Search Results

• BESMEL ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Zabihollah Safa

  , ḤĀJĪ ʿALĪ-AKBAR, also known as Nawwāb, Persian writer and poet of note of the 18th-19th centuries.

• SYNGUÉ SABUR: PIERRE DE PATIENCE

  FARANGUIS HABIBI

  novella in French by Atiq Rahimi (ʿAtiq Raḥimi; b. Kabul, 1962), the Afghan writer and director.

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• ḎARʿ

  cross-reference

  See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

• ESʿAD EFENDİ, MEHMED

  Tahsın Yazici

  Moḥammad Asʿad Efendi (b. Istanbul, 14 June 1570; d. Istanbul, 21 June 1625), Ottoman religious figure and author of both Persian and Turkish poetry.

• YASNA

  William W. Malandra

  the name for the central ritual in Zoroastrianism and for the long liturgical text recited during the daily performance of the ritual.

• ḠAWṮ KHAN, NAWWĀB MOḴTĀR-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See NAWWĀB-E DAKHAN.

• ḤOSAYN B. ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA

  cross-reference

  See JALĀYERIDS.

• ʿABDALLĀH MORVĀRĪD

  P. P. Soucek

  (d. 1516), Timurid court official, poet, scribe, and musician.

• ĀMŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀMOL.

• BAHĀRESTĀN (2)

  ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  the name of a garden, public square, and complex of buildings in central Tehran.

• CONVERSION vi. To Protestant Christianity in Persia

  Paul S. Seto

• ČELLA

  Mahmoud Omidsalar, Hamid Algar

  term referring to any forty-day period. i. In Persian folklore. ii. In Sufism.

• DŪRMEŠ, KHAN

  Roger M. Savory

  or Dormeš; b. ʿAbdī Beg TAVĀČĪ ŠĀMLŪ, powerful Qezelbāš amir, brother-in-law and confidant of Shah Esmāʿīl I.

• MUELLER, Friedrich W. K.

  Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst

  (1863-1930), scholar of oriental cultures and languages, a major contribution to the establishment of the philological and historical study of texts in Middle Iranian and Old Turkish.

• HAFT EQLIM

  Cross-Reference

  See HAFT KEŠVAR.

• JĀMEʿ AL-ḤEKMATAYN

  cross-reference

  See NĀṢER-E ḴOSROW.

• AḤMAD TAKŪDĀR

  P. Jackson

  third il-khan of Iran (r. 680-83/1282-84), seventh son of Hülegü.

• ĀSMĀN

  A. Tafażżolī

  (sky, heavens), in Zoroastrian cosmology the first part of the material (gētīg) world created by Ohrmazd.

• FARROḴZĀD, FORŪḠ-ZAMĀN

  Farzaneh Milani

  (b. Tehran, 1935; d. Tehran, 1967), usually known as Forūḡ, Persian poet.

• LUT

  Cross-Reference

  Persian word meaning “desert.” See DESERT.

• PHOENIX MOSQUE

  George Lane

  a historical monument built in 1281 in Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, on the coastal area of China.

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• D'ARCY, JOSEPH

  Kambiz Eslami

  (Pers. “Mester Bārūt,” “Qūlūnel Khan,” “Qonsūl Khan”; b. Portsmouth, England, 14 March 1780, d. Lymington, England, 17 February 1848), major (later lieutenant colonel) in the British Royal Artillery who arrived in Persia in 1226/1811 with the ambassador Sir Gore Ouseley; he was one of a group of British officers and enlisted men who were to reform and equip the Persian army.

• ESḤĀQ MAWṢELĪ

  Everett K. Rowson

  (767?-850), prominent musician at the ʿAbbasid court in Baghdad and the successor of his equally famous father Ebrāhīm Mawṣelī as leader of the conservative school of musicians of the time.

• MESSINA, GIUSEPPE

  Carlo G. Cereti

  , SJ (1893-1951), Italian scholar of Middle and Modern Iranian studies.

• GAZOPHYLACIUM LINGUAE PERSICAE

  Cross-Reference

  See DICTIONARIES iii.

• HÜBSCHMANN, (JOHANN) HEINRICH

  Erich Kettenhofen and Rüdiger Schmitt

  eminent German scholar of Iranian and Armenian studies (1848-1908).

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• ABḴĀZ

  Dzh. Giunashvili

  (also APSUA, APSNI), ethnic group of the Caucasus.

• ANDARĪMĀN

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the name of a number of Turanian heroes in the Šāh-nāma.

• EGYPT ix. Iran’s cultural influence in the Islamic period

  Moḥammad el Saʿīd ʿAbd al-Moʾmen

  The more noticeable cultural influence of Perisa on Egypt occurred during the 16th-18th centuries, when Egypt became a province of the Ottoman empire. Persian literature was widely studied and avidly followed in the Ottoman empire, and the Persian language was used as one of the administrative languages of the empire.

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• CHALDEANS

  Muhammad Dandamayev

  (Kaldu), West Semitic tribes of southern Babylonia attested in Assyrian texts from the early 9th century B.C.

• EBN ABI’L ḤADĪD

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. ABU’L ḤADĪD.

• OIL AGREEMENTS IN IRAN

  Parviz Mina

  (1901-1978): their history and evolution. The history of Iranian oil agreements began with an unprecedented concession granted by Nāṣer-al-Din Shah in 1872 to Baron Julius de Reuter.

• ḤĀJI PIRZĀDA

  Anna Vanzan

  , Moḥammad ʿAli Nāʾini, Persian traveler (d. 1904). His diary follows the convention of the Qajar safar-nāmas in its description of the wonders seen abroad (such as  monuments, museums, transportation systems). A pious and traditional man, he expresses a sincere apprehension for those Iranians abroad whom he felt had forgotten their culture and religion.

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• JAPAN x. COLLECTIONS OF PERSIAN BOOKS IN JAPAN

  Cross-Reference

  Forthcoming, online.

• AIRYAMAN IŠYA

  C. J. Brunner

  Gathic Avestan prayer.

• ĀŠRAFĪ

  A. Hairi

  religious leader, born sometime before 1235/1819 and died 1315/1897-98.

• FĀTEḤ, MOṢṬAFĀ

  Bāqer ʿĀqelī

  (b. Isfahan, 1896; d. London, 1978), a deputy director-general of the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company and banker.

• BĪLAQĀN(Ī)

  Cross-Reference

  See BAYLAQĀN.

• VENDĪDĀD

  William W. Malandra

  the common name given the Avestan text widaēwa-dāta-, Pahl. jud-dēw-dād “The Law repudiating the Demons.” Of the three major divisions of the 21 Nasks of the Sasanian Avesta, the Vendīdād was the last of those called dādīg “dealing with law,” and 19th overall. The summary of its contents given in the 9th-century Dēnkard accords closely with the extent of the received text. 

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• DARVĀZ

  Jan-Heeren Grevemeyer

  a largely autonomous principality with territory on both sides of the upper course of the Āmū Daryā, known as the Panj, until the partition between czarist Russia and the Afghan kingdom in the last quarter of the 19th century.

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• BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES ii. In Iran

  Aḥmad Monzawī and ʿAlī Naqī Monzawī

  Persian-language catalogues of manuscripts preserved in libraries in Iran and elsewhere range from detailed works in book form to articles in journals and short lists published separately or as supplements to other publications.

• KARIM KHAN ZAND

  John R. Perry

  (ca. 1705-1779), “The Wakil,” ruler of Persia (except Khorasan) from Shiraz during 1751-79. The Zand were a pastoral tribe of the Lak branch of the northern Lors, ranging between the inner Zagros and the Hamadān plains, centered on the villages of Pari and Kamāzān in the vicinity of Malāyer.

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• ZUR-KHANA

  Cross-Reference

  (zur-khaneh, zurkhaneh), lit. “house of strength,” the traditional gymnasium of urban Persia and adjacent lands. See ZUR-ḴĀNA.

• HYMN OF THE PEARL

  J. R. Russell

  or Hymn of the Soul, a Syriac poem, of which an early Greek translation also exists, composed probably in the third century CE in the region of Edessa.

• ABŪ ʿALĪ MESKAVAYH

  Cross-Reference

  Persian chancery official and treasury clerk of the Buyid period, boon companion, litterateur and accomplished writer in Arabic on a variety of topics, including history, theology, philosophy and medicine (d. 421/1030). See MESKAVAYH, ABU ʿALI AḤMAD.

• ANĪRĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ANĒRĀN.

• BAḴT

  W. Eilers, S. Shaked

  “fate, destiny,” often with the positive sense of “good luck” (ḵᵛošbaḵtī).  i. The term.  ii. The concept.

• EXCAVATIONS i. In Persia

  David Stronach

• CHITON

  Cross-Reference

  See CLOTHING i. Median and Achaemenid periods, iii. Sasanian period.

• EBN AL-EḴŠĪD, ABŪ BAKR AḤMAD

  Daniel Gimaret

  b. ʿAlī b. Beḡčor (884-938), Muʿtazilite theologian.

• MUNICH, PERSIAN ART IN

  Avinoam Shalem

  The collecting of Persian art in Munich goes back at least to the reign of Duke Albrecht V (r. 1516-75). Artifacts of oriental origin were mainly registered as exotica. For example, between 1545 and 1550, Hans Mielich (1516-73), the court painter of Albrecht V, provided the duke with an illustrated inventory of the varied treasures in the court, among which is depicted an Ottoman vessel decorated with precious stones.

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• JEBĀL

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  in Arabic, the plural of jabal “mountain,” a geographical term used in early Islamic times for the western part of Persia, roughly corresponding to ancient Media (Ar. māh).

• AḴLĀQ-E MOḤSENĪ

  G. M. Wickens

  an ostensibly serious treatise on ethics by the prolific prose-stylist Kamāl-al-dīn Ḥosayn Wāʿeẓ Kāšefī, completed in 900/1494-95.

• ASTŌDĀN

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  “bone-receptacle, ossuary.” The term has an important place in the vocabulary of ancient Iranian funerary rites.

• FAŻL NAYRĪZĪ

  David Pingree

  , ABU’L ʿABBĀS b. Ḥātem, mathematician and astronomer (fl. 900 C.E.). His family originated from Nayrīz/Nīrīz, a small town near Shiraz. Almost nothing is known of his personal life. The fact that he

• BLOCHMANN, HEINRICH FERDINAND

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (also Henry), a German orientalist and scholar of Persian language and literature who spent most of his career in India (1838-1878).

• FORGERIES

  Multiple Authors

  forgeries of art objects and manuscripts. i. Introduction. ii. Of Pre-Islamic Art Objects. iii. Of Islamic Art. iv. Of Manuscripts.

• DAŠTAKĪ, ʿAṬĀ-ALLĀH

  Andrew J. Newman

  (d. 1506, 1511, or 1520), a scholar of Hadith in Khorasan in the late Timurid and early Safavid periods.

• EṢṬAḴRĪ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM

  O. G. Bolshakov

  b. Moḥammad Fāresī Karḵī, 10th-century Muslim traveler and geographer and founder of the genre of masālek (lit. “itineraries”) literature.

• TOPKAPI PALACE

  Zeren Tanındı

  and its Persian holdings. The Topkapı Palace, which was known as the Yeni Saray (New Palace) until the 19th century, served the Ottoman sultans for almost 380 years as the imperial residence and center of command.

