still has to be fully defined.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀB-E ḤAYĀT

  Cross-Reference

  Āb-e Ḥayāt, also called ʿAyn al-Ḥayāt or Nahr al-Ḥayāt, meaning the fountain of life, is associated with Ḵeżr, who is identified with the unnamed companion of Moses in the Koran (18:65-82). See ĀB ii. Water in Muslim Iranian culture.

• ʿALĪ B. ʿOMAR

  cross-reference

  KĀTEBĪ QAZVĪNĪ. See NAJM-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ.

• ĀZĀDSARV

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  Two bearers of this name are known.

• BULAYÏQ

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  town in eastern Turkestan, modern Chinese Sinkiang, situated about ten km north of Turfan in the foothills of the Tien-shan.  

• DERBEND

  Cross-Reference

  See DARBAND.

• CHINESE TURKESTAN viii. Turkish-Iranian Language Contacts

  Gerhard Doerfer

• INDIA xxxiii. INDO-MUSLIM PHYSICIANS

  Fabrizio Speziale

  Medicine constitutes the scientific field on which the largest corpus of works has been composed in Muslim India.

• GŌMĒZ

  Mary Boyce

  cow's urine.

• IRĀNŠĀH

  Mary Boyce and Firoze Kotwal

  term now used by the Parsis as the name of their oldest sacred fire, the Ātaš Bahrām established originally at Sanjān and now installed at Udwada, both in Gujarat.

• ABŪ ṬĀHER ḴĀTŪNĪ

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  officer, famous poet, and author in the reign of the Saljuq Sultan Moḥammad b. Malekšāh (498-511/1105-18).

• ARDWAHIŠT

  M. Boyce

  one of the six great Aməša Spəntas who, with Ahura Mazdā and/or his Holy Spirit, make up the Zoroastrian Heptad. Of the six, Aša has the clearest pre-Zoroastrian antecedents.

• BARQ newspapers

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  (Lightning), the name of three Persian newspapers, 1910-17,  1943, 1950s.

• COYAJEE, JEHANGIR COOVERJI

  Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa

  , Sir (b. Bombay, 11 September 1875, d. Bombay, 14 July 1943), Parsi economist and student of ancient Iranian mythology.

• EJMĀʿ

  Devin J. Stewart

  lit. "consensus"; a technical term in Islamic jurisprudence (oṣūl al-feqh).

• FARḠĀNĪ, EMĀM-AL-ḤARAMAYN SERĀJ-Al-DĪN ABU’L-MOḤAMMAD ʿALĪ

  Sayyāra Mahīnfar

  b. ʿOṯmān Ūšī or Ūsī (d. 1173), oṣūlī jurist (faqīh), traditionist, and author.

• AḤMAD-E ḴĀNI

  F. Shakely

  (1061-1119/1650-1707), a distinguished Kurdish poet, mystic, scholar, and intellectual who is regarded by some as the founder of Kurdish nationalism.

• NEMRUD DAĞI

  Bruno Jacobs

  mountain (elev. 2,150 m) in the Anti-Taurus range, Adıyaman province, Turkey, and site of the tomb sanctuary of King Antiochus I of Commagene (ca. 69-36 BCE).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FRANCE ix. IMAGE OF PERSIA AND PERSIAN LITERATURE AMONG FRENCH AUTHORS

  J. Duchesne-Guillemin

• HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH

  M. Azadpour

  German idealist philosopher (1770-1831). Hegel based his discussion of pre-Islamic Persia on two main sources: 1. ancient Greek sources on Persia, such as Herodotus; 2. A. H. Anquetil-Duperron’s pioneering work, Le Zend-Avesta (1771).

• ʿABBĀS, ḤĀJĪ

  J. W. Allan

  Signature found on a number of pieces of metalwork from Iran.

• ʿALĪ-MOḤAMMAD ḴORĀSĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  MĪRZĀ. See EBN AṢDAQ.

• AZIŠMĀND

  M. Shaki

  “obstructed or hampered justice," one of the few Middle Persian exclusively legal terms.

• BYZANTIUM

  Jack Martin Balcer

  (Byzantion): contact with the Achaemenids (ca. 513-439 BCE). The Greek polis of Byzantium, in the European province of Thrace (OPers. Skudra), played a pivotal role in the Greco-Persian wars.

• DEZKŪH

  Farhad Daftary

  or Šāhdez; a medieval mountain fortress situated in central Persia on the summit of Mount Ṣoffa, about 8 km south of Isfahan.

• RAHAVARD

  Ḡafur Mirzāʾi

  one of the first Persian periodicals published by the Iranian community in the United States after the Iranian revolution of 1979.

• GORGĀN vii. History from the Safavids to the end of the Pahlavi era

  Jawād Neyestāni and EIr

  Two characteristics dominated the history of Gorgān in the period between the 16th and early 19th centuries: incessant tribal unrest and power politics. These features reflected the rather particular tribal structure and the geopolitical situation of this region and its neighboring areas in the north and east.

• ĀBYĀRĪ

  B. Spooner

  Persian term meaning "irrigation." Although dry farming is important in Azerbaijan, Kurdistan, and Khorasan, as well as some other districts, a large proportion of Iran’s agriculture has always depended upon irrigation. This article concentrates on the preindustrial forms that not only have been important in the evolution of Iranian culture and civilization but have constituted an important Iranian contribution to the development of water management systems in other parts of the world.

• ARIZANTOI

  C. J. Brunner

  one of the six tribes of the Median nation as listed by Herodotus.

• BĀSMA

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

   a Turkish word which originally referred to a design applied (e.g., with a wood block) in ink, silver, and gold to paper, cloth, and other materials.

• ČŪPA

  See DANCE.

• ELIAS OF NISIBIS

  Cross-Reference

  See ELĪJĀ BAR ŠĪNĀJĀ.

• FARĪD-AL-DĪN, ABŪ’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ ŠARVĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See FAHHĀD.

• BEHDĀŠT BARĀ-YE HAMA

  Akbar Moarefi

  (“Health for All”), a magazine published by the Division of Public Health Education in Tehran, 1953-56.

• KĀŠEF-AL-ḠEṬĀʾ, MOḤAMMAD ḤOSAYN

  Hamid Algar

  (1877-1954), descendant of the great Shiʿite jurist of the early Qajar period, Sheikh Jaʿfar Kāšef-al-Ḡeṭāʾ, prodigious and versatile author, teacher, and lecturer.

• FREEMASONRY iv. The 1979 Revolution

  EIr

• HENNA

  Hušang ʿAlam

  (Pers. ḥanā, Ar. ḥennāʾ), a russet or orange dye obtained from the pulverized leaves of the henna plant, Lawsonia alba Lam. (= L. inermis/spinosa L.; fam. Lythraceae).

• ʿABD-AL-FATTĀḤ GARMRŪDĪ

  H. Algar

  (ca. 1200-64/1786-1848), a scribe and minor author of the mid-Qajar period.

• ALLĀH-QOLĪ KHAN ĪLḴĀNĪ

  A. Amanat

  Qajar notable (ca. 1236-1309/1820-1892).

• BĀBĀ ŠAMAL

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  weekly satirical periodical, 1943-45, founded by Reżā Ganjaʾī. It was impartially opposed to all foreign intervention and influence in Iran.

• ČAHĀRBĀḠ-E MAŠHAD

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  name of a royal garden and palace at Mašhad; under the Qajars and up to the present time it has been the name of an old quarter in the city.

• DĪNĀR, MALEK

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Moḥammad (d. 1195), a leader of the Oghuz Turkmen in Khorasan and, in the latter years of the 12th century, ruler of Kermān.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION vii. The constitutional movement in literature

  Sorour Soroudi

• ḴᵛĀJU KERMĀNI

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (1290-ca. 1349), Persian poet and mystic. Ḵᵛāju was undoubtedly a versatile poet of great inventiveness and originality.

• GOWHAR-ĀʾĪN, Saʿd-al-dawla

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (d. 1100), Turkish eunuch slave commander of the Great Saljuqs.

• ADĀT

  Ḵ. Faršīdvard

  “particle,” Arabic word corresponding to the Persian abzār which is used as a technical term in logic (manṭeq), grammar (dastūr), and rhetoric (maʿānī o bayān).

• ARSLĀN B. ṬOḠREL

  Cross-Reference

  See SALJUQS OF IRAQ.

• BAYĀŻ

  M.-T. Dānešpažūh

  literally “white,” usually a small paper notepad that opens lengthwise and was carried around in an inside pocket. Several such MS are found in various libraries.

• DABĪR-AL-MOLK FARĀHĀNĪ

  Guity Nashat

  or Mīrzā Moḥammad-Ḥosayn (1810-80), director of the private royal secretariat under Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah.

• EMĀM ṢĀḤEB

  Mehrdad Shokouhi

  two archeological sites in Afghanistan: (1) a village near the south bank of the Amū Daryā, about 50 km north of Qondūz, (2) a village in the Jōzjān region, south of the river Balḵāb, halfway between Balḵ and Āqča.

• FARROḴZĀD

  Cross-Reference

  son of Ḵosrow II, ruled briefly in 630/631. See SASANIAN DYNASTY.

• LEWIS, David Malcolm

  Amılie Kuhrt

  (1928-1994), distinguished historian and epigrapher of Greece in the fifth and fourth century BCE and, by extension, of the Achaemenid empire.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• PĀDYĀB

  Ramiyar P. Karanjia

  a Pahlavi word meaning “ritually clean,”.

• GATHAS i

  Helmut Humbach

  Each single song covers one chapter (Av. hāiti-, Phl. hā) of the Yasna.

• HERODOTUS

  Robert Rollinger

  author of the Histories, the first monumental Greek work in prose which is still extant (5th cent. BCE).

• ʿABD-AL-LAṬĪF MĪRZĀ

  C. P. Haase

  Timurid ruler in Samarqand from Ramażān, 853/October, 1449 to 26 Rabīʿ I 854/8 May 1450.

• AMĀN-E AFḠĀN

  I. V. Pourhadi

  newspaper of Afghanistan during the reign of King Amānallāh (1337-48/1919-29). 

• BAČČA-YE SAQQĀ

  D. Balland

  “the water-carrier’s child,” the derogatory name given to the leader of a peasants’ revolt which succeeded in placing him on the throne of Afghanistan in 1929.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS x. Court poetry

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

• SANCISI-WEERDENBURG, HELEEN

  Amélie Kuhrt

  (1944-2000), Dutch ancient historian, specializing in classical Greek and Achaemenid history.

