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• HERODOTUS viii. MARDONIUS ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS

  Robert Rollinger

  After Xerxes’ retreat, Mardonius prepared his offensive on land. He also wanted the higher powers to be on his side.

• Greece iv. Greek Influence on Persian Thought

  Mansour Shaki

• Italy iii. CULTURAL RELATIONS

  Mario Casari

  Italy and Persia have hardly ever had a direct and continuous cultural exchange.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY iv. MONGOL PERIOD

  Charles Melville

  Persian historiography reached its maturity during the period of 13th-15th centuries, which might broadly be described as the Turko-Mongol era.

• ABU MUSĀ iii

  Guive Mirfendereski

  (Bu Musā), a small island in the eastern Persian Gulf (25°52′ N, 55°2′ E).

• CARPETS v. Flat-woven carpets: Techniques and structures

  Sarah B. Sherrill

  Most of the structures in Persian flat-woven carpets belong to the category called “interlacing” by textile specialists; the term designates the most straightforward way in which each thread of a fabric passes under or over threads that cross its path.

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• HAFEZ xi. TRANSLATIONS OF HAFEZ IN GERMAN

  Hamid Tafazoli

  The name of Hafez is closely associated with that of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in German literature. This is directly attributable to the status Goethe accords Hafez in his West-West-östlicher Divan (1819).

• JAPAN ii. Diplomatic and Commercial Relations with Iran

  Nobuaki Kondo

  Although it is not clear when Iran initiated diplomatic contact with Japan, it is believed to have been in 1873, when Nāṣer-al-Din Shah, on his first trip to Europe, met Naonobu Sameshima of Satsuma, who was the then Japanese ambassador to Paris, France. The shah did not include many details about the meeting in his memoir.

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• GEOGRAPHY iv. Cartography of Persia

  CYRUS ALAI

  The world’s oldest known topographical map is a Babylonian clay tablet (ca. 2300 B.C.E.) found at Nuzi in northeastern Iraq. It is a relatively advanced picture map, showing two ranges of hills, as seen from the side, and the rivers they flank, by a series of parallel lines. The site covered by this map may have lain between the Zagros mountains and the hills running through Kirkuk.

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• AFGHANISTAN ii. Flora

  M. Šafīq Yūnos

• GERMANY iii. Iranian studies in German: Pre-Islamic period

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  This contribution aims at presenting an overview of the studies on all aspects of the culture of pre-Islamic Iran as conducted by German, Austrian, and Swiss scholars.

• INDIA xvii. PERSIAN PRESS IN

  cross-reference

  See INDIA viii and INDIA ix. See also CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION vi and ḤABL AL-MATIN.

• JOURNALISM IN IRAN

  Negin Nabavi, Hossein Shahidi

  the collection and editing of news for presentation through the public press during the Qajar, Pahlavi, and Post-Revolutionary periods.

• KASHAN vi. THE ESBANDI FESTIVAL

  Habib Borjian

  An elaborate festival held in the Kashan region on the eve of the month Esfand.

• IRAN iv. MYTHS AND LEGENDS

  John R. Hinnells

  In the study of religion, myths are seen as narratives which encapsulate fundamental truths about the nature of existence, god(s), God(s), the universe. They explain the origin of the world or of a tribe or of a ritual.

• ECONOMY vi. IN THE TIMURID PERIOD

  Maria E. Subtelny

• IRAN xi. MUSIC

  Bruno Nettl

• KARAJ i. Modern City

  Bernard Hourcade

  a town in Tehran province, located 36 km west of the city of Tehran on the western bank of the Karaj River (q.v.; lat 35° 46ʹ N, long 50° 49ʹ E; elev., 1,360 m).

• TENTS in Iran

  Multiple Authors

  A portable dwelling characteristic of certain nomad groups. It consists of a canopy of cloth or skin supported by upright posts and anchored to the ground by means of pegs and ropes.

• ISFAHAN v. LOCAL HISTORIOGRAPHY

  JÜRGEN PAUL

  Isfahan is exceptional in the number and variety of works of local historiography; no other Persian city has attracted nearly as many such works.

• CLOTHING xxv. Clothing of the Baḵtīārīs and other Lori speaking tribes

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  Members of the Lori-speaking ethnic groups, including the Lors themselves, the Baḵtīārīs, and the Boīr-Aḥmadīs are characterized by similar styles of dress, with variations reflecting differences in tribe and social class of the wearer, variations that can have strong symbolic meaning, particularly among the Baḵtīārīs.

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• ISLAM IN IRAN v. MESSIANIC ISLAM IN IRAN

  Abbas Amanat

  Messianism is one of the most powerful, diverse and enduring expressions of Islam in Iran throughout its long history.

• FĀRS iii. History in the Islamic Period

  A. K. S. Lambton

  Although the Arabs did not take over the Sasanian system of quadrants, they kept the division of Fārs into five kūras, a division which continued until the 6th/12th century. Shiraz, a continuously inhabited site which may go back to Sasanian or even earlier times, became and has remained the provincial capital.