• GEŠNĪZ

  Cross-Reference

  See CORIANDER.

• ARMOR ii. In Eastern Iran

  Boris A. Litvinsky

  By the 6th, or even 7th, century BCE, the Scythian and Northern Caucasian nomads had formed a complete complex of defensive armor.

• ABŪ ESḤĀQ NAẒẒĀM

  J. van Ess

  famous adīb and Muʿtazilite theologian.

• BALĀSĀḠŪN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a town of Central Asia, in early Islamic times the main settlement of the region known as Yeti-su or Semirechye “the land of the seven rivers,” now mainly within the eastern part of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

• FLAGS iii. of Tajikistan

  Habib Borjian

  On 28 April 1929, the constitution of the Tajik ASSR adopted a state arms and flag. The arms consisted of a hammer (bālḡa) and local sickle (dās) symbol against a star, which depicts a blue sky brightened by golden rays of sun rising above snowy mountains. The star is encircled on each side by wreaths of wheat and cotton.

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• CILICIA

  Michael Weiskopf

  the southeastern portion of the present Turkish coast, a satrapy of the Achaemenid empire (6th-4th centuries b.c.e.), subsequently incorporated into the Macedonian and Roman empires.

• EBN MATTAWAYH, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ḤASAN

  Martin McDermott

  b. Aḥmad b. Mattawayh, Muʿtazilite theologian of the Basran school, a student of Qāżī ʿAbd-al-Jabbār (d. 1025).

• KÁRDAKES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  the name of a Persian military unit mentioned several times by Greek and Roman authors, nearly always in relation to the Achaemenid period (cf. Huyse, p. 199, n. 6).

• HĄM.VAINTĪ

  Bernfried Schlerath

  Zoroastrian divinity “Victory,” only attested as a companion with Āxšti “Peace.”

• JIWĀM

  Firoze M. Kotwal and Jamsheed K. Choksy

  “(consecrated) milk,” the designation for one of the organic items—now a mixture of milk and consecrated water—used in the  high or inner liturgical rituals of the Zoroastrians.

• ĀL-E DĀBŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See DABUYIDS.

• ĀTAŠKADA

  M. Boyce

   “house of fire,” a Zoroastrian term for a consecrated building in which there is an ever-burning sacred fire.

• FERĒDŪN

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  Iranian mythic hero.

• BOLŪḠ

  cross-reference

  See BĀLEḠ.

• ZĀDUYA

  Touraj Daryaee

  a Persian noble in the 7th century CE who was instrumental in the crowning of Farroḵzād Ḵosrow as Sasanian king.

• DĀVAR

  Cross-Reference

  See DĀTABARA.

• EUROPE, PERSIAN IMAGE OF

  Rudi Matthee

• BOARD GAMES in pre-Islamic Persia

  Ulrich Schädler and Anne-Elizabeth Dunn-Vaturi

  In contrast to the extensive literature describing the role of ancient Persia in the transmission of the games of chess and backgammon, our knowledge of other board games remains scanty. The study of ancient games relies on archeological material which is supplemented by data from epigraphic and iconographic sources, and direct evidence is lacking in most cases.

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• INDIA xxix. SHIʿITE COMMUNITIES IN

  Cross-Reference

  See CONVERSION iii. TO IMAMI SHI'ISM IN INDIA.

• ABŪ ḤANĪFA ESKĀFĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ESKĀFĪ, ABŪ ḤANĪFA.

• APOLLODORUS OF ARTIMITA

  M. L. Chaumont

  historian of the 1st century B.C. or later, author of a Parthian History.

• BANAFŠA

  H. Aʿlam

  “violet,” common name for the genus Viola L. in New Persian. From certain botanical features of violas there have developed some violet-based similes and metaphors in classical Persian literature.

• CROWN v. In the Qajar and Pahlavi periods

  Yaḥyā Ḏokāʾ

  Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah (r. 1797-1834) ordered the cre­ation of a tall, jeweled crown with eight peaks on a red velvet cap, the Kayānī crown. From that time on all Qajar kings wore this crown, which is now kept in the Bānk-e markazī-e Īrān (Central bank of Iran).

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• CLEARCHUS OF SPARTA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (b. Sparta ca. 450 BCE, d. Babylon 401 BCE), son of Rhamphias, Greek general in the service of Cyrus the Younger.

• EBN SĪNA

  Cross-Reference

  See AVICENNA.

• TONB

  Guive Mirfendereski

  (GREATER and LESSER), two tiny islands of arguable strategic importance in the eastern Persian Gulf, south of the western tip of Qešm island.

• HARISA

  Etrat Elahi

  a cooked dish made from a mixture of grains, usually half-ground wheat and barley, and meat, usually lamb and more recently sometimes beef.

• JOVAYNI, ṢĀḤEB DIVĀN

  Michal Biran

  ŠAMS-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD b. Moḥammad (d. 1284), Persian statesman of the early Il-khanid period, the younger brother of the historian  ʿAlāʾ-al-Din ʿAṭā-Malek Jovayni.

• ʿALĪʾ-AL-DĪN ATSÏZ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a late and short-reigned sultan of the Ghurid dynasty in Afghanistan (607-11/1210-14).

• AVADH

  R. B. Barnett

  an ancient cultural and administrative region lying between the Himalayas and the Ganges in North India, named after Ayodhyā, the setting of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana.

• FICTION, ii(e)

  Houra Yavari

  ii(e). POST-REVOLUTIONARY FICTION ABROAD. Not only were the novel and short story imported genres, the very first works of Persian fiction were either written or first published outside Persia.

• BORHĀN-AL-DĪN MOḤAQQEQ TERMEḎĪ

  cross-reference

  See MOḤAQQEQ TERMEḎĪ.

• T~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the T entries

• DAYEAKUTʿIWN

  Robert G. Bedrosian

  a form of child rearing practiced in Armenia and other parts of the Caucasus.

• ʿEZRĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See BIBLE.

• ALAVI, Bozorg

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  (1904-1997), noted Persian novelist.

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• GOD

  Cross-Reference

  See AHURA MAZDĀ; BAGA.

• INSTITUTE FOR IRANIAN PHILOLOGY

  Claus V. Pedersen

  (INSTITUT FOR IRANSK FILOLOGI), University of Copenhagen. i. Forerunners. ii. History. Although the Institute was founded only in 1961, it has a long prehistory, since it is the natural culmination of about 200 years of Iranian studies in the Kingdom of Denmark.

• ABŪ KĀLĪJĀR GARŠĀSP (I)

  C. E. Bosworth

  second son of the Kakuyid amir of Jebāl, ʿAlāʾ-al-dawla Moḥammad b. Došmanzīār, ruled in Hamadān and parts of what are now Kurdistan and Luristan, 433-37/1041-42 to 1045, d. 443/1051-52.

• ʿAQL-E SORḴ

  H. Corbin

  “The Crimsoned Archangel” (lit., “The Red Intellect”), one of the visionary recitals or treatises on spiritual initiation of Sohravardī (d. 1191)

• BANNĀʾĪ

  C. Bromberger

  While the term bannāʾī covers the entire construction field, in this brief study domestic building techniques, in particular, which are more or less part of the traditional crafts, and the recent evolution of popular housing will be emphasized.

• KERIYA

  Alain Cariou

  (Chin. name Yutian), city and county in the southern Tarim basin in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, China.  

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• ČOḠĀ ZANBĪL

  Elizabeth Carter

  or Chogha Zanbil, a city founded by the Elamite king Untaš Napiriša (ca. 1275-40 B.C.E.) about 40 km southeast of Susa at a strategic point on a main road leading to the highlands. After his death it remained a place of religious pilgrimage and a burial ground until about 1000 B.C.E.

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• EBRĀHĪM MĪRZĀ

  Marianna S. Simpson

  (b. April 1540; d. 23 February 1577), Safavid prince, patron, artist, and poet generally referred to as Solṭān Ebrāhīm Mīrzā.

• PARSI COMMUNITIES ii. IN CALCUTTA

  Jesse S. Palsetia

  Calcutta became a center of Parsi settlement from the 18th century. Dadabhoy Behramji Banaji is recorded as the first Parsi to have come to Calcutta from Surat in western India in 1767.

• ḤASAN ṢABBĀḤ

  Farhad Daftary

  prominent Ismaʿili dāʿi  and founder of the medieval Nezāri Ismaʿili state (b. 1050s, d. 1124).

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS vi. LEGAL SYSTEM, ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Cross-Reference

  See forthcoming, online. See also AḴBĀRIYA; CIVIL CODE; CONSTITUTION; CONTRACT; FEQH; HADITH.

• ʿALAWĪ, ABD-AL-KARĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-KARĪM ʿALAVĪ.

• AXTAR

  W. Eilers

  (Middle and New Persian) “star” or “constellation.”

• FISCAL SYSTEM iv. SAFAVID AND QAJAR PERIODS

  Willem Floor

  iv. SAFAVID AND QAJAR PERIODS The Safavid shah’s fiscal prerogatives were expressed by terms like bājgoḏār, bājsetān, and jezyagoḏār (tax assessor or tax taker).

• BOZGŪŠ

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the traditional reading of the name of a mythical tribe in Māzandarān mentioned in the Šāh-nāma.

• XWĒŠKĀRĪH Ī RĒDAGĀN

  Mahnaz Moazami

  (The duty of children), a Pahlavi manual for Zoroastrian children regarding correct behavior.

• DEHḴODĀ, MĪRZĀ ʿALĪ-AKBAR QAZVĪNĪ

  ʿA.-A. SAʿĪDĪ SĪRJĀNĪ

  (ca. 1879–1956), scholar, poet, and social critic. In all his writing Dehḵodā was a perfectionist and a meticulous craftsman. He was a nationalist, outspoken in his convictions, indifferent to the wrath of powerful men, and a firm believer in Persian culture.

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• FAḴRĪ HERAVĪ, SOLṬĀN-MOḤAMMAD

  Sharif Husain Qasemi

  b. Moḥammad Amīr Khan (or Solṭān) Amīrī Heravī (b. Herat, ca. 1497, d. probably in Agra, after 1566), poet, scholar, and Sufi who wrote on various aspects of the poetic art.

• MATHESON, Sylvia Anne

  Yolande Crowe

  (1916-2006), writer, traveler and archeologist, especially remembered for her pioneering work, Persia: An Archaeological Guide, first published in 1972.

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• ḠOLĀM-ḤOSAYN KHAN ṬABĀṬABĀʾI

  Arif Naushahi

  (b. Delhi, 1727-28, d. after 1781), Sayyed, secretary (monši) by profession, political intermediary, and author of a popular history of India called Siar al-motaʾaḵḵerin.

• ABŪ NAṢR ʿOTBĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿOTBĪ, ABŪ NAṢR.

• ĀRAŠ, KAY

  A. Tafażżolī

  Avestan KAVI ARŠAN, a member of the Kayanid dynasty in Iranian legend. 

• BĀRAKZAY DYNASTY

  cross-reference

  See AFGHANISTAN x. Political History ; and DORRĀNĪ.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION

  Multiple Authors

  (Enqelāb-e mašrūṭa) of 1323-29/1905-11, during which a parliament and constitutional monarchy were established in Persia.

• EDEB

  Amir Hassanpour

  b. Armanī Bolāḡī (1860-1918), pen name of the Kurdish poet ʿAbd-Allāh Beg b. Aḥmad Beg Bābāmīrī Miṣbāḥ-al-Dīwān.