• ISMAʿILISM xv. NEZĀRI ISMAʿILI MONUMENTS

  Peter Willey

  The principal monuments of the Nezāri Ismaʿili state, which also defined and defended its boundaries, were the exceptionally well-constructed and provisioned castles.

• ĀDUR NARSEH

  A. Tafażżolī

  son of the Sasanian king Hormozd II (302-09 CE) and ruler for several months after his father.

• ARTACHAIĒS

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  Greek rendering of an Old Iranian name.

• BĀZARGĀN

  Bernard Hourcade

  a village on the Turkish-Iranian frontier eighteen kilometers northwest of Mākū,  West Azerbaijan province. The development of this village is very recent and limited, linked with the nearby frontier crossing.

• DAFTAR

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  an administrative office, as well as a notebook or booklet, more especially an account book or correspondence regis­ter, used in such an office.

• ʿENĀYAT-ALLĀH KANBO

  Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi

  (b. Burhanpur, 31 August 1608; d. Delhi, 23 September 1671), Sufi and scholar, descendant of an old respected Lahore family that had converted to Islam in Punjab.

• FAṢD

  Cross-Reference

  See BLOODLETTING.

• NISĀBURI, ḤASAN

  David Pingree

   b. Moḥammad al-Aʿraj, Neẓām-al-Din Qommi, astronomer; d. after 1311.

• EY IRĀN

  Morteza Hoseyni Dehkordi and Parvin Loloi

• ḠADĪR ḴOMM

  Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi

  lit. “pool of Ḵomm”; the name of a pool near a small oasis along the caravan route between the cities of Mecca and Medina, near an area currently known as Joḥfa.

• HIDALI

  Matthew W. Stolper

  city and region in Elam (q.v.); a residence of Elamite kings in the early 7th century B.C.E., a regional administrative center thereafter.

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤĪM DEHLAVĪ

  Fazlur Rahman

  Late Mughal scholar (d. 1726).

• ʿAMĪD-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ BAKR QOHESTĀNĪ.

• BĀḎḠĪS

  C. E. Bosworth, D. Balland

  also BĀDḠĪS, region in eastern Khorasan, between Herat and the middle course of the Harīrūd in the south, and Marv al-Rūḏ and the headwaters of the Morḡāb in the north. i. General and the early period.  ii. The modern province.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ČĀP

  Willem Floor

  “print, printing,” a Persian word probably derived from Hindi chāpnā, “to print.”

• DOMAN

  Erich Kettenhofen

  city in the Roman province of Cappadocia, conquered along with the surrounding area by the Sasanian Šāpūr I (240-70) during his second campaign against Rome.

• ESCHATOLOGY iii. Imami Shiʿism

  M. A. Amir-Moezzi

• Asia Institute

  Richard N. Frye

  founded in 1928 in New York City as the American Institute for Persian Art and Archaeology, incorporated 1930 in the state of New York and active in Shiraz 1965-79. In its affiliation, functions, and publications, the Institute has had a complicated and eventful career, illustrating some of the vicissitudes of Iranian studies during the twentieth century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GUDARZ

  Cross-Reference

  See GŌDARZ.

• JABBĀR ḴĒL

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  the leading lineage of the Solaymān Ḵēl Paxtun tribe of the Ḡalzi/Ḡilzi (q.v.) tribal confederation of eastern and southeastern Afghanistan.

• AFŠĀR, ḤĀJJĪ BĀBĀ

  Ḥ. Maḥbūbī Ardakānī

  court physician under Moḥammad Shah Qāǰār.

• ARVAND GUŠNASP

  D. M. Lang

  Sasanian marzbān of Georgia under Ḵosrow I.

• BEHĀFARĪD

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  Zoroastrian heresiarch and self-styled prophet, killed 748-49.

• DAḴĪL

  Ḥosayn-ʿAlī Beyhaqī

  lit. “interceder”; a piece of rag or cord or a lock fastened (daḵīl bastan) on a sacred place or object, for example, the railing around a saint’s tomb or grave or a public fountain (saqqā-ḵāna), the branch of a tree considered sacred, or another plant, in order to obtain a desired benefit.

• EPIPHANIUS

  Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin

  (b. Eleutheropolis, Judaea, ca. 315; d. Constantia, Cyprus), bishop of Constantia on Cyprus, founded on the remains of Salamis.

• FAYŻĪ, ABU’L-FAYŻ

  Munibur Rahman

  (b. Agra, 1547; d. Lahore, 1595), Mughal court poet, also known as Fayżī Fayyāżī, who wrote mainly in Persian.

• SAMARQAND i. HISTORY AND ARCHEOLOGY

  Frantz Grenet

  Since the publication of the entry AFRĀSIĀB (EIr. I, pp. 576-78) new information has been brought to light on this archeological site and, consequently, on the history of pre-Mongol Samarqand.

• MOJMAL al-TAWĀRIḴ wa’l-QEṢAṢ

  Siegfried Weber and Dagmar Riedel

  an anonymous chronicle from the 12th century in the Persian tradition of literary historiography.

• GANĀVA

  Minu Yusofnezhad

  county (šahrestān) and port city on the Persian Gulf in the province of Būšehr.

• HOJIR

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  in traditional Iranian history, a hero who guarded the Dež-e Sapid “White Fort” on the border of Iran and Turān.

• ʿABD-AL-ṢAMAD KHAN

  S. Maqbul Ahmad

  North Indian politician, administrator, and patron of the arts (17th-18th century).

• AMĪR ARSALĀN

  W. L. Hanaway, Jr.

  a prose romance of the genre dāstānhā-ye ʿammīāna, “popular tales,” composed by Mīrzā Moḥammad ʿAlī Naqīb-al-mamālek, the chief storyteller of Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah (r. 1848-96).

• BĀḠ-E GOLESTĀN

  cross-reference

  See GOLESTĀN PALACE.

• DOZY, REINHARD PETRUS ANNE

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (b. Leiden, 21 February 1820, d. Leiden, 29 April 1883), Dutch orientalist renowned especially as a lexicographer of Arabic and a historian of Muslim Andalusia.

• CENSUS ii. In Afghanistan

  Daniel Balland

  The first national census of Afghanistan was not conducted until 1979, but the idea of such a survey had  already taken root  in the reign of Šēr-ʿAlī Khan (r. 1868-79), when gradual suppression of tax farming in favor of direct collection of taxes by government officials made it imperative for the administration to know the number of taxable households.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• LITHOGRAPHY i. IN PERSIA

  Olimpiada P. Shcheglova

  The first lithographic printing press was brought to Persia in 1821 from Tiflis (Tbilisi), on the orders of the Crown Prince, ʿAbbās Mirzā. The Persian painter Allāhverdi who had studied lithography there, returned to Tabriz in March 1821 with a complete set of lithographic equipment.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GÜYÜK KHAN

  Peter Jackson

  (r. 1246-48), Mongol great khan (qaḡan), given posthumously the regnal title Ting-tsung.

• JAHĀN-MALEK ḴĀTUN

  Dominic Parviz Brookshaw

  (d. after 1382), Injuid princess, poet, and contemporary of Ḥāfeẓ.

• ĀḠOŠ VEHĀḎĀN

  A. Tafażżolī

  (Āḡoš son of Vehāḏ), king of Gīlān at the time of Kay Ḵosrow, the Kayanid king, and one of the commanders of his armies.

• ṢAFJĀHĪ DYNASTY

  Cross-Reference

  See DECCAN.

• BELLEW, HENRY WALTER

  D. Neil MacKenzie

  (1834-92), surgeon and amateur orientalist. Throughout his service he took a lively interest in the languages and ethnography of the peoples within his charge.

• DĀNEŠ-NĀMA-YE QADAR KHAN

  Solomon Bayevsky

  (Book of knowledge [dedicated to] Qadar Khan), a Persian dictionary compiled by Ašrāf b. Šaraf Moḏakker Fārūḡī primarily in Malwa, India, and completed in 1405.

• ʿERĀQĪ,FAḴR-al-DĪN EBRĀHĪM

  William C. Chittick

  b. Bozorgmehr Javāleqī Hamadānī (b. Komjān, ca. 1213-14, d. Damascus, 1289), Sufi poet and author.

• FERDOWSĪ MAGAZINE

  Esmail Nooriala

  the name of two periodicals, a bi-monthly and a weekly magazine published in Tehran.

• MASJED-E SANGI

  Dietrich Huff

  a rock-cut mosque near the ancient site of Dārābgerd.

• RUDBĀR

  Marcel Bazin and Christian Bromberger

  town and district in southwestern Gilān (q.v.). Rudbār is located on both banks of the Safidrud river at lat 36°51′ N, long 49°25′ E, at an average altitude of 300 m.

• ḠARB-ZADEGĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ʿABDALLĀH B. ʿĪSĀ

  L. Richter-Bernburg

  Medical author (early 5th/11th century).

• AMMITMANYA

  M. Mayrhoffer

  an Iranian, to whom were entrusted 215 (?) BAR of grain provided for provisions at Tukraš.

• FISH

  Multiple Authors

  With about 1,800 km of coastline along the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, and about 990 km on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, plus some inland fresh waters, Persia has a great variety of aquatic fauna: mollusks, crustaceans, chelonians, mammals (dolphins, whales, seals), and particularly, fishes. Thus the country has rich aquatic resources and considerable potential for fishing and aquaculture.

• CAUTES AND CAUTOPATES

  William W. Malandra

  the two dadophoroi or torch bearers who often flank Mithras in the bull-slaying scene and who are sometimes shown in the birth scenes of Mithras.

• DU’L-QARNAYN

  Cross-Reference

  See ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

• SHADMAN, Sayyed Fakhr-al-Din

  Ali Gheissari

  (1907-1967), cultural critic and writer of fiction, professor of history, civil servant, and cabinet minister.

• ḴANDAQ

  Michael G. Morony

  a Persian loanword in Arabic meaning a trench or a moat (lit. “dug”), possibly also a wall or an enclosure.

• HĀDŌXT NASK

  Jean Kellens

  (Book of scriptures), the sixth of the seven Gaθic (Gāsānīg) nasks of the Sasanian Avesta, according to the Dēnkard (8.45.1).

• JĀM (2)

  “cup” in Persian Art and Literature. Forthcoming online.

• AḤMAD ʿALAWĪ

  H. Corbin

  philosopher and author in Persian and Arabic (d. between 1054/1644 and 1060/1650). 

• ASFĪJĀB

  C. E. Bosworth

  (or ASBĪJĀB, ESBĪJĀB) a town and district of medieval Transoxania.

• DĀRĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E BĀVAND.

• EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA, GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD BEG TEHRĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  Gīāṯ-al-Dīn Moḥammad Tehrānī (d. 1622), prime minister of the Mughal emperor Jahāngīr and father of the emperor’s wife, Nūr Jahān. See GĪĀṮ BEG.

• FEYLĪ DIALECT

  Cross-Reference

  See LORĪ.

• GOL ḴĀNĀN MORDA

  Bruno Overlaet

  or Gul Khanan Murda; an archeological site in the Eyvān plain, Ilām province (Poštkuh, Lorestān).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KĀŠI

  Cross-Reference

  and Kāšisāzi. See CERAMICS xiv. THE ISLAMIC PERIOD, 11TH-15TH CENTURIES.

• GAZACA

  Cross-Reference

  See GANZAK.

• ḤOSAYN KHAN MOQADDAM MARĀḠAʾI

  cross-reference

  See ĀJUDĀN-BĀŠI; NEẒĀM-AL-DAWLA.

• ĀBƎRƎT

  W. W. Malandra

  one of the eight Zoroastrian priests of the yasna ritual.

• ANAND RAM MOKLES

  B. Ahmad

  Chronicler, lexicographer, and poet of the later Mughal period (1111-64/1699-1750.

• BAHMAN JĀDŪYA

  M. Morony

  (or Jāḏōē), Sasanian general engaged in the defense of the Sawād of ʿErāq during the Muslim conquest in the 630s.  

• CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY

  Mark J. Gasiorowski

  (CIA) IN PERSIA

• DUŽYĀIRYA

  Antonio Panaino

  bad year or bad harvest.

• SANJANA, Darab Dastur Peshotan

  Michael Stausberg

  (1857-1931), Zoroastrian head-priest and scholar.

• PIANO IN PERSIAN MUSIC

  Hormoz Farhat

  iThe first piano is known to have arrived in Persia as a gift from Napoleon Bonaparte to Fatḥ ʿAli Shah.

• HAFT OWRANG

  cross-reference

  See JĀMI.

• JAMŠID B. MASʿUD ḠIĀṮ-AL-DIN KĀŠI

  cross-reference

  See KĀŠI.

• AHRIMAN

  J. Duchesne-Guillemin

  "demon," God’s adversary in the Zoroastrian religion.

• ASP

  Cross-Reference

  See ASB.

• BICKNELL, HERMAN

  Michael C. Hillmann

  (1830-1875), a translator of Ḥāfeẓ. Some of his metered and rhymed translations replicate, or at least giving the impression of, Persian monorhyme patterns.

• ESKANDAR

  Cross-Reference

  See QĀBŪS b. VOŠMGĪR.

• FĪRŪZA

  Cross-reference

  See TURQUOISE.

• ŠĀH-NĀMA TRANSLATIONS i. INTO TURKISH

  Osman G. Özgüdenli

  Turks have been influenced by the Šāh-nāma since the advent of the Saljuqs in Persia. Their last prince in Persia, Ṭoḡrel III, recited verses from the Šāh-nāma while swinging his mace in battle.

• GELPKE, RUDOLF

  HERMANN LANDOLT

  (1928-1972), Swiss scholar, writer, and translator of Persian literature.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HUMORALISM

  Amir Arsalan Afkhami

  (ṭebb-e jālinusi/ṭebb-e yunāni), or Galenism, a medical philosophy that considers illness as an imbalance in the body’s four elemental humors. which are identified as blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Each of these humors is believed to possess two natures: hot or cold and dry or moist.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABROCOMAS

  M. Dandamayev

  Persian satrap of Syria and commander under Artaxerxes II.

• ANĒRĀN

  Ph. Gignoux

  “non-Iran,” Middle Persian ethno-linguistic term generally used pejoratively to denote a political and religious enemy of Iran and Zoroastrianism.  

• BAHRĀMĪ SARAḴSĪ

  Z. Safa

  , ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ, Persian poet and literary scholar, one of the many at the court at Ḡazna in the reigns of Sultan Maḥmūd (r. 998-1030) and his sons.

• CHARIOT

  William W. Malandra

  chariots in ancient Iran were light horse-drawn, two-wheeled vehicles designed for speed and maneuverability in battle and races.

• EBN ʿAṬṬĀŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAṬṬĀŠ.

• ROSE WATER

  Cross-Reference

  See GOLĀB.

• GANDHĀRAN ART

  B. A. Litvinsky

  : Iranian contribution and Iranian connections. The region of Gandhāra (q.v.) attained its peak of prosperity in the Kushan period (1st to 3rd centuries CE), when it became one of the strongholds of Buddhism.

• ḤĀKEM

  cross-reference

  See ADMINISTRATION.

• JĀS

  D. T. Potts

  also written Jāšk (‘Jasques’ in English East India Company sources), a small Baluchi port on the Makrān coast with palm gardens.

• AJINA TEPE

  B. A. Litvinskiĭ

  the present-day name of the mound covering the ruins of an early medieval Buddhist monastery.

• ASTABED

  M. L. Chaumont

  The word astabid occurs in two Syriac texts as the title of a high-ranking Iranian officer and is applied to three different individuals.

• BIRDS

  Derek A. Scott

  IN IRAN  Iran possesses a very rich and diverse bird fauna, due to the great range of habitats and Iran’s position at a crossroads between three major faunal regions.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DARYĀ

  Xavier de Planhol

  sea or river.

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. Aḥmad b. Asad SĀMĀNĪ, ABŪ EBRĀHĪM

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (849-907), the first member of the Samanid dynasty to rule over all Transoxania and Farḡāna.

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN ii. Bibliography

  David Pingree

  Ca. 1035-36 Bīrūnī wrote a Resāla fī fehrest kotob Moḥammad b. Zakarīyāʾ al-Rāzī in two parts, the first devoted to Rāzī and his works, the second to the books that he himself had authored up to that time.

• MOʿEZZI Nišāburi

  Hormoz Davarpanah

  Šāburi, Abu ʿAbd-Allāh Moḥammad b. ʿAbd-al-Malek (b. ca. 1048-49, d. ca. 1125-27), a major poet at the court of the Saljuqs in Khorasan in the 12th century.

• ʿID-E NOWRUZ

  cross-reference

  See NOWRUZ.

• ABŪ BAKR ḤAṢĪRĪ

  Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī

  Shafeʿite faqīh (jurist) and Ghaznavid official, d. 424/1033.

• ANJOMAN-E FALSAFA WA ʿOLŪM-E ENSĀNĪ

  EIr

  (Iranian Society for Philosophy and Humanistic Sciences), formed in 1328 Š./1949 as a regional branch of the International Council of Philosophy and Humanistic Sciences, a UNESCO affiliate.

• BAḴTĪĀRĪ (1)

  ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī, J.-P. Digard, ʿA.-Ḥ. Navāʾī

  the nesba of a number of Baḵtīārī chiefs.

• CHORASMIA ii. In Islamic times

  C. E. Bosworth

• EBN ḤAWQAL, ABU’L-QĀSEM MOḤAMMAD

  Anas B. Khalidov

  b. ʿAlī Naṣībī, traveler and geographer of the 10th century.

• PALM READING

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  (chiromancy or palmistry; Pers. Kaf-bini), a form of physiognomy that deduces personal characteristics from the form of the lines on the subject’s palm.

• ŠAHRBĀNU

  Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi

  (lit. “Lady of the Land,” i.e., of Persia), said to be the daughter of Yazdegerd III (r. 632-51), the last Sasanian king.

• HAMASPATHMAĒDAYA

  cross-reference

  See GĀHANBĀR; FRAWARDIGĀN.

• JENKINSON, ANTHONY

  Stephan Schmuck

  (1529-1611), merchant and traveler. On 2 November 1562, he arrived in Qazvin, the seat of Shah Ṭahmāsp (r. 1524-76). But the shah did not wish to jeopardize his recently concluded peace with the Ottoman empire, so that Jenkinson was neither well received at court nor did he obtain the desired documents. In his writings, Jenkinson succinctly described his journeys to regions never before visited by English travelers.

• AḴTAR “star"

  Cross-Reference

  See AXTAR.

• ASYLUM

  Cross-Reference

  religious, secular, and extraterritorial. See BAST.

• BOḤŪR AL-ALḤĀN

  Taqī Bīneš, Jean During

  (Meters of melodies), a treatise on Persian music and prosody by Sayyed Mīrzā Moḥammad-Naṣīr Forṣat Šīrāzī (1855-1920).

• DAŠTĪ, ʿALĪ

  J. E. KNÖRZER

  (ca. 1894–1982), man of letters, journalist, and politician. Perhaps his innovative and “personal” studies of the principal Persian classical poets will prove the most enduring of his writings; they broke sharply with traditional Persian literary criticism focused on anecdotes, prosody, and explication de textes.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ETHÉ, CARL HERMANN

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (1844-1917), German orientalist known for his catalogues of Islamic manuscripts and his studies and German translations of Persian poetry. His name lives on through the monumental catalogues of the Bodleian and the India Office collections, rich mines of information on all aspects of classical Persian literature.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ARABIC LANGUAGE iv. Arabic literature in Iran

  V. Danner

• GĀNDHĀRĪ LANGUAGE

  Richard Salomon

  The language of ancient Gandhāra, the area around the Peshawar Valley in the modern North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan, lying near the border of the Indian and Iranian linguistic areas.

• GĪĀN TAPPA

  Cross-Reference

  See GIYAN TEPE.

• ABU’L-FATḤ KHAN JAVĀNŠĪR

  H. Busse

  son of the ruler of Qarābāḡ, Ebrāhīm Ḵalīl Khan Javānšīr, and through his sister brother-in-law of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah. 

• ANTIOCHUS OF COMMAGENE

  G. Widengren

  (full title: Theos Dikaios Epiphanes Philoromaios Philhellen, Theos signifying his divinity), 1st-century BC Seleucid ruler.

• BALḴĪ, ABŪ ʿALĪ-MOḤAMMAD

  cross-reference

  B. AḤMAD. See ʿALĪ B. AḤMAD BALḴĪ.

• CIRCASSIANS

  Cross-Reference

  See ČARKAS.

• EBN AL-NADĪM

  Cross-Reference

  Shi'ite scholar and bibliographer of the 10th century, famous as the author of Ketāb al-fehrest. See under FEHREST.

• KARAPAN

  William Malandra

  (or Karpan), designation of members of a class of daivic priests opposed to the religion of Zarathustra.