• AFGHANISTAN i. Geography

  J. F. Shroder, Jr.

• EGYPT iii. Relations in the Seleucid and Parthian periods

  Heinz Heinen

• GYPSY ii. Gypsy Dialects

  Gernot L. Windfuhr

  The languages and dialects popularly called “Gypsy” (< Egipcien < qebṭi “Coptic, Egyptian”) constitute three major groups: Asiatic or Middle Eastern Domari, Armenian Lomavren, and European Romani.

• TAQIYA iii. AMONG BABIS AND BAHAIS

  Kamran Ekbal

  Dissimulation of the faith was widespread among Babis and Bahais until the early years of the ministry of Shoghi Effendi (1921-57), when he, in a number of messages starting in 1927, prohibited its practice.

• HAFEZ v. MANUSCRIPTS OF HAFEZ

  Julie Scott Meisami

  A major concern of 20th-century Hafez scholarship has been the establishment of a reliable text of his poems.

• INDIA xiii. INDO-IRANIAN COMMERCIAL RELATIONS

  Scott C. Levi

  Since antiquity merchants have used both caravan and maritime routes to transport commodities between India and Persia.

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• BAM (1)

  W. Eilers

  (also written bām) “bass,” the lowest-pitched string in music. The etymology is discussed.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES v. QAJAR PERIOD (2)

  Mehrdad Amanat

  In the latter part of the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries there occurred a relatively widespread mass movement of Persian Jews to the Bahai community.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 5)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  The Qajar dynasty (1779-1924). The Qajar were a Turkmen tribe who first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of Armenia and were among the seven Qezelbāš tribes that supported the Safavids.

• ECONOMY ii. IN THE PRE-ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Robert C. Henrickson

• KABUL i. GEOGRAPHY OF THE PROVINCE

  Andreas Wilde

• IRAN ix. RELIGIONS IN IRAN (1) Pre-Islamic (1.1) Overview

  Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  From the 2nd millennium BCE until Islam became dominant in Iran, a remarkable number of religious traditions existed there.

• EDUCATION xv. FOREIGN AND MINORITY SCHOOLS IN PERSIA

  EIr

• ISFAHAN iii. POPULATION (1) The Qajar Period

  Heidi Walcher

  Population figures for the Qajar period diverge drastically and are largely based on conjecture by European diplomats.

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• CLOTHING xvii. Clothing of the Kurdish Jews

  Ora Shwartz-Beeri

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• HERODOTUS iii. DEFINING THE PERSIANS

  Robert Rollinger

  In the Histories the Persians are sometimes not exactly distinguishable from other peoples of their empire, especially when the Greeks’ opponents are simply qualified as “Persians.” The Persians generally are run together with the Medes.

• HORMOZD V

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  Sasanian great king (r. 630-32 CE) in the turbulent years following the murder of Ḵosrow II Parvēz (628).

• EGYPT v. Political And Commercial Relations In The Islamic Period

  Cross-reference

  See under FATIMIDS,; AYYUBIDS; IL-KHANIDS DYNASTY.

• ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS i. Safavid to Zand Periods

  R. W. Ferrier

  English interest in Persia during this period is almost exclusively concerned with trade and has almost nothing to do with political relations. Relations arose as the result of a failure to trade eastwards through Russia and Central Asia in the mid-16th century by merchants of the Russia Company, which, though formed in London on 26 February 1555, had already dispatched their first voyage of three ships by the northeastern route round Russia on 18 May 1553.

• INDIA ix. RELATIONS: QAJAR PERIOD, EARLY 20TH CENTURY

  Mansour Bonakdarian

  The contributions made by various non-Iranian individuals and groups to the constitutional/ nationalist cause in Persia have long been acknowledged in the historiography of the revolution.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES ii. ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Mayer I. Gruber

  The most significant chapter in the story of Jews and Judaism in Persia began 15 March 597 BCE, when King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylonia conquered Jerusalem.

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• BOSḤĀQ AṬʿEMA

  Heshmat Moayyad

  , FAḴR-AL-DĪN ḤALLĀJ ŠĪRĀZĪ (d. 1420s), satirical poet who used Persian culinary vocabulary and imagery and kitchen terminology to create a novel style of poetry.

• BAHAISM iv. The Bahai Communities

  P. Smith

  The development of the Bahai faith has been accompanied by a massive transformation of the religion’s social base. From being a religion predominantly composed of those of Iranian Shiʿite background, it has become a worldwide movement.

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• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (1) Pre-Islamic Times

  Ehsan Yarshater

  This section provides a concise introduction to the history of Iran from its beginnings to modern times. The generally recognized periods of the country’s history are reviewed, and some of the major motifs or themes in the politics or culture of the various periods are discussed.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN iv. International Film Festivals

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  Kanun organized its first international film festival for children (Noḵostin festivāl-e bayn-al-melali-e filmhā-ye kudakān o nowjavānān) in 1966, its first official year.

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• EDUCATION xi. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL GROUPS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk

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• CERAMICS ix. The Bronze Age in Northeastern Persia

  Serge Cleuziou