• FŌLĀDĪ

  Cross-Reference

  Buddhist cave site in Afghanistan. See AFGHANISTAN viii.

• ḤAYĀTI, ABDÜLHAY

  Tahsin Yazici

  or ʿAbd-al-Ḥayy, 15th century poet who wrote a series of Turkish poems modeled on Neẓāmi’s Ḵamsa.

• KADIMI

  Ramiyar P. Karanjia

  a Zoroastrian sect (Ar. qadim “old, ancient”). The movement emerged in 18th-century India.

• ʿALĪ B. ḤĀMED

  cross-reference

  KŪFĪ. See ČĀČ-NĀMA.

• AYYOHAʾL-WALAD

  I. Abbas

  a short treatise by Abū Ḥāmed Moḥammad Ḡazālī Ṭūsī (fl. 450-505/1058-1111), originally composed in Persian.

• BRONZES OF LURISTAN

  Oscar White Muscarella

  the accepted term for a distinct body of metalwork produced in the first half of the first millennium B.C. and characterized by a wide range of idiosyncratic forms and a highly stylized conception of human and animal representation.

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• DĒN

  Mansour Shaki

  theological and metaphysical term with a variety of meanings:  “the sum of man’s spiritual attributes and individuality, vision, inner self, conscience, religion.”

• PERSIS, KINGS OF

  Joseph Wiesehöfer

  the Persian dynasts who between the 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE ruled as Parthian representatives in Persis, southwestern Iran.

• GOLŠAHRI, SOLAYMĀN

  EIr

   or GÜLŞEHRÎ; 13th century Ottoman Sufi and poet who wrote in Persian and Turkish.

• IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIRS

  Malcolm Byrne

  the linkage in the mid-1980s of two separate and distinct U.S. covert operations in Iran and Central America.

• ABŪ SAHL ZŪZANĪ

  Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī

  courtier and official under the Ghaznavid amirs Maḥmūd (388-421/998-1030) and Masʿūd (421-32/1031-41), d. ca. 440-50/1050-59.

• BARGOSTVĀN

  A. S. Melikian-Chirvani

  horse armor, a distinctive feature of Iranian warfare from very early times on. The earliest known helmet (chamfron) has been excavated at Ḥasanlū from a 9th-century B.C. stratum.

• NISHAPUR i. Historical Geography and History to the Beginning of the 20th Century

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Nishapur (Nišāpur) was, with Balḵ, Marv and Herat, one of the four great cities of the province of Khorasan.  It flourished in Sasanid and early Islamic times, but after the devastations of the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, subsided into a more modest role until it revived in the 20th century.

• ČORŪM

  Cross-Reference

  See ČERĀM.

• EFTEḴĀRĪĀN

  François de Blois

  a family of officials and poets from Qazvīn, reputed descendants of the caliph Abū Bakr, who flourished under the early Il-khans in the 13th century.

• FOTŪḤ AL-SALĀṮĪN

  Cross-reference

  Work by Indo-Muslim poet ʿAbd-al-Malek ʿEṣāmi. See ʿEṢAMI, ʿABD-AL-MALEK.

• HECATAEUS OF MILETUS

  Joseph Wiesehöfer

  a Greek author from the city of Miletus in Asia Minor (fl. between 560 and 418 BCE), author of a geographical survey of the regions and the peoples in the Achaemenid empire.

• ABAQA

  Peter Jackson

  (or ABAḠA, “paternal uncle” in Mongolian; ABĀQĀ in Persian and Arabic), eldest son and first successor of the Il-khan Hülegü.

• ʿALĪ AṢḠAR BORŪJERDĪ

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  author of several works including the ʿAqāʾed al-šīʿa, written in 1263/1874 and dedicated to Moḥammad Shah Qāǰār.

• ĀZARMĪGDUXT

  Ph. Gignoux

  Sasanian queen who according to Ṭabarī ruled for a few months in 630.

• ARMY i. Pre-Islamic Iran

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

• BURUSHASKI

  Hermann Berger

  language spoken in Hunza-Karakorum, North Pakistan, containing some Iranian loanwords of various origins.

• DEYLAMĪ, ʿABD-AL-RAŠĪD

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-RAŠĪD DAYLAMĪ.

• KHAYYAM, OMAR ix. ILLUSTRATIONS OF ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS OF OMAR KHAYYAM’S RUBAIYAT

  William H. Martin and Sandra Mason

  The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam contain some of the best-known verses in the world. The book is also one of the most frequently and widely illustrated of all literary works. The stimulus to illustrate Khayyam’s Rubaiyat came initially from outside Persia, in response to translations in the West.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GORĀZ

  Cross-Reference

  See BOAR.

• ABU’L-WAZIR MARVAZĪ

  L. A. Giffen

  Secretary and author (d. 186/802).

• ARḠANDĀB RIVER

  D. Balland

  a river in the south of Afghanistan, the biggest tributary of the Helmand. The present name, in the form Āb-e Arḡand, is attested from the 7th/13th century.

• BARTHOLOMAE’S LAW

  M. Mayrhofer

  the name given to a rule of phonetic assimilation in the Indo-Iranian and probably also the proto-Indo-European languages first noted by Christian Bartholomae in 1882.

• KALILA WA DEMNA iii. ILLUSTRATIONS

  Bernard O’Kane

  a collection of didactic animal fables, with the jackals Kalila and Demna as two of the principal characters.

• CROWN PRINCE

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  the officially recognized heir apparent to the throne.

• ELĀHĪ

  Hamid Algar, J. W. Morris, Jean During

  or ʿAlīšāh (1895-1974), innovative and charismatic leader of one branch of the Ahl-e Ḥaqq and author of several texts on its teachings. The most complete presentation is to be found not in his Persian books, destined for circulation among Twelver Shiʿites, but in his unpublished writings in Gūrānī, intended to be read only by Ahl-e Ḥaqq initiates.

• ATEŞ, AHMED

  Tahsin Yazici

  (1911-1966), Turkish orientalist and scholar of Persian literature.

• FRAŠOŠTAR

  Cross-reference

  See JĀMĀSP.

• HELLESPONT

  cross-reference

  See XERXES.

• ʿABD-AL-ʿALĪ BĪRJANDĪ

  D. Pingree

  (or BARJANDĪ) Islamic astronomer, said to have died in 934/1527-28.

• ʿALĪ-QOLĪ KHAN MOḴBER-AL-DAWLA

  Cross-Reference

  See MOḴBER-AL-DAWLA.

• BĀB, ʿAli Moḥammad Širāzi

  D. M. MacEoin

  the founder of Babism (1819-1850).

• ČAḠĀNRŪD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Čaḡānīrūd in Farroḵī, the seventh and last right-bank tributary of the Oxus or Amu Darya.

• DIBĪR

  Cross-Reference

  See DABĪR.

• ALIZADEH, Ghazaleh

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  (1947-1996), noted novelist and short story writer.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GŌSFAND

  Cross-Reference

  See GUSFAND.

• ĀDĀ

  J. Duchesne-Guillemin

  “requital” in Avestan.

• ARNOLD, THOMAS WALKER

  B. W. Robinson

  , Sir (1864-1930), British orientalist.

• BISOTUN ii. Archeology

  Heinz Luschey

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CYRTIANS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  a tribe dwell­ing mainly in the mountains of Atropatenian Media together with the Cadusii, Amardi (or “Mardi”), Tapyri, and others.

• ELYMAIS

  John F. Hansman

  semi-independent state frequently subject to Parthian domination, which existed between the second century B.C.E. and the early third century C. E. in the territories of Ḵūzestān, in southwestern Persia.

• GARMAPADA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  name of the fourth month (June-July) of the Old Persian calendar.

• GABAE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  the name of two places in Persia and Sogdiana.

• HĒRBEDESTĀN

  Firoze M. Kotwal

  (school for priests, religious school), a Middle Persian term designating (1) Zoroastrian priestly studies and (2) an Avestan/Pahlavi text found together with the Nērangestān manuscripts.

• ʿABD-AL-JABBĀR

  D. Duda

  Calligrapher at the Safavid court in Isfahan in the time of Shah ʿAbbās I (17th century).

• ALQĀS MĪRZA

  C. Fleischer

  second of Shah Esmāʿīl’s four surviving sons (1516-1550) and leader of a revolt.

• BĀBAY OF NISIBIS

  N. Sims-Williams

  Christian Syriac writer who flourished about the beginning of the seventh century CE; a homily of his is attested in Sogdian.

• BUDDHISM i. In Pre-Islamic Times

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  That Buddhism did not remain a minor sect despite these internal dissensions may be due largely to the patronage extended to the religion by the famous Indian emperor Aśoka, who acceded to the throne in about 268 B.C. 

• ČAKĀVAK

  Hūšang Aʿlam, Hūšang Aʿlam

  (Mid. Pers. čakōk). i. The lark. ii. A melody in Persian music.

• DIONYSIUS

  RüDIGER SCHMITT

  (Gk. Dionýsios) of Miletus, Greek historiographer, who may have lived in the 5th century B.C.E. and is said to have written a book about Persian history after the death of Darius I.

• PAYANDEH, ABU’L-QASEM

  Ṣafdar Taqizāda

  (1908/1911-1984), journalist, translator, and fiction writer.

• GRAPHIC ARTS

  Mortażā Momayyez, Peter Chelkowski

  Broadly speaking, graphic art and design have a long history in Persia; their antecedents can be seen in graphic motifs and patterns on ancient clay and metal vessels, stone reliefs, seals, brickwork, glazed tiles, plaster and wood carvings, cloths, carpets, marquetry, miniature paintings, calligraphy, and illumination of manuscripts.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISLAM IN IRAN xiv - xviii

  Cross-Reference

• ADMINISTRATION in Iran

  Multiple Authors

• ART IN IRAN ix. SAFAVID To Qajar Periods

  A. Welch

• BĀYSONḠORĪ ŠĀH-NĀMA

  Dj. Khaleghi Motlagh, T. Lentz

  an illuminated and gilded manuscript of Ferdowsī’s Šāh-nāma measur­ing 26.5 × 38 cm, containing 346 pages and twenty-one paintings, written in nastaʿlīq, and kept in the former Royal Library (Golestan Palace Museum, no. 6) in Tehran. i. The manuscript.  ii. The paintings.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAIKU

  Eva Lucie Witte

  a Japanese poetic form adopted and employed by Iranian poets since the second half of the 20th century.

• DĀDGAR, ḤOSAYN

  Bāqer ʿĀqelī

  ʿAdl-al-Molk (b. Tehran ca. 1299/1881, d. 1349 Š./1970), at various times president of the Persian Majles, cabi­net minister, and senator under the Qajar and Pahlavi dynasties.

• EMĪN YOMNĪ, MEḤMED

  Tahsın Yazici

  Moḥammad Amīn (b. Solaymānīya in Persia, 1845, d. Istanbul, 5 April 1924), Turkish poet and man of letters who also wrote in Persian.

• MITHRA iii. IN MANICHEISM

  Werner Sundermann

  The Iranian Manicheans adopted the name of the Zoroastrian god Mithra (Av. Miθra; Mid. Pers.Mihr)and used it to designate one of their own deities.

• GĀVBĀRA

  Cross-Reference

  See DABUYIDS.