• MOLLĀ ṢADRĀ ŠIRĀZI

  Sajjad H. Rizvi

  , Ṣadr-al-Din Moḥammad b. Ebrāhim b. Yaḥyā Qawāmi Širāzi (b. 1571-72, d. 1635-36?), arguably the most significant Islamic philosopher after Avicenna.

• HANWAY, JONAS

  Ernest Tucker

  (1712-86), an English merchant who traveled to Persia and wrote an account of the trip which provides an eyewitness view of northern Iran during Nāder Shah’s last years.

• JONES, WILLIAM

  Michael J. Franklin

  , Sir (1746-1794), orientalist and judge, noted for his enduring commitment to a syncretic East-West synthesis and unshakeable belief in cultural pluralism.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀL-E MĪKĀL

  R. W. Bulliet

  the leading aristocratic family of western Khorasan from the 3rd/9th to the 5th/11th century.

• ĀTRƎVAXŠ

  W. W. Malandra

  (Mid. Pers ādurwaxš), one of the eight Zoroastrian priests (ratu) necessary for performance of the yasna ritual.

• BONYĀD-E FARHANG-E ĪRĀN

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  The "Iranian Culture Foundation" was established 16 September 1964.

• DAʿWAT-E ESLĀMĪ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  lit. "the Islamic call"; a monthly religious journal published in Kermānšāh from November-December 1927 to June 1936.

• EVIL MIND

  Cross-Reference

  See AKŌMAN.

• AZERBAIJAN ix. Iranian Elements in Azeri Turkish

  L. Johanson

• ḠILZĪ

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  or ḠALZĪ, one of three major Pashtun/Paxtun tribal confederations in Afghanistan.

• INDO-GREEK DYNASTY

  Osmund Bopearachchi

  Greco-Bactrian kings who ruled over the region south of the Hindu Kush in the second and first century B.C.E.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN MAḤALLĀTĪ

  H. Busse

  imam of the Nezārī Ismaʿilis of the Qāsemšāhī line, beglerbegi of Kermān under Karīm Khan Zand and his successors from approximately 1181/1768 to 1206/1791-92.

• ĀQĀ BOZORG ṬEHRĀNĪ

  H. Algar

   (1293-1389/1876-1970), Shiʿite scholar and bibliographer.

• BANDA

  W. Eilers, C. Herrenschmidt

  “servant.” i. The term. ii. Old Persian bandaka. Banda (NPers.) and its precursors bandak/bandag (Mid. Pers.) and bandaka (OPers.) meant “henchman, (loyal) servant, vassal,” but not “slave.”

• CLOTHING

  Multiple Authors

  (Ar. and Pers. lebās, Pers. pūšāk, jāma, raḵt). The articles in this series are devoted to clothing of the Iranian peoples in successive historical periods and of various regions and ethnic groups in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Iran.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ALPTIGIN, ABŪ ESḤĀQ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM.

• KASSITES

  Ran Zadok

  a people who probably originated in the Zagros and who ruled Babylonia in the 16th-12th centuries BCE.

• HĀRUN WELĀYAT

  cross-reference

  See ISFAHAN x. MONUMENTS.

• JUDAKI

  Pierre Oberling

  a small Lor tribe of the Ḵorramābād region in western Persia.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-MOLK

  Ḥ. Maḥbūbī Ardakānī

  (d. 23 Jomādā II 1308/4 February 1891), holder of various offices under Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah.

• AVROMAN DOCUMENTS

  D. N. MacKenzie

  three parchments found in a cave in the Kūh-e Sālān.

• BORZMEHR

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  (Pahlavi, lit. “deep affection”) one of the priests (mōbed) and scribes who served Ḵosrow I (r. 531-79).

• DEAD SEA SCROLLS

  Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin

  parchment and papyrus scrolls written in Hebrew, mainly of the 1st centuries B.C.E. and C.E., found in caves around Qomrān on the northwest coast of the Dead Sea and considered to represent a sect of Judaism.

• FACULTIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEHRAN

  Multiple Authors

  This article will deal with the faculties of Agriculture, Fine Arts, Law and Political Science, Letters and Humanities, and Medicine, which are among the oldest and most important secular institutions of higher education in Persia. Other faculties of the University of Tehran and main faculties of other major universities will be treated under individual UNIVERSITIES.

• BIBLE viii. Translations into other Modern Iranian Languages

  Kenneth J. Thomas

  John Leyden, a gifted Scottish linguist and poet who went to Calcutta in 1803 as a surgeon’s assistant for the East India Company and subsequently became a professor at the College of Fort William, was involved in translating the Gospels into a number of languages, including both Pashto and Bal­uchi.

• POLAND ii. PERSIAN ART AND ARTIFACTS IN POLISH COLLECTIONS

  Beata Biedrońska-Słota, Dorota Malarczyk, and Barbara Mękarska

  Persian art has been present in Poland since medieval times. Among the objects—bought or brought back as war booty, like carpets, textiles, tents, richly ornamented weaponry, gold products—illuminated Persian manuscripts were also to be found. The majority of the collections were originally created by aristocratic and noble families of the former Polish Commonwealth.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GÖKLEN

  Cross-Reference

  See GUKLĀN.

• IRAJ MIRZĀ

  Behrooz Mahmoodi-Bakhtiari

  , JALĀL-AL-MAMĀLEK, a major Persian poet and satirist of the early 20th century and one of the most popular poets of the late Qajar period (1874-1926). His intimate, idiomatic mode of expression and almost conversational tone initiated an entirely new trend in Persian poetry, which some critics have referred to as “the journalistic style.”

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ MANṢŪR MAʿMARĪ

  Dj. Khalegi-Motlagh

  minister (dastūr) of Abū Manṣūr b. ʿAbd-al-Razzāq (d. 350/961), a military commander of Khorasan under the Samanids.

• ARABIAN NIGHTS

  Cross-Reference

  See ALF LAYLA WA LAYLA.

• BĀNŪ PARS

  M. Boyce

  “Lady of Pārs,” the name of a Zoroastrian shrine in the mountains at the northern end of the Yazd plain.

• COMISENE

  Cross-Reference

  See KŪMEŠ.

• EBRĀHĪMĪ, ABU’L-QĀSEM KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-QĀSEM KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ.

• ʿOTBI

  C. E. Bosworth

  the family name of two viziers of the Samanids of Transoxiana and Khorasan.

• TEXTILE INDUSTRY IN IRAN

  Willem Floor

  Textile production in Iran dates back to the 10th millennium BCE. The first European-style factories in Persia were established in the 1850s and were among the first establishments in the country to use modern technology.

• HAŠT BEHEŠT (1)

  cross-reference

  See ISFAHAN x. MONUMENTS.

• JUSTINIAN I

  Erich Kettenhofen

  (Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus), Eastern Roman emperor, 527-65; his rule was marked by several military conflicts with the Sasanian empire under Kawād I and Chosroes (Ḵosrow) I.

• ALDANMIŠ KÄVAKEB

  S. Soucek

  Azeri Turkish title of a narrative by Āḵūndzāda (1812-78).

• AʿYĀN AL-ŠĪʿA

  W. Ende

  a monumental dictionary (56 vols. altogether) of Shiʿite celebrities and learned men compiled by the Shiʿite scholar Sayyed Moḥsen Amīn ʿĀmelī (d. 1952).

• BRAHUI

  Josef Elfenbein

  (Brāhūī, Brāhōī), the name of a tribal group living principally in Pakistani Baluchistan and of a Dravidian language spoken mainly by Brahui tribesmen.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DELĀRESTĀQ

  Bernard Hourcade

  also Delārostāq, Dīlārostāq; dehestān (administrative district) in the šahrestān of Āmol (Lārījān baḵš), on the northeastern slope of Mount Damāvand in Māzandarān.

• FALCONS AND FALCONRY

  Cross-reference

  See BĀZ; BĀZDĀRĪ.

• ZABĀN-E ZANĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a newspaper and a magazine published in Isfahan and Tehran, respectively, by Ṣeddiqa Dawlatābādi (1883-1961), a pioneer advocate of women’s rights in Iran (18 July, 1919 to 1 January, 1921, a total of 57 issues).

• GOLESTĀN-E HONAR

  Kambiz Eslami

  a 16th-century treatise on the art of calligraphy, with brief biographical notices on a selection of past and contemporary calligraphers and artists, by the Safavid author and historian Qāżi Aḥmad b. Šaraf-al-Din Ḥosayn Monši Qomi Ebrāhimi.

• TURKIC LOANWORDS IN PERSIAN

  Michael Knüppel

  Turkic-Iranian language contacts, as well as reciprocal loaning/borrowing of words, go back to the era of the Old Turkic language. 

• ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿABDALLĀH KĀŠĀNĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Historian of the reign of the Il-khan Olǰāytū and member of the Abū Ṭāher family of potters (14th century). 

• ARBAʿĪN

  M. Ayoub

  40th day after ʿĀšūrāʾ. A day of mourning, preferably at the shrine of Imam Ḥosayn, Arbaʿīn forms part of a cycle of days commemorating the burial of the imam and his companions.

• BARBAṬ

  J. During

  the prototype of a family of short-necked lutes characterized by a rather flat, pear-shaped sound box.

• COOKING

  Multiple Authors

  i. In ancient Iran. ii. In Pahlavi literature. iii. Principles and ingredients of modern Persian cooking. iv. In Afghanistan.

• TĀRIḴ-E SISTĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  an anonymous local history in Persian of the eastern Iranian region of Sistān, the region that straddles the modern Iran-Afghanistan border. It forms a notable example of the flourishing genre of local histories, dealing with towns and provinces, in the pre-modern Iranian lands.

• FORĀT MAYSĀN

  Cross-reference

  See BAHMAN ARDAŠĪR.

• HAZĀR AFSĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ALF LAYLA WA LAYLA.

• ĀB-E DEZ

  H. Gaube

  A major river of Ḵūzestān and the one most vital to its economy. It rises in the central Zagros mountains about 20 km northeast of Borūǰerd near the village of Čahār Borra.

• ʿALĪ B. MOḤAMMAD

  cross-reference

  See ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿALĪ B. MOḤAMMAD.

• ĀZĀDA

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  name of a Roman slave-girl of Bahrām Gōr.

• BUDDHISM

  Multiple Authors

  Among Iranian peoples. This series of articles covers Buddhism in Iran and Iranian lands: i.  In pre-Islamic times. ii.  InIslamic times. iii. Buddhist Literature in Khotanese and Tumshuqese. iv. Buddhist Sites in Afghanistan and Central Asia.

• DEPORTATIONS

  A. Shapur Shahbazi, Erich Kettenhofen, John R. Perry

  forced transfers of population from one region to another.