• HERZFELD, ERNST ii. HERZFELD AND PASARGADAE

  David Stronach

  Ernst Herzfeld probably devoted more attention to the study of Achaemenid Iran than to any other single topic. His name will always be associated with Pasargadae, the dynastic seat of Cyrus II (the Great), the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.

• ʿABD-AL-QĀDER KHAN JĀʾEŠĪ

  M. Baqir

  Late Mughal biographer (18th-19th century).

• ʿĀMELĪ, ʿABD-AL-MONʿEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-MONʿEM ʿĀMELĪ.

• BĀDĀM

  X. de Planhol, N. Ramazani

  “almond.”  i. General.  ii. As food.  The genus Amygdalus is very common in Iran and Afghanistan and throughout the Turco-Iranian area.

• ČANDARBHĀN BARAHMAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ČANDRA BHĀN BARAHMAN.

• DOKKĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀZĀR i.

• VANDEN BERGHE, Louis

  Ernie Haerinck

  (1923-1993), Belgian archeologist who devoted almost all his research to Iran’s history.

• Greece xiv. Greek Loanwords in Medieval New Persian

  Lutz Richter Bernburg and EIr

• BĒDIL

  cross-reference

  See BĪDEL.

• ŠERVĀNŠAHS

  C. E. Bosworth

  (Šarvānšāhs), the various lines of rulers, originally Arab in ethnos but speedily Persianized within their culturally Persian environment, who ruled in the eastern Caucasian region of Šervān from mid-ʿAbbasid times until the age of the Safavids.

• DĀʿĪ, MĪRZĀ ŠAMS-AL-DĪN BOḴĀRĪ

  Cathérine Poujol

  (d. 1885), poet from Bukhara, probably born during the reign of Amir Naṣr-Allāh (1827-60).

• ENQELĀB-E MAŠṞUṬĪYĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION.

• OXYARTES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Bactrian noble, satrap under Alexander the Great.

• GALBANUM

  Hushang Aʿlam

  (Pers. bārīja, bārzad), a slightly bitter odorous gum resin obtained from several Asian umbelliferous plants, for which numerous medicinal uses have been recorded.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABD-AL-RAŠĪD DAYLAMĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Calligrapher and poet who served the Mughal ruler Shah Jahān (1037-58/1628-58).

• AMĪN ḴALWAT

  F. Gaffary

  (Trustee of the Shah’s private household or court), an office and title in the late Qajar period held by members of the Ḡaffārī family.

• BADR-AL-DĪN SERHENDĪ

  Y. Friedmann

  (b. ca. 1593-94), a Sufi author, translator, and disciple of Aḥmad Serhendī.

• CHINESE TURKESTAN v. Under the Khojas

  Isenbike Togan

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CARDUCHI

  Muhammad Dandamayev

  warlike tribes that in antiquity occupied the hilly country along the upper Tigris near the Assyrian and Median borders, in present-day western Kurdistan.

• DORNĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See CRANE.

• NOṢAYRIS

  Meir M. Bar-Asher

  followers of Nusayrism, a syncretistic religion with close affinity to Shiʿism, whose adherents live mostly in Syria and southeastern Turkey.

• GUNS, GUNNERY

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀRUT; FIREARMS.

• JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ i. Life

  Robert Gleaves

• AFŻAL KHAN, AMIR MOḤAMMAD

  ʿA. Ḥabībī

  (1220-84/1814-67), governor of Balḵ and for a short time ruler of Afghanistan.

• ĀŠ

  W. Eilers, ʿE. Elāhī, M. Boyce

  (thick soup), the general term for a traditional Iranian dish comparable to the French potage.

• FARḠĀNĪ, AḤMAD

  David Pingree

  b. Moḥammad b. Kaṯīr (fl. ca. 950 C.E.), Muslim astronomer.

• BEHRANGĪ, ṢAMAD

  Michael C. Hillmann

  (1939-1968), teacher, social critic, folklorist, translator, and short story writer.

• MEYMA i. The District

  Habib Borjian

  district in central Persia, on the road leading north from Isfahan to Qom

• DĀMḠĀN

  Chahryar Adle

  (Damghan) Persian town located on a plain south of the Alborz range, 342 km east of Tehran. Situated on the main highway from Tehran to Nīšāpūr, Mašhad, and Herat, it  also dominates less important roads north to Sārī and Gorgān, as well as tracks leading south to Yazd and Isfahan via Jandaq.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EQLĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See CLIME.

• BELLES LETTRES i. SASANIAN IRAN

  Werner Sundermann

  Belles lettres, that is, entertaining works, are not lacking in Sasanian Iran but can by no means match with their development in New Persian literature, both for quality and quantity.

• GANJ DAREH TEPE

  Cross-Reference

  See ECBATANA.

• HOMOSEXUALITY i. IN ZOROASTRIANISM

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  Zoroastrian literature contains discussions of personal relations only in legal contexts and is quite explicit with regard to sins of a sexual nature.

• ʿABDAK AL-ṢŪFĪ

  B. Reinert

  an eccentric religious devotee of Kūfa, who also lived for periods at Baghdad, late 2nd/8th to early 3rd/9th centuries.

• AMĪR PĀDEŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See MOḤAMMAD AMĪR B. MAḤMŪD.

• BAGAZUŠTA

  R. Schmitt

  Old Iranian personal name *Baga-zušta- “beloved of the god(s)” attested in the Achaemenid period and after.

• CASPIAN GATES

  John H. Hansman

  an ancient toponym identifying a ground-level pass that runs east and west through a southern spur of the Alborz Mountains in north central Iran.

• DRUJ-

  Jean Kellens

  Avestan feminine noun defining the concept opposed to that of aṧa-.

• AʿLAM, MOẒAFFAR

  Baqer Aqeli

  Sardār Enteṣār (1882-1973), provincial governor, minister of foreign affairs, military minister plenipotentiary. 

• ḤABIBIYA SCHOOL

  Ludwig W. Adamec

  an elite high school for boys established in 1903 in Kabul and named after its founder, Amir Ḥabib-Allāh.

• JALĀL-AL-DIN MIRZĀ

  Abbas Amanat and Farzin Vejdani

  Qajar historian and freethinker (1827-1872). Born at the court in Tehran, he was the fifty-fifth son of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah (r. 1797-1834). Besides European influences, the intellectual sources of his freethinking are not entirely known. He associated with Mirzā Malkom Khan (1833-1908) and his secret society, the Farāmuš-ḵāna (‘house of oblivion’), which made strident efforts to recruit members.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AHLĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ

  W. Thackston

  poet (858/1454?-942/1535).

• ASBĀNBAR

  Cross-Reference

  See MADĀʾEN.

• FARĪBORZ

  Cross-Reference

  b. Salār. See ŠARVĀNŠĀH.

• BERYĀNĪ

  Ṣoḡrā Bāzargān

  (from beryān “roast”), an Iranian meat dish usually served wrapped in flat bread.

• KAŠF AL-MAḤJUB of Sejzi

  Hermann Landolt

  (“Unveiling the hidden”), the Persian version of an Ismaʿili treatise originally written in Arabic by the 10th century dāʾi. 

• DĀNĪĀL-E NABĪ

  Amnon Netzer, Nicholas Sims-Williams, Parvīz Varjāvand, Amnon Netzer

  the Old Testament prophet Daniel, in the Persian tradition.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ERṮ

  Cross-Reference

  See INHERITANCE.

• SINEMĀ WA NEMĀYEŠĀT

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the first Persian magazine entirely devoted to cinematography (1930).

• GARRETT COLLECTION

  Kambiz Eslami

  one of the finest collections of Near Eastern manuscripts, bequeathed to the Princeton University Library by Robert Garrett (1875-1961), a graduate a trustee of the university.

• HORUFISM

  Hamid Algar

  a body of antinomian and incarnationist doctrines evolved by Fażl-Allāh Astarābādi (d. 1394), known to his followers also as Fażl-e Yazdān (“the generosity of God”). Its principal features were elaborate numerological interpretations of the letters of the Perso-Arabic alphabet and an attempt to correlate them with the human form.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABDALLĀH KHAN

  B. W. Robinson

  Court painter (18th-19th century).

• AMRĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ

  I. K. Poonawala

  (d. 999/1590-91 [?], poet and Sufi from Kūhpāya, a village near Isfahan.

• BAHĀR (1)

  Ḡ.-Ḥ. Yūsofī

  a Persian literary, scientific, political, and social-affairs monthly, 1910-11, 1921-22. Bahār represented a departure from traditional Persian journalism; readers found its willingness to discuss contemporary literature and literary criticism a refreshing change.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION iii. The Constitution

  Said Amir Arjomand

• ČEHEL ṬŪṬĪ

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  (forty parrot [stories]), the designation of collections of entertaining stories about the wife of a merchant and a pair of parrots, several versions of which are current in Persia and which are derived from older collections called ṭūṭī-nāmas (book of the parrots).

• DURA EUROPOS

  Pierre Leriche, D. N. MacKenzie

  ruined city on the right bank of the Euphrates between Antioch and Seleucia on the Tigris, founded in 303 BCE by Nicanor, a general of Seleucus I. Its military function of the Greek period was abandoned under the Parthians, but at that time it was an administrative and economic center.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MOʾAYYAD FI’L-DIN ŠIRĀZI

  Verena Klemm

  (ca. 1000-87), outstanding and multitalented representative of the Fatimid religious and political mission (daʿwa) in the service of the Caliph/Imam Mostanṣer bi’llāh (r. 1036-94).

• ḤĀFEẒ-E ABRU

  Maria Eva Subtelny and Charles Melville

  (d. 1430), author of many historical and historico-geographical works in Persian, which were commissioned by Šāhroḵ, the Timurid ruler of Herat during the first decades of the 15th century.

• JĀMĀSPASA, Dastur JAMASPJI MINOCHERJI

  Ramiyar P. Karanjia and Michael Stausberg

  (1830-1898), Parsi priest and Iranologist, offspring of a priestly family from Navsari in Gujarat, India. As a high priest he guided and supervised the consecration of several fire temples, not only in Bombay but all over India. He possessed a vast collection of important Zoroastrian manuscripts, and his publication Pahlavi texts (1897-1913) made these  available to a larger audience.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḤMAD SHAH DORRĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See AFGHANISTAN X. POLITICAL HISTORY.

• ʿAŠKARĪ, ʿALĪ AL-HĀDĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ AL-HĀDĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN AL-ʿASKARĪ.

• FARROḴĀN-E KŪČAK

  Cross-Reference

  See DĀBŪYĪDS.

• BHARUCHA, SHERIARJI DADABHAI

  Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa

  Parsi scholar (1843-1915). During the last years of his life he was criticized for his reformist views that the Zoroastrian religion was not meant for a particular fold but was open for all.

• PUR BAHĀʾ JĀMI, TĀJ-AL-DIN

  George Lane

  poet, pun master, satirist, and often scathing social commentator.

• DARBAND (2)

  Bernard Hourcade

  a former village in the summer resort (yeylāq) of Šamīrān, situated at an elevation of 1,700 m on the extreme northern edge of the capital, where the Alborz foothills begin.

• ESFARA

  Habib Borjian

  a district in the Fergana valley south of the Jaxartes which extends to the foothills of the Turkestan range.

• KURDOEV, QENĀTĒ

  Joyce Blau

  (1909-1985), Kurdish philologist and university professor.

• GAZELLE

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀHŪ, CHINKARA.

• HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

  cross-reference

  See MAJLES.

• ABĪVARD

  C. E. Bosworth

   a town in medieval northern Khorasan.

• ANBARIN QALAM, ‘ABD-AL-RAḤĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-RAḤĪM ʿANBARĪN QALAM.

• BAḤR-E ṬAWĪL

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  a type of Persian verse. generally the repetition of a whole foot (rokn) of the meter hazaj (ᴗ - - -) or of a whole foot of the meter ramal (- ᴗ - -) or a variation of the two.

• CHAARENE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (Gk. Chaarēnḗ), in Achaemenid times one of the easternmost Iranian provinces and the one closest to India.

• EBIR NĀRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See EBER-NĀRI.

• YAZIDIS i. GENERAL

  Christine Allison

  The Yazidis are  a heterodox Kurdish religious minority living predominantly in northern Iraq, Syria, and southeast Turkey, with well-established communities in the Caucasus and a growing European diaspora.

• ḤĀJI BĀBĀ AFŠĀR

  Anna Vanzan

  son of an officer in the army of the Crown Prince ʿAbbās Mirzā and one of the first Persian students sent to study in Europe (1811).

• JAPAN ix. Centers for Persian Studies in Japan

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  Formal undergraduate and graduate programs of Persian studies in Japan are offered at Osaka University School of Foreign Studies and Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.

• ĀĪN GOŠASP

  A. Tafażżolī

  a general of Hormazd IV (A.D. 579-590), sent by him to campaign against the rebellious general Bahrām Čūbīn.

• ĀŠRAF, town in Māzandarān

  Cross-Reference

  town in Māzandarān. See BEHŠAHR.

• FASMER, RICHARD RICHARDOVICH

  Anatol Ivanov

  or VASMER (1858-1938), eminent Russian numismatist.

• BĪGDELĪ

  Gerhard Doerfer

  (or Bēgdelī, also Bagdīlū), a former Turkish tribe; the name Bīgdelī appears to have survived only in personal names.

• ḤAKIM ʿALAWI KHAN

  Farid Ghassemlou

  an Iranian physician and author in the service of the Mughal Emperor Moḥammad Shah as his chief physician with the title of Moʾtamen-al-Moluk.  

• DARRA-YE ṢŪF

  Daniel Balland

  name of a valley in northern Afghanistan, drained by a tributary of the right bank of the Balḵāb, and of the adjoining mountain district and its administrative center in Samangān province.

• ESLĀMĪYA

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of two Persian newspapers first appearing in Tabrīz in 1906.

• HINDU PERSIAN POETS

  Stefano Pello

  From the late 16th century Hindus contributed to the development of Indo-Persian literary culture in general, and to the output of Persian verse in particular.

• GEOPOTHROS

  Cross-Reference

  See GŌDARZ.

• HYDE, THOMAS

  A. V. Williams

  , D.D., English orientalist, Professor of Arabic and Hebrew in the University of Oxford, the first scholar to attempt to write a comprehensive description of the religion of Zoroaster (1636-1703).

• ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD B. ŠĀḎĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  governor (ʿamīd) of Balḵ and northern Afghanistan under the Saljuq ruler of Khorasan, Čaḡrī Beg Dāʾūd, and then under his son, Alp Arslan.

• ANGRA MAINYU

  Cross-Reference

  See AHRIMAN.

• BĀḴARZ

  C. E. Bosworth

  or Govāḵarz, a district of the medieval Islamic province of Qūhestān/Qohestān in Khorasan.

• EXEGESIS i. In Zoroastrianism

  Philip G. Kreyenbroek

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS

  Multiple Authors

• EBN DĀROST, MAJD-AL-WOZARĀʾ MOḤAMMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Manṣūr (d. Ahvā, 1074), vizier to the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Qāʾem from 9 May 1061 to 9 December 1062.

• MUSĀ YABḠU

  Osman G. Özgüdenli

  the eponymous strongman of a Ḡozz clan, whose nephew Toḡrel founded the Saljuq dynasty.

• HALLOCK, RICHARD TREADWELL

  Charles E. Jones and Matthew W. Stolper

  (1906-1980), Elamitologist and Assyriologist, whose magnum opus, Persepolis Fortification Tablets, transformed the study of the languages and history of Achaemenid Persia.

• JAWHARI, ABU ʿABD-ALLĀH AḤMAD

  Abbas Kadhim

   b. Moḥammad b. ʿObayd-Allāh b. Ḥasan b. ʿAyyāš, 10th-century Imami transmitter of Hadith (d. 1010).

• AKES

  M. A. Dandamayev

  (Greek Akēs), a river in Central Asia, the modern Tejen or Harī-rūd (q.v.).

• ĀŠTĪĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  the name both of an administrative subdistrict (dehestān) and its chef-lieu in the First Province (ostān).

• AŻĀʿELḴᵛĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See MANĀQEB ḴᵛĀNĪ.

• BĪŽAN-NAMA

  William Hanaway, Jr.

  an epic poem of about 1,900 lines relating the adventures of the legendary hero Bīžan son of Gīv.

• NABIL-AL-DAWLA

  Guity Etemad

  Iranian diplomat and translator of Bahai scriptures.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DAŠT

  Eckart Ehlers

  lit. "plain, open ground"; Persian term for a very specific type of landscape, the extended gravel piedmonts and plains that are almost ubiquitous in arid central Persia.

• EŠRĀQĪ SCHOOL

  Cross-Reference

  See ILLUMINATIONISM.

• SERĀJ AL-AḴBĀR-E AFḠĀNIYA

  May Schinasi

  “Torch of the news of Afghanistan,” bi-monthly Persian language newspaper published in Kabul during the second decade of the reign of Amir Ḥabib-Allāh (q.v.; r. 1901-19).

• ILDEGOZIDS

  cross-reference

  See ATĀBAKĀN-E ĀḎARBĀYJĀN.

• ABŪ ʿEKREMA

  D. M. Dunlop

  a freedman of Banū Ḥamdān, regarded as the first ʿAbbasid propagandist in Khorasan.

• ANŌŠAZĀD

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  (in the Šāh-nāma, Nōšzād; the name means “son of the immortal”), a son of Ḵosrow I Anōšīravān and leader of a revolt in ca. 550 CE.

• BALʿAMĪ, ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD

  cross-reference

  B. MOḤAMMAD. See AMĪRAK BALʿAMĪ.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY ix. PAHLAVI PERIOD

  Abbas Amanat, EIr

  Historiography of this period will be treated in two separate entries: (1) General survey of historical writings; and (2) Specific topics concerning historical works.

• CICAST

  Cross-Reference

  See ČĒČAST.

• EBN MĀHĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ B. ʿĪSĀ B. MĀHĀN.

• FARZĀN, Sayyed Moḥammad

  EIr

  (b. near Birjand, 1894; d. Bābolsar, 1970), an eminent scholar of classical literature.

• ḤAMMĀM-E WAKĪL

  Karāmat-Allāh Afsar

  (bathhouse of the Wakil), a historic monument in Shiraz built by Karim Khan Zand “the Wakil” (r. 1751-79) after 1776.

• JIROFT i. Geography of Jiroft Sub-Province

  M. Badanj and EIr.

  Located in the south of Kerman Province, the sub-province of Jiroft is bound by those of Kermān (north), Bam (east), ʿAnbarābād and Kahnuj (south), and Bāft (west).

• ĀL-E BĀBĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀBĀN.

• ĀTAŠ, AḤMAD

  cross-reference

  See  ATEŞ, AHMED.

• FERDOWSI, ABU’L-QĀSEM ii. Hajw-nāma

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

• BOLANDMĀZŪ

  cross-reference

  See BALŪṬ.

• SAḤĀB, ʿAbbās

  Firouz Firooznia

  founder of Sahab Geographic and Drafting Institute (q.v.; SGDI); considered by many as the father of modern Persian cartography.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DAURISES

  R. Schmitt

  name of a Persian general during the Ionian revolt, a son-in-law of Darius I (522-486 B.C.E.).

• EUCRATIDES

  Paul Bernard

  name of two Greco-Bactrian kings: (1) Eucratides I (r. 170-145 B.C.E.), one of the last and most powerful of the Greco-Bactrian kings and (2) Eucratides II, another Greco-Bactrian king, (r. 145-140 B.C.E.) known only through his coinage.

• SAFAVID DYNASTY

  Rudi Matthee

  Originating from a mystical order at the turn of the 14th century, the Safavids ruled Persia from 1501 to 1722. 

• GIFT GIVING v

  Willem Floor

  v. In the Qajar Period.

• ABŪ ḤAFṢ ḤADDĀD

  J. Chabbi

  an ascetic who was born and lived in Nīšāpūr, d. between 265/874 and 270/879.

• APARIMITĀYUḤ-SŪTRA

  R. E. Emmerick

  a Buddhist text belonging to the Mahāyāna tradition. It is concerned with the merit obtained by recalling the Buddha called Aparimitāyurjñānasuviniścitarāja.

• BAMPŪR

  B. de Cardi, ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  i. Prehistoric Site. ii. In Modern Times. Bampūr is a baḵš and qaṣaba (borough) in the šahrestān of Īrānšahr in the province of Balūčestān o Sīstān. The plain of Bampūr is encircled by several high mountains.

• CLASS SYSTEM

  Multiple Authors

  (ṭabaqāt-e ejtemāʿī), a generic term referring to various types of social group, including castes, estates, status groups, and occupational categories.

• EBN ŠĀḎĀN

  Wilferd Madelung

  family name of two Imami traditionists: Abu’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. ʿAlī b. Ḥasan (or Ḥosayn) Fāmī Qomī (10th century) and his son.

• ŠĀH-NĀMA TRANSLATIONS ii. INTO GEORGIAN

  Jamshid Sh. Giunshvili

  The Šāh-nāma was translated, not only to satisfy the literary and aesthetic needs of readers and listeners, but also to inspire the young with the spirit of heroism and Georgian patriotism.

• HAREM i. IN ANCIENT IRAN

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  There is no evidence for the practice among the early Iranians of taking large numbers of wives or concubines and keeping them in secluded quarters.

• JOURNALISM iii. Post-Revolution Era

  Hossein Shahidi

  At the time of the 1978-79 Revolution, there were about 100 newspapers in Iran, of which twenty-three were dailies. Within two years of the revolution, 700 new titles had appeared.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA ḤASAN B. ROSTAM

  W. Madelung

  B. ʿALĪ B. ŠAHRĪĀR, ŠARAF-AL-MOLŪK, Bavandid ruler of Māzandarān. According to the account of Ebn Esfandīār, he reigned from 558/1163 to 566/1171. 

• AURELIUS VICTOR

  M. L. Chaumont

  born in Africa ca. 325/330, held high positions under Julian and Theodosius.

• FICTION, i

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. TRADITIONAL FORMS. This article deals with all kinds of stories written for specifically literary purposes up to the time when narrative prose in the modern style, derived from the West, was introduced in Persia.

• BORHĀN-AL-MAʾĀṮER

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• X~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  There are no figures or plates in letter X entries at this time.

• TEA

  Cross-Reference

  See ČĀY.

• EŻĀFA

  John R. Perry and Ali Ashraf Sadeghi

  (annexation, suppletion), a grammatical term embracing several types of Persian noun phrase in which the constituents are connected by the enclitic -e/-ye (kasra-ye eżāfa “the eżāfa particle”).

• SYKES, Percy Molesworth

  Denis Wright

  , Sir (1867-1945), soldier, diplomat, traveler, and writer who wrote extensively on Iran. 

• ḠOBĀRI, ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN

  Tahsİn Yazici

  b. ʿAbd-Allāh (d. 1566), Ottoman poet, calligrapher, and Sufi who wrote in both Turkish and Persian.

• INOSTRANTSEV, KONSTANTIN ALEXANDROVICH

  Aliy I. Kolesnikov

  (1876-1941), Russian orientalist and historian of culture, best known abroad as the author of Sasanidskie et’udy (Etudes sassanides).

• ABŪ ʿĪSĀ WARRĀQ

  W. M. Watt

  heretical theologian of the 3rd/9th century.

• ʿAQD-NĀMA

  L. S. Diba

  contract, now specifically marriage contract.

• BANĪ SĀLA

  J. Perry

  a Shiʿite Arab tribe of Howayza (Ḥawīza) district in Ḵūzestān.

• MOḤAMMAD B. NOṢAYR

  Yaron Friedman

  Abu Šoʿayb al-Nomayri/al-Namiri (d. after 868), the founder and eponym of the Nomayriya/Namiriya sect.

• COFFEE

  ʿAlī Āl-e Dāwūd

  a drink made by steeping in boiling water the dried, roasted, and ground berries of the coffee tree (Coffea arabica).

• EBRĀHĪM KHAN AFŠĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See AFSHARIDS.

• OLIVE TREE

  Willem Floor

  (zaytun). The cultivated olive tree (Olea europaea L, Oleaceae) is a long-lived, evergreen tree native to the Mediterranean basin. It is valued for its fruit and oil.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤASAN BEG RUMLU

  Sh. Quinn

  (b. 1530-31), author of Aḥsan al-tawāriḵ and a cavalryman (qurči) of the Rumlu Turkman tribe of qezelbāš during the reign of Shah Ṭahmāsb Ṣafawi.

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS i. ACHAEMENID JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS

  F. Rachel Magdalene

  This article will address principally the sources of our knowledge of the judicial and legal system in the Achaemenid period, as well as the nature of the court system, which persons had standing to sue, and legal procedure.

• ALAMŪT DIALECTS

  Cross-Reference

  See QAZVĪN DIALECTS.

• AWRŌMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  or AWRŌMĀNI, See AVROMAN; AVROMANI.

• FĪRŪZĀBĀDĪ, ABŪ ṬĀHER MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-reference

  See Supplement.

• BOYEKAN

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  the name of a mec naxarar “great satrap,” defeated and killed at Ṭʿawrēš (Tabrīz) by the Armenian general Vasak under Šāpūr II (r. 309-79).

• KASHMIR i. INTRODUCTION

  Siegfried Weber

  Iranian influence in and beyond the region of Kashmir is a long-term phenomenon.

• DEHBĪD

  Sayyed ʿAlī Āl-e Dāwūd

  town in the šahrestān of Ābāda, Fārs (30° 37’ N, 53° 12’ E), situated on the Shiraz-Isfahan road in a plain 191 km northeast of Shiraz.

• FAḴR-AL-MOLK ARDALĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN ARDALĀN.

• KILIZU

  Antonio Invernizzi

  capital of the Assyrian province of the same name, near the mound Qaṣr Šemāmok in northern Mesopotamia, where a Parthian necropolis was brought to light.

• ḠOLĀM-ʿALI

  Cross-Reference

  See NAQŠBANDI ORDER.

• ABŪ NAṢR FĀRĀBĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See FĀRĀBĪ, ABŪ NAṢR.

• ARANG

  C. J. Brunner

  a river in ancient Iranian tradition.

• BARĀ’A

  E. Kohlberg

  an Imami theological term denoting dissociation from the enemies of the imams. During the conflict between ʿAlī and Moʿāwīa, formulas of dissociation were used by both parties.

• SIBERIAN ELM

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀZĀD.

• CONSPIRACY THEORIES

  Ahmad Ashraf

  a complex of beliefs attributing the course of Persian history and politics to the machinations of hostile foreign powers and secret organizations.

• ECONOMY x. UNDER THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC

  Vahid F. Nowshirvani

  Since 1979 there have been marked changes in the economic policies, institutions, and structure of the country, and major economic dislocation and disruption of production. Not all the changes have resulted directly from the revolution; many other factors, such as the war with Iraq, trade and financial sanctions, and fluctuations in the world oil market have also shaped developments.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FLOWERS

  Cross-Reference

  See GOL.

• ḤAWZA-YE ʿELMIYA

  Cross-Reference

  See IRAQ xi. SHIʿITE SEMINARIES IN IRAQ.

• ʿALĪ B. ABĪ ṬĀLEB

  I. K. Poonawala, E. Kohlberg

  (b. ca. 600, d. 40/661), cousin and son-in-law of the prophet Moḥammad, first Shiʿite Imam, father of the Imams Ḥasan and Ḥosayn by Fāṭema, and fourth caliph (35-40/656-61).

• ĀYROM, MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN KHAN

  M. Amanat

  army commander and the head of the police under Reżā Shah (r. 1304-20 Š./1925-41).

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN v. Pharmacology and Mineralogy

  Georges C. Anawati

  Bīrūnī, a traveler proficient in several Asian languages and an inquisitive and attentive ob­server, was interested all his life in gathering precise information on plants and their medicinal uses.

• BROADBEAN

  cross-reference

  See BĀQELĀ.

• DEMOCRACY

  Cross-Reference

  See ANJOMAN; CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION i-v; ELECTIONS.

• FAQĪR DEHLAVĪ, MĪR ŠAMS-AL-DĪN

  Munibur Rahman

  or Maftūn (fl. 18th century), Persian poet from the Indian sub-continent.

• LUKONIN, Vladimir Grigor’evich

  Muhammad Dandamayev and Inna Medvedskaya

  (1932-1984), outstanding Russian scholar in the field of history and history of culture and arts of ancient Iran, from the earliest times until the end of the Sasanian period. He published and introduced to scholarship many artifacts of Iranian culture preserved at the Hermitage Museum, including the unique hoard of Iranian silver drachms of the 3rd century CE and some objects of early Sasanian toreutics.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLPĀYAGĀN

  Minu Yusofnezhad

  or GOLPĀYEGĀN; a šahrestān (county) and town located in Isfahan province, bordered on the east by the county of Barḵᵛār and Meyma, on the south by Ḵᵛānsār county, on the north by the counties of Maḥallāt and Ḵomeyn (Central province), and on the west by Aligudarz county (province of Lorestān).

• IRAN AND THE CAUCASUS

  Victoria Arakelova

  the annual international academic journal of the Caucasian Centre for Iranian Studies, Yerevan (CCIS), founded in 1997.

• ABŪ SAHL ḤAMDOWĪ

  Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī

  Ghaznavid official of the 4th-5th/11th century.

• ARDAKĀN-E FĀRS

  C. E. Bosworth

  a small upland town of the ostān of Fārs.

• JĀMI iii. And Persian Art

  Chad Kia

• KALĀRESTĀQ i. The District and Sub-District

  Habib Borjian

  This predominantly mountainous district extends along the Caspian coast from the Namakābrud (Namakāvarud) river on the west to the Čālus river on the east.

• CORONATION

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  in ancient Iran, the ceremonial act of investing a ruler with a crown.

• EDUCATION xxv. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE QAJAR PERIOD

  Afsaneh Najmabadi

• FORŪGĪ, MOḤSEN

  Mina Marefat and EIr, Richard N. Frye

  (1907-1983), pioneer of modern architecture in Persia, an influential professor of architecture at the University of Tehran, and a noted collector of Persian art. He was imprisoned in 1979 after the revolution, and his art collection was placed in the Archaeological Museum, Tehran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HEALTH IN PERSIA i. PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Philippe Gignoux

  Health and medicine are clearly defined in Pahlavi literature in the philosophical and moral tradition already taught by the fifth-century BCE Greek “father of medicine,” Hippocrates.

• ABĀN B. ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD

  I. Abbas

  Late 2nd/8th century poet. He was of a Persian family, originally from Fasā, which had settled (probably at an early date) in Baṣra.

• ʿALĪ AKBAR ḴEṬĀʾĪ

  T. Yazici

  (15th-16th centuries), author of the Persian Ḵeṭāy-nāma or “Book of Cathay,” i.e., of China.

• ĀẔARBĀDAGĀN

  cross-reference

  See AZERBAIJAN.

• ARMENIA AND IRAN ii. The pre-Islamic period

  M. L. Chaumont

• BURHANPUR

  Nisar Ahmed Faruqi

  (Borhānpūr), city in Madhya Pradesh (formerly Central Provinces and Berar), India, on the Tapti river, 275 miles northeast of Bombay.

• DEYHĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See CROWN.

• ḴAYRḴᵛĀH HERĀTI

  Farhad Daftary

  Nezāri Ismaʿili dāʿi, author, and poet (15th-16th centuries).

• GONDĒŠĀPUR

  A. Shapur Shahbazi, Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  in the Sasanian epoch, Gondēšāpur was one of the four major cities of Ḵuzestān, the other three being Karḵa, Susa, and Šuštar. The extensive irrigation systems developed there by the early Sasanians were probably aimed at supplying a large population.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ TORĀB WALĪ

  S. Moinul Haq

  noble in the service of Akbar and author of Tārīḵ-e Goǰrāt, a short history of that province from the reign of Bahādor Shah (932-43/1526-36), with an account of his wars against Homāyūn, through Akbar’s conquest and up to 992/1584.

• ARG

  J. R. Perry

  (or ARK), the inner fortress or citadel of a walled city.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BARSOM YAŠT

  P. O. Skjærvø

  in the liturgical manuscripts of the Avesta the name of the second hād (chapter) of the Yasna.

• TALMUD ii. RABBINIC LITERATURE and MIDDLE PERSIAN TEXTS

  Yaakov Elman

• CROESUS

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  last king of Lydia (r. ca. 560-46 B.C.E.) and brother-in-law of Astyages.

• EḴTĪĀR-AL-DĪN

  Maria Eva Subtelny

  the citadel of Herat located on an elevation adjacent to the north wall of the old city and actually consisting of two parts, the stronghold proper—a rectangle of fired brick and a larger area to the west of unfired brick—that were originally buttressed by 25 towers which reflect various periods of construction.

• ARABIC LANGUAGE v. Arabic Elements in Persian

  John R. Perry

  The following will survey the topic under the following rubrics: Lexical statistics; Phonology and orthography; Loanword classes; Grammatical elements; Semantics; History and evolution.

• FRANRASYAN

  Cross-reference

  See AFRĀSĪĀB.

• HELIOCLES I

  Osmund Bopearachchi

  the last Greek king to reign in Bactria (ca. 145-130 BCE),  known only through his monolingual coins.

• ʿABBĀSĪ, ŠAYḴ

  R. Skelton

  A Safavid miniature painter, whose known works include seventeen signed and dated examples executed between the years 1060/1650 and 1095/1683-84.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĪ-QOLĪ JOBBA-DĀR

  P. P. Soucek

  painter active in Qazvīn and Isfahan during the late 11th/17th and early 12th/18th centuries.

• AZRAQĪ HERAVĪ

  Dj. Khaleghi Motlagh

  the pen-name of Abū Bakr b. Esmāʿīl Warrāq of Herat, a Persian poet of the 5th/11th century.