• CHINESE TURKESTAN iii. From the Advent of Islam to the Mongols

  Isenbike Togan

• DJANBAZIAN, Sarkis

  Maria Sabaye Moghaddam

  (1913-1963), the first male ballet master and a founder of a ballet academy in Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLŠIRI, Hušang

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini and EIr

  (b. Isfahan, 1938; d. Tehran, 2000), an innovative novelist who explored new literary techniques with each piece he wrote. He received the Lillian Hellman and Dashiell Hammett award in 1997 via the Human Rights Watch Organization, and in 1999 he was awarded the Osnabrück Peace prize from the Erich Maria Remarque Foundation for his defense of freedom of speech.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRANIAN IDENTITY iv. 19TH-20TH CENTURIES

  Ahmad Ashraf

  Comparative historians of nationalism acknowledge that Iran was among the few nations that experienced the era of nationalism with a deep historical root and experience of recurrent construction of its own pre-modern identity.

• ABŪ ŠOʿAYB HERAVĪ

  J. W. Clinton

  or BŪ ŠOʿAYB as he is more commonly known, one of the many poets of the Samanid court which has survived virtually in name only.

• ARDERIKKA

  R. Schmitt

  name of two ancient villages.

• BARMAKIDS

  I. Abbas

  or Barāmeka,  fam­ily stemming from Balḵ, secretaries and viziers under the early ʿAbbasids, not before Hešām b. ʿAbd al-Malek (723-42), until 802 (under Hārūn al-Rašīd).

• COURTS OF LAW

  Cross-Reference

  See JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS v. Judicial System in the 20th Century.

• EḤTEŠĀM-AL-SALṬANA

  Mehrdad Amanat

  , Mīrzā Maḥmūd Khan ʿAlāmīr Qajar (1863-1936), governor, diplomat, and speaker of the Persian Parliament. As a member of the Qajar ruling establishment who developed reformist convictions and actively worked towards a progressive agenda, he  represents a unique case in Qajar history.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FĀRESĪYĀT

  Aḥmad Mahdawī Dāmḡānī

  a literary term used in Arabic literature to refer to poems in Arabic which contain some Persian words or even phrases in their original form, the most notable example being the Fāresīyāt of Abū Nowās.

• ʿADL, Aḥmad-Ḥosayn

  Bāqer ʿĀqeli

  minister of agriculture, Director General of the Plan Organization, and the first director of the College of Agronomy (1898-1963).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SADEQI, BAHRAM

  Saeed Honarmand

  poet and noted modernist fiction writer of the 20th century, who explored new literary techniques with almost each piece he wrote.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HEDAYAT, SADEQ iv. TRANSLATIONS OF PAHLAVI TEXTS

  Touraj Daryaee

  Sadeq Hedayat traveled to India in 1936 and stayed for less than two years. In Bombay he began studying Middle Persian and some Pāzand with the Parsi scholar B. T.  Anklesaria.

• ABBĀ ISAIAH

  N. Sims-Williams

  (i.e., “Father” Isaiah), late 4th century A.D., author of Christian ascetical texts; from these it appears that he was a hermit who lived in the desert of Scete in Egypt, of whom several anecdotes are told in the Apophthegmata patrum.

• ʿALĪ KHAN AMĪN AL-DAWLA, MĪRZĀ

  Cross-Reference

  , MĪRZĀ. See AMĪN-AL-DAWLA.

• ʿAẒĪM NAVĀZ KHAN BAHĀDOR

  M. Baqir

  The author of a Sunni account in Persian of the martyrdom of Imam Ḥosayn called Dāstān-e ḡam  and the superintendent of the compilation of the ʿAẓīm al-tawārīḵ, a political and natural history of the Carnatic and of India in general. (fl. 1859).

• BUYIDS

  Tilman Nagel

  (also Bowayhids, Buwaihids, etc.; Pers. Āl-e Būya), dynasty of Daylamite origin ruling over the southern and western part of Iran and over Iraq from the middle of the 4th/10th to the middle of the 5th/11th centuries.

• DEŽ-E GONBADĀN

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  lit. "fortress of Gonbadān"; a fortress where the Iranian hero Esfandīār, son of the Kayānian king Goštāsb, was imprisoned.

• MOLLA NASREDDIN i. THE PERSON

  Hasan Javadi

  character who appears in thousands of stories, always witty, sometimes wise, even philosophic, sometimes the instigator of practical jokes on others and often a fool or the butt of a joke.

• GORGĀN ii. Dašt-e Gorgān

  Eckart Ehlers

• ʿISĀ B. YAḤYĀ MASIḤI JORJĀNI

  David Pingree

  , Abu Sahl, physician, philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer (d. after 925). Little is securely known about the life of this Christian scholar.

• ABŪZAYDĀBĀD

  E. Yarshater

  Oasis village of the province of Kāšān, called Būzābād for short and Bīzeva in the local dialect. It is situated 30 km to the east and slightly to the south of the city of Kāšān.

• ARIMANIUS

  Cross-Reference

  Latin form of AHRIMAN.

• BĀŠGĀH-E ARĀMENA

  ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  (the Armenian Club), a non-profit, non-political social club, founded 1 January 1918 by Armenians in Tehran.

• CUMIN

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  an umbelliferous plant of the Old World and its aromatic seeds.

• ELEGY

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (Ar. marṯīa, Pers. mūya), poetry of mourning in Persian literature. 

• FARĪBORZ

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  son of Key Kāvūs.

• BAHĀRI

  Mortażā Varzi

  , (ʿALI-) AṢḠAR (1905-1995) master of the kamānča (long-necked bowed lute).

• KARUN RIVER i. Geography and Hydrology, ii

  Habib Borjian

  the largest river and the only navigable waterway in Iran. It rises in the Baḵtiāri Zagros mountains west of Isfahan, flows out of the central Zagros range, traverses the Khuzestan plain, and joins the Shatt al-Arab. before the latter discharges into the Persian Gulf.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FREE WILL

  Farhad Daftary and Faquir M. Hunzai

  i. IN TWELVER SHI'ISM, ii. IN ISMA'ILI SHI'ISM.

• ḤELYAT AL-MOTTAQIN

  Hamid Algar

  (“The Adornment of the Godfearing”), a compendious work that has remained highly popular, on recommended customs, norms, and modes of behavior.

• ʿABD-AL-BĀQĪ LAʿLĪZĀDA

  T. Yazici

  (d. 1746 A.D.), Ottoman scholar, son of Shaikh Laʿlī Meḥmed, the grandson of Sarı ʿAbdallāh, a commentator on the Maṯnavī. 

• ʿALĪKOŠ

  F. Hole

  an archeological site dating to the 8th millennium B.C. in southwestern Iran, near the modern town of Deh Lorān.

• BĀBĀ FARĪD

  Cross-Reference

  a major Shaikh of the Češtīya mystic order, born in the last quarter of the 12th century in Kahtwāl near Moltān, Punjab. See GANJ-E ŠAKAR, Farid-al-Din Masʿud.

• ČAHĀR MAQĀLA

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  persian prose work written in the 6th/12th century by Abu’l-Ḥasan Neẓām-al-­Dīn (or Najm-al-Dīn) Aḥmad b. ʿOmar b. ʿAlī Neẓāmī ʿArūżī Samarqandī, originally entitled Majmaʿ al-nawāder.

• DIMDIM

  Amir Hassanpour

  name of a mountain and a fortress where an important battle between the Kurds and the Safavid army took place in the early 17th century.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION i. Intellectual background

  Abbas Amanat

• ḴĀNĀ QOBĀDI

  Philip G. Kreyenbroek and Parwin Mahmoudweyssi

  (fl. ca.1700-1759 or 1778), Gurāni poet.

• GOWDIN TEPE

  Cross-Reference

  an archeological site in western Persia. See GODIN TEPE.

• ĀDAMĪ

  A. Gorjī

  late 3rd/9th century Shiʿite traditionist.

• ARSANJĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a small town in Fārs on the northeastern fringes of the Zagros mountain massif.  

• BAYĀT(Ī)

  J. During

  one of the old modes of the Irano-Arabic musical tradition, mentioned for the first time by Šayḵ Ṣafadī (15th century).

• DABESTĀN

  Cross-Reference

  (elementary school). See EDUCATION.

• ʿEMĀDĪ RĀZĪ

  Taqi Pūr-Nāmdārīān

  poet of the first half of the 12th century.

• FARROḴ KHAN KĀŠĪ, AMĪN-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪN-AL-DAWLA, ABŪ ṬĀLEB FARROḴ KHAN.

• ḴᵛĀJAZĀDA ASʿAD EFENDI

  Tahsin Yazıcı

  (1570-1625), Ottoman šayḵ-al-Eslām, poet, and translator of Saʿdi’s Golestān.

• GAS, NATURAL

  natural gas industry in Persia. See Supplement.

• HERMIPPUS OF SMYRNA

  J. Wiesehöfer

  third-century BCE Greek grammarian who wrote on “Zoroaster’s writings.”

• HASHISH

  Cross-Reference

  See BANG.

• AʿMĀ

  I. Abbas

  7th-8th century poet from Azerbaijan who wrote in Arabic.

• CALLIGRAPHY (continued)

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĪVĀNBEGĪ

  Shiro Ando, Roger M. Savory

  originally, the designation for the highest-ranking officer in the Timurid office of finance and justice; in the Safavid administrative system, the dīvānbegī was one of the high-ranking amirs residing at court.

• ISMAʿILISM xi. ISMAʿILI JURISPRUDENCE

  Ismail K. Poonawala

  The Ismaʿili system of jurisprudence was founded after the establishment of the Fatimid dynasty in North Africa.

• ĀDUR-ANĀHĪD

  Ph. Gignoux

  3rd century CE  Sasanian “queen of queens.”  

• ARTABANUS

  M. A. Dandamayev

  Latinized form of an Old Persian proper name.

• BĀZ

  H. Aʿlam

  general term formerly applied particularly to birds from the genera Falco (falcons) and Accipiter (hawks), which were traditionally prized and trained for hunting game birds.

• DADYSETH, Dadibhai Noshirwanji

  Mary Boyce and Firoze M. Kotwal

  (1734-99), a distinguished Parsi philanthropist.

• EMTĪĀZĀT

  Cross-Reference

  See CONCESSIONS.

• FARYŪMAD

  Chahryar Adle

  (modern FARŪMAD), MONUMENTS OF.