• AZERBAIJAN xi. Music of Azerbaijan

  J. During

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ČAḠADĀY

  Cross-reference

  second son of Čengīz Khan. See CHAGHATAYID DYNASTY.

• DIALECTOLOGY

  GERNOT L. WINDFUHR

  the terms dialect and language overlap; in general, language refers to the more or less unified system of the phonology, grammar, and lexicon that is shared by the speakers of a country, or geographic region, or a socially defined group, whereas dialect (Pers. lahja, gūyeš) focuses on varieties of a language.

• ABARQUH

  Multiple Authors

  (or ABARQŪYA), a town in northern Fārs; it was important in medieval times, but, being off the main routes, it is now largely decayed.

• GORZ

  Jalil Doostkhah

  or gorza, gorz-e gāvsār/sar, lit. "ox-headed club/mace,"  a weapon often mentioned and variously described in Iranian myths and epic. In classical Persian texts, particularly in Ferdowsi’s Šāh-nāma, it is characterized as the decisive weapon of choice in fateful battles.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀÇIYĀDIYA

  R. Schmitt

  (a-ç-i-y-a-di-i-y-), name of the ninth month (November-December) of the Old Persian calendar.

• ARMIN

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the fourth son of Kay Qobād in certain texts of the Šāh-nāma.

• BĀṬENĪYA

  H. Halm

  a generic term for all groups and sects which distinguished the bāṭen (inner, hidden) and the ẓāher (outer, visible) of the Koran and the Islamic law (Šarīʿa).

• KANI, ḤĀJ MOLLĀ ʿALI

  Hamid Algar

  Shiʿi scholar whose power and prominence in the affairs of Tehran for more than four decades earned him the semi-official title of raʾis al-mojtahedin (“chief of the mojtaheds”), as well as accusations of inordinate greed.

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• CYPRESS

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  (sarv). Many remarkable cypresses have been reported in Persia by foreign travelers. One of the earliest of these reports is the one by Engelbert Kaempfer (pp. 366-69), who mentioned the elegant cypresses of Shiraz, espe­cially those at the tomb precinct of the poet Ḥāfeẓ.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ELOQUENCE

  Cross-Reference

  (Faṣāḥāt). See BAYĀN (1).

• EBN AŠTAR

  D.M. Dunlop

  (d. at Maskin on the Tigris, in September-October 691), Arab chief and Shiʿite military leader.

• FUMITORY

  M. H. Bokhari and W. Frey

  or šāhtara; term used for two species of plants of the genus Fumaria in Persia, Fumaria officinalis and Fumaria parviflora.

• HERAT iv. TOPOGRAPHY AND URBANISM

  Maria Szuppe

  In the medieval period, Herat, together with Nišāpur, Marv, and Balḵ, was one of the four main urban centers of the eastern Iranian world. In contrast to other ancient towns of the Iranian east, such as Marv or Samarqand, which successively occupied two or more sites, Herat has existed on the same location since its foundation.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD MALEK-AL-KALĀMĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Calligrapher, poet, and government official (d. 1949).

• ALLIANCE ISRAĒLITE UNIVERSELLE

  A. Netzer

  the first worldwide Jewish organization, through which a number of Jewish schools were founded in Iran.

• BĀBAKĪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See ḴORRAMĪS.

• BOUNDARIES i. With the Ottoman Empire

  Keith McLachlan

  The boundary separating the Ottoman and Iranian empires was shaped by conflict over an ill-defined strip of territory with constantly shifting outlines extending from the Caucasus to the Persian Gulf.

• ČAIŠPIŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See ČIŠPIŠ.

• DIO CHRYSOSTOM

  Cross-Reference

  See DIO COCCEIANUS.

• OSSETIC

  Fridrik Thordarson

  an Iranian language spoken in the Central Caucasus, mainly in the North Ossetic Republic (Alaniya) of the Russian Federation and in the South Ossetic (until 1990, autonomous) area of Georgia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GRAND LODGE OF IRAN

  Cross-Reference

  See FREEMASONRY, iii-iv.

• ADĪB PĪŠĀVARĪ

  Munibur Rahman

  poetic name of SAYYED AḤMAD B. ŠEHĀB-AL-DĪN RAŻAWĪ (1844-1930).

• ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

  Cross-Reference

  See DĀM DĀRĪ. 

• BĀYQARĀ B. ʿOMAR ŠAYḴ

  E. Glassen

  (b. 1392-93, d. 1422-23?), a Timurid prince and grandson of Tīmūr, active in Fārs.

• FEKETE, Lajos

  ANDRÁS BODROGLIGETI

  (1891-1969), Hungarian historian and specialist of Turkish-Persian paleography.

• DADESTAN

  Mansour Shaki

  (dād “law,” with the formative suffix -stān), a Middle Persian term used with denota­tions and connotations that vary with the legal, reli­gious, philosophical, and social context.

• EMBROIDERY

  Cross-Reference

  See CLOTHING.

• MEILLET, (PAUL JULES) ANTOINE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  French linguist and scholar of Iranian and Armenian studies (1866-1936).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠĀVĀL

  Jean During

  or daf; the most widespread percussion instrument in the Republic of Azerbaijan, played as much in artistic as in popular music and professional ensembles.

• HERODOTUS xi. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

  Robert Rollinger

• ʿABD-AL-QĀDER BALḴĪ

  T. Yazici

  (1839-1923), an Ottoman Sufi and poet who came originally from Balḵ. 

• AMATUNI

  C. Toumanoff

  Armenian dynastic house, known historically after the 4th century CE.

• BADĀʾ

  W. Madelung

  (Ar. appearance, emergence), as a theological term denotes a change of a divine decision or ruling in response to the emergence of new circumstances.  It is upheld in Imami Shiʿite doctrine.

• CAMEL THORN

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  (Alhagi Adans. spp.), common name for wild thorny suffrutescent plants of the Papilionaceae family, called šotor-ḵār and ḵār-e šotor (lit. “camel’s thorn”) in Persian.

• DOG

  Mahmoud Omidsalar and Teresa P. Omidsalar, Mary Boyce, Jean-Pierre Digard

  Canis familiaris; i. In literature and folklore. ii. In Zoroastrianism. iii. Ethnography.

• NAJM-AL-SALṬANA

  Mansoureh Ettehadieh

  a Qajar princess whose life spanned the late Qajar and early Pahlavi eras (b. 1231-32 Š./1853; d. 1311 Š./1932).

• AFNĀN

  M. Momen

  (“twigs” or “branches”), term used in the Bahaʾi faith (initially by Bahāʾallāh) to designate certain lines of descent in the maternal family of the Bāb.

• ARTEMBARĒS

  M. A. Dandamayev

  Greek form of an Old Iranian proper name.

• OSTANES

  Morton Smith

  legendary mage in classical and medieval literature.

• GĀH

  Mary Boyce

  a Middle Persian, Parthian, and New Persian word meaning either “place” or “time.”

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN SAMARQANDĪ

  Y. Bregel

  late 19th century secretary (mīrzā). A Tajik, he was a native of Samarqand. 

• AMĪN-AL-DAWLA, MĪRZĀ ʿALĪ KHAN

  H. F. Farmayan

  (1844-1904), high ranking official in the service of the Qajar king Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah (r. 1848-96) and grand vizier under Moẓaffar-al-dīn Shah (r. 1896-1907).

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS xi. Mutual Influence of Chinese and Persian Ceramics

  Oliver Watson

• CARAVAN

  Bert G. Fragner

  a form of collective transport of men and goods.

• DONYĀ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  lit., “The world”; name of several Persian journals and newspapers.

• ḴĀLEQI, RUḤ-ALLĀH

  Hormoz Farhat

  (1906-1965), Persian music educator, composer, and music scholar.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GULBARGA

  Gavin R. G. Hambly

  or Golbargā; city and district in the central Deccan, India.

• JAʿFAR B. MANṢUR-AL-YAMAN

  Hamid Haji

  a high-ranking Ismaʿili author who flourished in the 10th century, during the reigns of the first four Fatimid caliphs.

• AFŻAL BEG QĀQŠĀL

  W. Kirmani

  South Indian taḏkera writer.

• ARŽANG

  J. P. Asmussen

  an extra-canonical work of Mani.  

• FĀRES

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  the Arabic term for “rider on a horse, cavalryman,” connected with the verb farasa/farosa “to be knowledgeable about horses, be a skillful horseman” and the noun faras “horse."

• BEHDĪNĀN DIALECT

  Gernot L. Windfuhr

  a Central dialect spoken by the Behdīnān “the people of the Good Religion,” i.e., Zoroastrianism, who live in, or came from, the cities of Kermān and Yazd and surrounding towns and villages.  

• EBTEHAJ, ABOLHASSAN

  Geoffrey Jones

  (1899-1999), prominent banker, economic planner, and one of the most important and powerful figures in the economic history of Iran during the middle decades of the 20th century.

• DAMASCUS, Zoroastrians at

  Mary Boyce

• EQBĀL-AL-SOLṬĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See EQBĀL ĀḎAR.

• ZOROASTER iv. AS PERCEIVED BY THE GREEKS

  Roger Beck

  The Greek constructions of Zoroaster relate to the historical Zoroaster and to the Zoroaster of the Zoroastrian faith in one respect only. The Greeks knew that Zoroaster was the “prophet,” in the sense of the human founder, of the national Persian religion of their times.

• ḠANĪZĀDA, MAḤMŪD

  Hassan Javadi

  b. Mīrzā Ḡanī Dīlmaqānī, liberal journalist, historian, and poet (1879-1936).

• HOMĀY ČEHRZĀD

  Jalil Doostkhah

  according to Iranian traditional history, a Kayānid queen; she was daughter, wife, and successor to the throne of Bahman, son of Esfandiār.

• ʿABD-AL-VAHHĀB MOʿTAMAD-AL-DAWLA

  H. Javadi

  “NAŠĀṬ,” Qajar official and poet (1759-1829).

• AMĪR-AL-MOʾMENĪN

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ B. ABĪ ṬĀLEB.

• BAGAWAN (1)

  H. R. Hewsen

  (Arm. Baguan or Aṭʿši Bagawan), ancient district lying along the right bank of the Araxes river and corresponding to the northeastern part of Iranian Azerbaijan.

• CLEANSING ii. In Islamic Persia

  Hamid Algar

• ČAŠM-PEZEŠKĪ

  Ṣādeq Sajjādī

  ophthalmology.

• DREYFUS-BARNEY

  Shapour Rassekh

  joint surname adopted by two leading Bahai figures of the 20th century.

• SEPEHRI, Sohrab

  Houman Sarshar

  (1928-1980), notable Iranian poet and painter.

• ḤABIB AL-ESLĀM

  Nasser-al-Din Parvin

  Persian-language weekly newspaper published in Kabul, 1929 replacing Amān-e afḡān at the time of Bačča-ye Saqqā.

• JĀKI

  P. Oberling

  a group of Lor tribes in the Kuhgiluya region of eastern Khuzestan.

• AḤDĀṮ, WOJŪH-E

  R. M. Savory

  fines collected in Safavid times by the officers of the night watch (aḥdāṯ), who were under the supervision of the dārūḡa.

• AŠAVAN

  G. Gnoli

  (Avestan), lit. “possessing truth (aša),”  referring to humans, Ahura Mazdā, and the divine or angelic entities.