• MUGH, MOUNT

  Gregory Semenov

  site of the 7th-8th-century refuge of the rulers of Penjikent in Sogdiana, where an important archive of documents written in Sogdian was discovered in the 1930s.

• BEHAZIN

  ḤASSAN MIRʿĀBEDINI

  noted translator, editor, fiction writer, and active Marxist, who, in different stages of his literary career, assumed other pseudonyms: Nowruz ʿAli Āzād, and Hormoz Malekdād. In January 1938, he returned to Iran to serve in the navy and was posted in Ḵorramπahr, where he found ample leisure time to pursue his literary interests.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GAČ-BORĪ

  Sheila S. Blair

  plasterwork or stucco. Gypsum plaster has been used as a building material in Persia for more than 2,500 years. Originally it may have been applied as a rendering to mud brick walls to protect them from the weather, but it was soon exploited for its decorative effects.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤEṢĀR (2)

  Jean During

  in Persian music, an important section (šāh-guša) in the Persian and Azeri radifs, its name probably originating from the town in Tajikistan.

• ʿABD-AL-QODDŪS B. SOLṬĀN MOḤAMMAD

  R. D. McChesney

  called ŠAGASĪ, prominent Afghan military and political figure of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

• AMƎŠA SPƎNTA

  M. Boyce

  an Avestan term for beneficent divinity, meaning literally “Holy/Bounteous Immortal” (Pahl. Amešāspand, [A]mahraspand).

• BADĀYEʿ

  Cross-Reference

  collection of ḡazals by Saʿdī. See SAʿDĪ.

• CANDYS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  name probably of Iranian origin used by Greek authors for a Persian garment.

• DOLDOL

  Aḥmad Mahdawī Dāmḡānī

  or Doldūl, in Ar. lit., “large porcupine”; name of a female mule that Moqawqes, governor of Egypt, sent to the Prophet Moḥammad as a gift.

• EPIGRAPHY iii. Arabic inscriptions in Persia

  Sheila S. Blair

  In Persia, as in the rest of the Islamic lands, Arabic was the basic language for foundation and religious texts on buildings and objects. In the early Islamic period these texts were usually written in some variant of the angular script known as Kufic. From the 12th century inscriptions in Persian became more common, and cursive scripts tended to replace angular ones.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ZOROASTER ii. GENERAL SURVEY

  W. W. Malandra

   “Zoroaster” is the name generally known in the West for the prophet of ancient Iran, whose transformation of his inherited religion inaugurated a movement that eventually became the dominant religion in Iran up until the triumph of Islam.

• GRUNDRISS DER IRANISCHEN PHILOLOGIE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (Encyclopaedia of Iranian Philology; Strassburg, 1895-1904, reprinted Berlin and New York, 1974), the first attempt to summarize the knowledge of all subjects concerning Iran — the languages and literatures, history and culture of Iran and the Iranian peoples — that had been achieved by the end of the 19th century.

• IVANOW, VLADIMIR ALEKSEEVICH

  Farhad Daftary

  (1886-1970), Russian orientalist and leading pioneer in modern Ismaʿili studies. In November 1920 Ivanow went to India in the company of an Anglo-Indian force. In 1928 Ivanow went to Persia to collect manuscripts for the Asiatic Society, as he had done frequently in India, and made the first of several visits to Alamut and other Ismaʿili strongholds.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀFRĪN

  F. M. Kotwal and J. W. Boyd

  “blessing,” benedictory prayers said at the conclusion of every Zoroastrian ceremony of blessings (āfrinagān).

• ARTYSTONE

  R. Schmitt

  Persian female personal name.

• BEGLERBEGĪ

  Peter Jackson

  a Turkish title meaning “beg of begs,” “commander of commanders,” In the Il-khanid period sometimes employed to designate the leading amir in the state.

• DAIVADANA

  Gherardo Gnoli

  lit., "temple of the daivas," Old Persian term that appears in the “daiva inscrip­tion” of Xerxes at Persepolis.

• EPHRAIM KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See EPʿREM KHAN.

• FAYYĀŻ, ʿALĪ-AKBAR MAJĪDĪ

  Jalāl Matīnī

  (b. Mašhad, 1898; d. Mašhad, 1971), scholar and educator.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• RĀBET, ʿABD-AL-AḤAD

  Mohammad Baqir

  19th-century Indian author of Persian works (d. 1268/1851-52).

• MASISTES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Greek rendering (Masístēs) of an Old Iranian name *Masišta- (reflected also in Bab. Ma-si-iš-tu₄) based on the superlative YAv. masišta-, OPers. maθišta- “greatest, supreme”.

• GAMASĀB

  Cross-Reference

  See KARḴA RIVER, forthcoming online.

• HODIVALA, SHAPURJI KAVASJI

  Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa

  (1870-1931), scholar of Avestan and Zoroastrian studies.

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ SAMARQANDĪ

  C. P. Haase

  Historian and scholar (1413-82).

• AMĪNA AQDAS

  G. Nashat

  or AMĪN-E AQDAS (d. 1311/1893), one of Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah’s most powerful wives.  

• BĀḠ i. Etymology

  W. Eilers

• CARMATIANS

  Farhad Daftary

  (Ar. Qarāmeṭa; sing. Qarmaṭī), the name given to the adherents of a branch of the Ismaʿili movement during the 3rd/9th century.

• DOŠMANZĪĀRĪ

  Pierre Oberling

  name of two Lor tribes in southern Persia, the Došmanzīārī-e Mamasanī and the Došmanzīārī-e Kūhgīlūya.

• ARDAŠĪR I ii. Rock reliefs

  H. Luschey

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KASHGAR

  Pavel Lurje

  (Kāšḡar), town in Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region in northwestern China, in the westernmost extremity of the Tarim Basin.

• GUSAN

  Cross-Reference

  See EPICS.

• JAHĀNGAŠT

  cross-reference

   See BOḴĀRI, SHAIKH JALĀL-AL-DIN.

• ĀḠĀSĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀQĀSĪ.

• ĀṢAF KHAN

  P. Saran

  10th/16th century Mughal official and military commander.

• BELDERČĪN

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  (quail, Coturnix coturnix L.). The quail is mentioned in both the Bible and the Koran. Allusions to these Koranic reminiscences are occasionally found in Persian poetry. Various virtues are attributed to the quail in traditional or popular Islamic medicine.

• DĀNEŠ, ḤOSAYN

  Peter J. Chelkowski

  (b. Istanbul 1870, d. Ankara 1943), a leading Turco-Persian poet, journalist, and scholar who wrote on literary, political, and social issues for many Persian newspapers.

• ĒRĀN-WIN(N)ĀRD-KAWĀ

  Rika Gyselen

  lit. "Kawād[has] arranged Ērān"; name of a Sasanian province (šahrestān) created by Kawād I (r. 488-531) in his reorganization of the empire.

• FENDERESKĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See MĪR FENDERESKI, ABU’L-QĀSEM.

• LOUVRE MUSEUM ii. PERSIAN ART IN THE ISLAMIC COLLECTION

  Sophie Makariou

  In 1893 a section devoted to “Muslim Art” was created within the Département des objets d’art, and from the outset objects from Persia have been a most important part of this collection.

• GANZABARA

  Matthew W. Stolper

  (treasurer), title of provincial and sub-provincial financial administrators in the Achaemenid empire, extended to workers attached to Achaemenid treasuries.

• HORMIZD

  cross-reference

  See HORMOZD i.

• ʿABDALLĀH, ṢĀRĪ

  T. Yazici

  (1584-1660), Ottoman scholar, mystic, poet, and commentator of Rūmī.

• BAGŌAS

  M. Dandamayev

  the chief eunuch and general under the Achaemenid Artaxerxes III, and kingmaker of his successors.

• CATECHISMS

  G. Kreyenbroek

  treatises for instruction in the fundamental tenets of a religious faith, cast in the form of questions and answers.

• ḎU’L-LESĀNAYN

  Hamid Algar

  lit. “possessor of two tongues”; epithet often bestowed upon bilingual poets.

• ḴOSROW II

  James Howard-Johnston

  the last great king of the Sasanian dynasty (590-628) in the last few decades before the coming of Islam. The principal extant history of the period, written in Armenia in the early 650s, was appropriately entitled The History of Khosrow.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KAŠKULI BOZORG

  Pierre Oberling

  one of the five major tribes of the Qashqāʾi (Qašqāʾi) tribal confederacy of Fārs province.

• HADITH i. A General Introduction

  Shahab Ahmed

  Hadith literature is understood to be the repository of the sonna (normative conduct) of the Prophet, which is regarded as second in authority only to the Koran as a source of Divine truth.

• JALIL, RAHIM

  K. Hitchins

  Soviet Tajik writer (1909-1989), a master of the short story.

• AḤMAD B. NEẒĀM-AL-MOLK

  C. E. Bosworth

  (d. 1149-50), son of the well-known Saljuq vizier (d. 485/1092) and himself vizier for the Great Saljuqs and then for the ʿAbbasid caliphs. 

• ASFĀNŪR

  Cross-Reference

  See MADĀʾEN.

• BESṬĀM O BENDŌY

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  maternal uncles of Ḵosrow II Parvēz and leading statesmen and soldiers under Hormozd IV and Ḵosrow Parvēz.

• DĀR AL-ŻARB

  Cross-Reference

  See ŻARRĀB-ḴĀNA.

• ESTHER AND MORDECHAI

  Amnon Netzer

  a Jewish shrine in the city of Hamadān, where, according to Judeo-Persian tradition, Esther and Mordechai are buried.

• FETYĀN

  Cross-reference

  See ʿAYYĀR; JAVĀNMARDI.

• ʿAṢṢĀR, Sayyed MOḤAMMAD-KĀẒEM

  Ahmad Kazemi Mousavi and EIr

  (b. 1302/1884-85; d. Tehran, 19 Dey 1353 Š./9 January 1975), outstanding Shiʿite scholar and professor of philosophy at the University of Tehran.

• RASHT ii. The District

  Marcel Bazin

   the largest distirct in the plain of Gilān and the most populated in the whole province. 

• GAYSĀTA

  Hiroshi Kumamoto

  the name of a town in Khotanese documents in the A. F. R. Hoernle, Mark Aurel Stein, Sven Hedin, and N. F. Petrovsky collections.

• ḤOSAYN B. RUḤ

  Said Amir Arjomand

  , SHAIKH ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤOSAYN B. RUḤ B. ABI BAḤR NOWBAḴTI (d. 938), third of the four “special vicegerents” (nowwab-e ḵāṣṣa) of the Hidden Imam.

• ʿABDĪ BOḴĀRĀʾĪ

  M. Zand

  (d. 1921-22), Tajik taḏkeranevīs (biographer) and poet.

• AN SHIH-KAO

  E. G. Pulleyblank

  or An Ch’ing, the earliest known translator of Buddhist texts into Chinese. 

• BAHMAʾĪ

  P. Oberling

  a Lur tribe of the Kohgīlūya (Kūh[-e] Gīlūya).  

• AZADARAN-E BAYAL

  MAHYAR ENTEZARI

  a collection of short stories by Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Sāʿedi, the prolific engagé writer of drama and fiction.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DŪST-MOḤAMMAD HERAVĪ

  Chahryar Adle

  (d. probably Qazvīn, shortly after 1564), master calligrapher, the only artist whom Shah Ṭahmāsb I kept with him after having gradually dismissed all the others from his direct service.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MOKRI TRIBE

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe of western Iranian Azerbaijan.

• NYBERG, Henrik Samuel

  Carlo G. Cereti

  (1889-1974),  Swedish scholar of extremely broad interests, competent in a number of different fields, in both Semitic and Iranian studies.

• HAFT SIN

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  denoting “seven items beginning with the letter sin (S),”  one of the components of the rituals of the New Year’s Day festival (see NOWRUZ) observed by most Iranians. The items are traditionally displayed on the dining cloth (sofra) that every household spreads out on the floor (or on a table) in a room normally reserved for entertaining guests.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĀMI

  Multiple Authors

  , ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN NUR-AL-DIN b. Neẓām-al-Din Aḥmad-e Dašti, Persian poet, scholar, and Sufi (1414-1492). Over almost fifty years, he turned his hand to every genre of Persian poetry and penned numerous treatises on a wide range of topics in the humanities and religious sciences.

• AḤMADNAGARĪ, ʿABD-AL-NABĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-NABĪ.

• ĀŠŌGAR

  Cross-Reference

  See AŠŌQAR.

• BĪBĪ ZAYNAB, MAUSOLEUM OF

  Bernard O’Kane

  named after Bībī Zaynab, its legendary occupant, together with her mother Oljā Aīm, the wet nurse of Tīmūr (r. 1370-1405). It is in the Šāh-e Zenda necropolis in Samarkand.

• DARGĀHĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Bāqer ʿĀqelī

  (b. Zanjān, 1899, d. Tehran, 1952), first chief of the state police under Reżā Shah.

• EŠĪK-ĀQĀSĪ-BĀŠĪ

  Roger M. Savory

  or Īšīk-āqāsī-bāšī, the title of two officials in the Safavid central administration, namely ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī-e dīvān, and ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī-e ḥaram.

• FĪRŪZ

  Klaus Schippmann

  (PĒRŌZ) Sasanian king (r. 459-84), son of Yazdegerd II (r. 439-57). 

• POŠT-E KUH

  Ernie Haerinck and Bruno Overlaet

  the most western part of the historical Luristan (Lorestān) tribal area in the Zagros.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SANĀʾI

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (d. ca. 1130), Persian poet of the later Ghaznavid era, celebrated particularly for his homiletic poetry and his great influence on the development of mystical literature in general.

• GEIGER, BERNHARD

  RÜDIGER SCHMITT

  (b. Bielitz, 1881; d. New York, 1964), scholar of Indo-Iranian studies.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HUMAN MIGRATION

  Mehdi Amani and Habibollah Zanjani

  The cornerstone of the concept of migration is the geographical difference between place of birth and place of residence. This subject includes three types of human migration in modern Iran: (1) migration within the country; (2) immigration of foreign nationals to Iran; and (3) emigration of Iranians to foreign countries.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABRAHAM

  Cross-Reference

  See EBRĀHĪM.

• ANDEJĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  town in in the medieval Islamic province of Farḡāna, modern Russian Andizhan, in the easternmost part of the in the easternmost part of Uzbekistan.

• BAHRĀM MĪRZĀ

  P. Soucek

  (1517-49), youngest son of Shah Esmāʿīl, full brother of Shah Ṭahmāsb, who relied on his loyalty and military valor for assistance against both his internal and external enemies.

• CHARACENE and CHARAX

  John Hansman

  (Spasinou) in pre-Islamic times; Characene is the name Pliny gives for the later region of Mesene (called Mēšān or Mēšūn in Middle Persian, Maysān/Mayšān in Syriac, and Maysān in Arabic) in southernmost Mesopotamia, which formed a political district of that name in the Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods.

• EBN AL-ʿAMĪD

  Ihsan Abbas

  cognomen of two famous viziers of the 4th/10th century: Abu’l-Fażl and his son Abu’l-Fatḥ.

• PLANTAIN

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀRHANG.

• WALDMAN, Marilyn

  Dick Davis

  (b. Dallas, Texas, April 13th 1943-d. Columbus, Ohio, July 8th, 1996), scholar of Islamic history.

• HAJJ

  cross-reference

  See PILGRIMAGE, forthcoming online.

• JARQUYA

  Habib Borjian

  district located in the eastern region of Isfahan Province. i. The district. ii. The dialect.

• ʿAJAM

  C. E. Bosworth

  the name given in medieval Arabic literature to the non-Arabs of the Islamic empire, but applied especially to the Persians.

• ASSARHADDON

  J. A. Delaunay

  king of Assyria 680-69 B.C., son of Sennacherib and the Arameo-Babylonian princess Zakūtu.

• BĪNAMĀZĪ

  James R. Russell, Hamid Algar

  NPers. “the state of being without prayer,” term for the state of a menstruant woman. i. In Zoroastrianism. ii. In Islam. All bodily discharges are regarded by Zoroastrians as violations of the wholeness of the person.

• DARVĪŠ AḤMAD QĀBEŻ

  M. E. Subtelny

  (d. 1507), Timurid vizier.

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. Nūḥ, ABŪ EBRĀHĪM MONTAṢER

  d. 395/1004

  (d. 1004), last Samanid amir.

• AFGHANISTAN xii. Literature

  R. Farhādī

• MAGIC i. MAGICAL ELEMENTS IN THE AVESTA AND NĒRANG LITERATURE

  Antonio Panaino

  The presence of magical elements in the strict sense  in Avestan literature has been considered rare.

• IDA

  Inna N. Medvedskaya

  a land and a city, part of Inner Zamua, located in the area of the southwest shore of Lake Urmia, mentioned in Neo-Assyrian sources dating to the 9th century BCE.

• ABŪ ʿAWĀNA

  J. A. Wakin

  a Shafeʿite legal scholar and traditionist.

• ANJOMAN

  M. Bayat, H. Algar, W. L. Hanaway, Jr.

  (“gathering, association, society”), general designation of many private and public associations.

• BAḴTĀVAR KHAN, MOḤAMMAD

  S. S. Alvi

  (1620?-85), historian and official at the court of the Mughal emperor Awrangzēb (r. 1658-1707) and a patron of literature.

• CHOASPES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (or Coaspēs), ancient name of three rivers.

• EBN FAŻLĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See AḤMAD B. FAŻLĀN.

• ṢĀBUN

  Cross-Reference

  "soap." See SOAP.

• RED DEER

  Eskandar Firouz

  Cervus elaphus, in Persian: Marāl and also Gavazn and Gāv-e kuhi. i. Natural history. ii. In Persian art. The red deer ranges from Europe to Northeast Asia, its appearance changing gradually, until, from Central Asia eastward, it becomes quite similar to the North American wapiti.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAMADĀNI, SAYYED ʿALI

  Parviz Aḏkāʾi

  b. Sayyed Šehāb-al-Din (1314-1384), Sufi author and preacher who undertook a celebrated mission to convert the people of Kashmir to Islam.

• JELWA, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  Mahdi Khalaji

  b. Moḥammad Ṭabāṭabāʾi (1823-1897), a leading Shiʿite scholar and master teacher of philosophy and mathematics.

• AḴORSĀLĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀXWARR.

• ASTWIHĀD

  M. F. Kanga

  the demon of death in the Avesta and later Zoroastrian texts.

• BOḠĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See BŪQĀ.

• DAŠTESTĀN

  Jamšīd Ṣadāqat-Kīš

  or šahrestān, lit. "subprovince" on the Persian Gulf coast in Būšehr province, bounded on the north and east by Fārs province, on the south by the šahrestān of Daštī, and on the west by the

• EŠTEHĀRD

  Mīnū Yūsof-nežād

  a town and district (baḵš) in the province of Tehran.

• GHAZNAVIDS

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  an Islamic dynasty of Turkish slave origin (977-1186), which in its heyday ruled in the eastern Iranian lands, briefly as far west as Ray and Jebāl; for a while in certain regions north of the Oxus, most notably, in Kᵛārazm; and in Baluchistan and in northwestern India.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INĀLU

  cross-reference

  See ḴAMSA.

• ABU’L-FARAJ RŪNĪ

  M. Siddiqi

  an early Persian poet. Nothing is known about his birth and early life, except that he was born in Rūna, the exact location of which is uncertain.

• ANTI-ALBORZ

  B. Hourcade

  the highland between Tehran and Semnān on the southern flank of the central Alborz range.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BALDARČĪN

  cross-reference

  See BELDERČĪN.

• ČĪNĪ

  John Carswell

  (lit. “Chinese”; borrowed in Arabic as ṣīnī), generic term for Chinese ceramic wares, including porcelain, a translucent, white-bodied ware fired at very high temperatures.

• EBN AL-MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH

  J. Derek Latham

  b. Dādūya/Dādōē (b. Gōr, the present Fīrūzābād, Fārs, ca. 721, d. Baṣra ca. 757), chancery secretary (kāteb) and major Arabic prose writer.

• FĀRSI, KAMĀL-AL-DIN

  Cross-Reference

  (d. 1320), the most significant figure in optics after Ebn al-Hayṯam. See FĀRESĪ, KAMĀL-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ḤASAN MOḤAMMAD.

• MĀDAYĀN Ī HAZĀR DĀDESTĀN

  Maria Macuch

  (Book of a Thousand Judgements), Pahlavi Law-Book from the late Sasanian period (first half of the seventh century).

• HANAFITE MAḎHAB

  Merlin Swartz

  a school of Sunni jurisprudence named after Abu Ḥanifa Noʿmān b. Ṯābet (699-767), an early Kufan jurist and theologian of Persian descent.

• JOLLĀBI, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  cross-reference

  See HOJVIRI, ABU’L-ḤASAN.

• ĀL-E ḴAMĪS

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿARAB.

• ATKINSON, James A.

  A. Karimi-Hakkak

  (1780­-1852), a notable British orientalist, a scholar of the Persian language and literature, and the translator of Persia literature.

• BONGĀH-E ḤEMĀYAT-E MĀDARĀN O KŪDAKĀN

  EIr

  (Institute for the protection of mothers and infants), founded 16 December 1940 on the order of Reżā Shah, originally funded by charitable contributions.

• DAWĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See DRUGS.

• EVAGRIUS PONTICUS

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  (346-399 C.E.), prolific author of Christian literature in Greek.

• KATA

  Etrat Elahi

  a popular dish of simmered rice.

• INDIA xxxii. PARSI COMMUNITIES

  Cross-Reference

   See PARSI COMMUNITIES i. and PARSI COMMUNITIES ii.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN JORJĀNĪ

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  Shafeʿite jurist, poet, and man of letters.

• AQ QOYUNLŪ

  R. Quiring-Zoche

  or WHITE SHEEP, a confederation of Turkman tribes who ruled in eastern Anatolia and western Iran until the Safavid conquest in 1501.

• BAND “DAM”

  X. De Planhol

  In geographical nomenclature it is applied to ranges (mainly in Afghanistan),  passes (darband), and old dams and barrages built to store or divert water. Dam construction techniques were developed in early phases of the history of the lands of Iranian civilization.

• CLIBANARIUS

  Cross-reference

  in Roman sources a designation for a Parthian armored cavalryman. See ASB; ASB-SAVĀRĪ.

• EBN TORK

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. VĀSEʿ.

• BOOKBINDING (article 2)

  Iraj Afshar

  (ṣaḥḥāfi, jeld-sāzi), the traditional craft of binding new books and decorating the cover with embossed or painted designs, or of repairing worn out volumes by restoring their cover.

• HARRIMAN MISSION

  Fakhreddin Azimi

  The American diplomat W. Averell Harriman was sent to Tehran in July 1951 to mediate between Persia and Great Britain after Persian nationalization of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company.

• JOWZJĀNI, ABU ʿOBAYD

  Robert Wisnovsky

  (Juzjāni), ABU ʿOBAYD ʿABD-AL-WĀḤED b. Moḥammad, companion, literary secretary, and biographer of Avicenna.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  C. E. Bosworth

  Ḵᵛārazmšāh who reigned in Transoxania and central and eastern Iran as well as in Ḵᵛārazm, (596-617/1200-20).

• AVESTAN LANGUAGE I-III

  K. Hoffmann

  the Old Iranian language of the Avesta. i. The Avestan script. ii. The phonology of Avestan. iii. The grammar of Avestan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BORŪJ

  cross-reference

  See BORJ.

• DAYSAM

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Ebrāhīm KORDĪ, ABŪ SĀLEM, Kurdish commander who ruled sporadically in Azerbaijan between 938 and 955 after the period of Sajid domination there.

• ʿEZZ-AL-DĪN KĀŠĀNĪ, MAḤMŪD

  Māšā-Allāh Ajūdānī

  b. ʿAlī Naṭanzī (d. 1334-35), an author and Sufi of the early 14th century.

• BIBLE iii. Chronology of Translations

  Kenneth J. Thomas

  1. Middle Iranian translations. 4th century. Statement by John Chrysostom (Homily on John) that doctrines of Christ had been translated into the languages of the Persians. 5th century. Statement by Theodoret (Graecarum affect­ionum curatio IX.936) that Persians regarded the Gospels as divine revelation. ...

• TURKIC-IRANIAN CONTACTS ii. CHAGHATAY

  Andras J. E. Bodrogligeti

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOETHE INSTITUTE

  H. E. Chehabi

  in Persia and Afghanistan. Named after the celebrated German poet and writer, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), the Goethe Institute was founded in 1951 in Munich as a non-profit organization for training foreign teachers of the German language.

• IONIAN REVOLT

  E. Badian

  the unsuccessful uprising of the Greek cities of Asia Minor against Achaemenid control, 499-493 BCE. The main and almost the only source for the Revolt is Herodotus of Halicarnassus. The revolt of the Ionians and of some Aeolians joining them had clearly not been a spontaneous rising. Dislike of Persian rule does seem, at this time, to have been universal among the western subjects.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ LOʾLOʾA

  Ch. Pellat

  a Persian slave of Moḡīra b. Šoʿba, the governor of Baṣra, who assassinated the caliph ʿOmar b. al-Ḵaṭṭāb, on Wednesday, 26 Ḏu’l-ḥeǰǰa 23/2 November 644.

• ʿARAB MĪŠMAST

  P. Oberling

  an Arab tribe of Fārs, Tehran and Khorasan.  

• BANŪ LAḴM

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤIRA.

• COLLEGE

  Cross-reference

  term used to designate the American College, founded by Presbyterians and later renamed: see ALBORZ COLLEGE.

• EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  (1394-35), b. Šāhroḵ, Timurid prince, ruler of Shiraz, military commander, and renowned calligrapher.

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ b. AḤMAD b. ḤASAN MEYMANDI

  C. E. Bosworth

  vizier to the Ghaznavid sultans Mawdud b. Masʿud and ʿAbd-al-Rašid b. Maḥmud, remaining in official service under the latter’s successor Farroḵzād b. Masʿud.

• SASANIAN COINAGE

  Nikolaus Schindel

  The coinage of the Sasanian empire (ca. 224-651 CE) is not only the most important primary source for its monetary and economic history, but is also of greatest importance for history and art history. Only through the evidence of the royal portraits on the coins, does it become possible to identify depictions of kings on other media of Sasanian art such as silverware or rock and stucco reliefs.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤASANLU TEPPE i. THE SITE

  Robert H. Dyson, Jr

  This is the largest site in the Qadar River valley and dominates the small plain known as Solduz. The site consists of a 25 m high central “Citadel” mound surrounded by a low Outer Town.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JULFA v. ARMENIANS IN INDIA

  Sebouh Aslanian

  In the 17th century, Julfan merchants expanded their trade network in South Asia, and at the beginning of the 18th century the Primate of New Julfa had jurisdiction over the Armenian congregations in India and Java.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ALBORZ

  W. Eilers, M. Boyce, M. Bazin, E. Ehlers, B. Hourcade

  (ELBORZ, ELBORS), modern Persian name for the east-west massif in northern Iran, lying south of the Caspian districts.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀYADANA

  J. Duchesne-Guillemin

  “place of cult.” The term occurs once in the Old Persian Bīstūn inscription of Darius I.

• BOZORG-OMĪD, KĪĀ

  Wilferd Madelung

  the second Ismaʿili ruler of Alamūt (1124-38). He was of Deylami origin from the region of Rūdbār.

• DEIPNOSOPHISTAÍ

  Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin

  lit. "Banquet of the Sophists"; a miscellany in the form of dialogues ostensibly conducted at table, including approximately one hundred passages pertaining to Persia.

• FALAKA

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  also falak, čūb o falak; one of the most common instruments of corporal punishment in Persia.

• ṢADĀ-YE EṢFAHĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  weekly newspaper published in Isfahan (6 March 1921 to April/May 1944, with lengthy interruptions). 

• GOLČIN MAʿĀNI, AḤMAD

  Iraj Afshar

  (b. Tehran, 1916; d. Mašhad, 2000), literary scholar, bibliographer, and poet. He held various administrative and judicial posts in the Ministry of Justice (1934-59). His considerable knowledge of literary manuscripts was later put to good use when he was transferred to the Majles Library, where he catalogued the Persian and Arabic manuscripts.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• NĀMA-YE BANOVAN-E IRĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (The journal of the women of Iran), a weekly paper published in Tehran from Farvard in 1317 until Tir 1319 Š. (March 1938-June 1940).

• ABU’L-QĀSEM EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN

  EIr

  The only son of Kāmrān Mīrza, brother and rival of the Mughal emperor Homāyūn (r. 937-47, 962-63/1530-40, 1555-56).

• ARBĀB

  Š. Rāseḵ

  the plural of the Arabic noun rabb “owner, master, the Lord,” used in Persian to signify any sort of owner or master.

• BARĀQ KHAN

  cross-reference

  See NOWRŪZ AḤMAD KHAN.

• CONTRACTS

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Mansour Shaki, EIr

  (usually ʿaqd), legally enforceable undertakings between two or more consenting parties.

• DARARIĀN, Vigen

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi

  (1929-2003) renowned pop singer and performer on the guitar.

• FOOD

  Cross-reference

  See COOKING.

• HĀYEDA

  Erik Nakjavani

  the stage name of MAʿṢUMA DADEBĀLĀ (b. Tehran, 1942; d. San Jose, Calif., 1990), popular Persian singer. Hāyeda primarily distinguished herself by a naturally rich, operatic alto voice. For nearly two decades, she performed the āvāz and interpreted popular traditional and contemporary songs, all based on the modal system of traditional Persian music.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀB i. The concept of water in ancient Iranian culture

  Mary Boyce

• ʿALĪ B. ḤOSAYN AL-ŠARĪF

  cross-reference

  AL-MORTAŻĀ. See ʿALAM-AL-HODĀ.

• ĀZĀD

  M. Bazin

  Zelkova crenata or Siberian elm, a tree of the Ulmaceae family, for which also other scientific names, such as Zelkova carpinifolia, Zelkova hyrcana, Planera crenata, and Planera Richardi, have been proposed.

• BŪ ŠOʿAYB HERAVĪ

  cross-reference

  See ABŪ ŠOʿAYB HERAVĪ.

• DĒNKARD

  Philippe Gignoux

  lit., “Acts of the religion”; written in Pahlavi, a summary of 10th-century knowledge of the Mazdean religion; the editor, Ādurbād Ēmēdān, entitled the final version “The Dēnkard of one thousand chapters.”

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS ix. Persian Language Teaching in Modern China

  EIr

• BĀMDĀD-E ḴOMĀR

  Ali Ferdowsi

  (The Morning After, 1995), the first and popular novel by Fattāna Hājseydjavādi.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLŠAN-E RĀZ

  Hamid Algar

  lit. "The Rose Garden of Mysteries"; a concise didactic matnawi in a little over a thousand distichs on the key terms and concepts of Sufism, which has for long served as a principal text of theoretical mysticism in the Persian-speaking and Persian-influenced world.

• IRĀN-E NOW

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of two political newspapers published in Tehran during the second and third decades of the 20th century.

• ABŪ SALAMA ḴALLĀL

  R. W. Bulliet

  head of the Hashemite propaganda organization (daʿwa) that sparkled the ʿAbbasid revolution and first vizier of the new dynasty.