• FARHANG O ZENDAGĪ

  Nasserddin Parvin

  a periodical published in 28 issues from winter 1969 to spring 1978 by the Secretariat of the High Council of Culture and Art (Dabīr-ḵāna-ye Šūrā-ye ʿalī-e farhang o honar).

• BEREZIN, IL’YA NIKOLAEVICH

  Jean Calmard

  (1818-96), Rus­sian orientalist known for his works on Iranian, Arabic, and Turkish philology and dialectology and on Mongol history,  and for his travel ac­counts.

• KARTIR

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  a prominent Zoroastrian priest  in the second half of the 3rd century CE, known from his inscriptions and mentioned in Middle Persian, Parthian, and Coptic Manichean texts.

• DĀNEŠMAND-E ḤĀJEB

  Peter Jackson

  Muslim officer in Mongol service in the first half of the 13th century.

• ĒRĪČ MOUNTAIN

  Gherardo Gnoli

  mentioned in a chapter of the Bundahišn devoted to mountains.

• RUZ-NĀMA-YE RASMI-E DAWLAT-E IRĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (Official Journal of the Government of Iran), a paper published in Tehran as the official organ of government since 1911.

• GARGAR RIVER

  Cross-Reference

  See KĀRŪN RIVER.

• ḤORR-E ʿĀMELI

  Meir M. Bar Asher

  (1624-1693), one of the outstanding Twelver Shiʿite Hadith scholars of the Aḵbāri school and a prolific author.

• ʿABDALLĀH BEHBAHĀNĪ

  H. Algar

  Theologian, prominent leader of the constitutional movement (1840-1910).

• ʿAMR B. LAYṮ

  C. E. Bosworth

  ṢAFFĀRĪ, military commander and second ruler of the Saffarid dynasty of Sīstān (r. 879-900).

• BAHĀDOR KHAN

  cross-reference

  See ABŪ ḠĀZĪ.

• COMMUNISM iii. In Persia after 1953

  Torāb Ḥaqšenās

• ČEGĪNĪ

  Pierre Oberling

  or Čeganī, a tribe that originated in northwestern Persia but is now scattered in Luristan, the Qazvīn region, and Fārs.

• DULAFIDS

  Cross-Reference

  See DOLAFIDS.

• MASSON, Charles

  Elizabeth Errington

  alias of James Lewis (1800-53), traveler, pioneering archeologist and numismatist, who in 1832-38 produced the first comprehensive archeological records of eastern Afghanistan.

• JAMALZADEH, MOHAMMAD-ALI i. Life

  Nahid Mozaffari

• AḤMAD NEHĀVANDĪ

  D. Pingree

  2nd/8th century ʿAbbasid astronomer.  

• ĀŠKĀBĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See ASHKHABAD.

• FARRANT, FRANCIS

  Denis Wright

  , Colonel (b. 1803 [?]; d. 1868), British soldier and diplomat.

• BHADRAKALPIKASŪTRA

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  the name of a Buddhist Mahayanist text (Sanskrit sutra) concerning the names of the Buddhas to appear in the good aeon (Sanskrit bhadrakalpa).

• EBN ʿABBĀD, Esmāʿil, al-Ṣāḥeb Kāfi al-Kofāt

  Maurice Pomerantz

  vizier and belletrist.

• TREE

  Cross-Reference

  See DERAḴT.

• ESFAND

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  a common weed found in Persia, Central Asia, and the adjacent areas.

• ḴĀṢṢ BEG

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  ARSLĀN B. PALANG-ERI, Turkish ḡolām (q.v.) who became the ḥājeb “chamberlain” and court favorite of the Great Saljuq Sultan Masʿud b. Moḥammad b. Malek Šāh (r. 1134-52).

• ḠAZĀLĪ MAŠHADĪ

  Munibur Rahman

  (b. Mašhad, 1526-27, d. Ahmadabad, 1572), poet laureate in Persian (malek-al-šoʿarāʾ) at the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar.

• ḤOSAYNQOLI KHAN SARDĀR-E IRAVĀNI

  George A. Bournoutian

  important governor in the early Qajar period (b. ca. 1742, d. 1831).

• ĀBĪ, ABŪ ʿABDALLĀH

  Abu’l-Qāsem Gorji

  8th-century traditionist.

• ANBĀR

  M. Morony

  (Pers. term meaning granary), a town on the left bank of the Euphrates five km northwest of Fallūǰa and sixty-two km west of Baghdad. 

• BAHMANYĀR, KĪĀ

  H. Daiber

  RAʾĪS ABU’L-ḤASAN B. MARZBĀN AʿJAMĪ ĀḎARBĀYJĀNĪ (d. 1066), one of Ebn Sīnā’s pupils and known mainly as a commentator and transmitter of Ebn Sīnā’s philosophy.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS v. Under the Timurid and Turkman dynasties

  Monika Gronke

• CERULLI, Enrico

  Filippo Bertotti

  (born Naples, 15 February 1898; died 1988), Italian orientalist and diplomat.

• EASTERN IRANIAN LANGUAGES

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  term used to refer to a group of Iranian languages most of which are or were spoken in lands to the east of the present state of Persia.

• ṬĀLEB ĀMOLI

  Paul Losensky

  Persian poet of the early 17th century (b. Mazandaran, ca. 1580; d. India, 1626-7).

• ḤĀJEB i. IN THE MEDIEVAL ISLAMIC PERIOD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  The office of ḥājeb, implying military command, appears in the Iranian world with the Samanids, where it probably grew out of the amir’s domestic household.

• JAPAN

  Multiple Authors

  AND ITS RELATIONS WITH IRAN. The subject of contact between the two countries will be discussed in the following sub-entries.

• AHURA.ṰKAĒŠA

  M. Boyce

  an infrequent Avestan adjective meaning “following the Ahuric doctrine.”

• ĀŠPAZ-ḴĀNA

  ʿE. Elāhī

  “kitchen.”

• FARZĀD, MASʿŪD

  Ahmad Karimi Hakkak

  (b. Sanandaj, 1906; d. London, 1981), Persian litterateur and poet.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BĪDGOL

  Ehsan Yarshater

  and BĪDGOLI dialect. Bīdgol and Ārān, two practically contiguous townships in the province of Kāšān, are located some 10 km to the north and slightly to the east of the city of Kāšān.

• SHADDADIDS

  Andrew Peacock

  Caucasian dynasty of Kurdish origin reigning from about 950 until 1200, first in Dvin and Ganja, later in Ani.

• DARJAZĪN

  Parviz Aḏkāʾī

  (or Dargazīn), name of two rural subdistricts (dehestāns) and a village in the Razan district (baḵš) of Hamadān province.

• EŠKĀŠ(E)MĪ

  I. M. Steblin-Kamensky

  or Ishkashmi; one of the so-called “Pamir group” of the Eastern Iranian languages spoken in a few villages of the region of Eškāšem straddling the upper reaches of the Panj river.

• ART IN IRAN xii. IRANIAN PRE-ISLAMIC ELEMENTS IN ISLAMIC ART

  Maria Vittoria Fontana

  Numerous Iranian pre-Islamic elements have contributed significantly to the formation and development of Islamic art, and they can be easily recognized in various contexts, from town-planning to architecture, from the continuity of techniques of both manufacture and decoration to iconography and some of its symbols.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HUTUXŠ

  cross-reference

  and HUTUXŠBED, artisans as a class and the chief of artisans in Sasanian society. See CLASS SYSTEM ii.

• ABŪ AḤMAD MONAJJEM

  A. E. Khairallah

  (241/855-56 to 13 Rabīʿ I 300/29 October 912), literary historian, music theorist, poet, and Muʿtazilite, boon companion to caliphs Mowaffaq, Moʿtażed, and Moktafī.

• ANGLO-PERSIAN AGREEMENT OF 1919

  N. S. Fatemi

  provisional agreement made between the British and the Persian governments which, if ratified, would have granted the British a paramount position of control over the financial and military affairs of Iran. 

• BAIEV, GAPPO

  cross-reference

  See BAYATI, GAPPO.

• EPIGRAPHY v. Inscriptions from the Indian subcontinent

  Ziyaud-Din A. Desai

• CHESTER BEATTY LIBRARY

  Wilfrid Lockwood, J. T. P. de Bruijn, Michel Tardieu

  a collection of manuscripts, printed works, and artifacts, predominantly Oriental, assembled by Alfred Chester Beatty and opened to the public in Dublin in 1954.

• EBN BAZZĀZ

  Roger Savory

  author of the Ṣafwat al-ṣafāʾ, a biography of Shaikh Ṣafī-al-Dīn Esḥāq Ardabīlī (d. 935/1334), founder of the Safavid order of Sufis and the eponym of the Safavid dynasty.

• HALICARNASSUS

  Bruno Genito

  ancient town of Caria, near the present-day city of Bodrum in Turkey, once seat of a kingdom which was a tributary of Persia.

• JAWĀHER AL-ʿAJĀYEB

  Maria Szuppe

  a short, rare kind of taḏkera in Persian, containing biographies of female poets and specimens of their verses (mostly in Persian, some in Chaghatay Turkish).

• AKBAR KHAN ZAND

  J. R. Perry

  (d. 1196/1782), youngest son of Zakī Khan Zand.  

• ASTARĀBĀDĪ, MAHDĪ KHAN

  J. R. Perry

  court secretary and historiographer to Nāder Shah Afšār (r. 1148-60/1736-47).

• FAYŻ-E KĀŠĀNĪ, MOLLĀ MOḤSEN-MOḤAMMAD

  Hamid Algar

  b. Šāh Mortażā b. Šāh Maḥmūd (b. 1598-9, d. 1679), prolific and versatile scholar of the Safavid period, celebrated chiefly for his Sufi inclinations.

• BĪT HAMBAN

  Louis D. Levine

  (also Bīt Habban), a district on the Iranian-Iraqi frontier which appears in Akkadian cuneiform sources after the fall of the Kassite dynasty (1157 B.C.) and disappears with the fall of the Assyrian empire in 612 B.C.

• MOḠĀN

  Richard Tapper

  (or Dašt-e Moḡān, also Muqān), a lowland steppe in Azerbaijan.

• DASĀTĪR

  Fatḥ-Allāh Mojtabaʾī

  the most important tract of the Āḏar Kayvānī sect, almost certainly the work of its founder, Āḏar Kayvān.

• ʿEŠQĪ, MOḤAMMAD-REŻĀ MĪRZĀDA

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak

  (1894-1923), poet and journalist of the post-constitution era and an important contributor to the modernization of poetry in Persia. After he was assassinated by two gunmen, the Majles members of the minority party and other opponents of Prime Minister Reżā Khan quickly turned his funeral into an occasion for public protest against the rising tide of Reżā Khan's power.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ŠAHRESTĀNĪHĀ Ī ĒRĀNŠAHR

  Touraj Daryaee

  (The Provincial Capitals of Iran), the only major surviving Middle Persian text on geography.

• ILĀQ

  Boris A. Litvinsky

  medieval name of an area in what is now Uzbekistan, to the south of Tashkent along the middle reaches of the Syr Darya (Jaxartes) river.

• ABU’L-BARAKĀT LĀHŪRĪ

  M. U. Memon

  Indo-Persian poet.

• ANKLESARIA, BAHRAMGORE TAHMURAS

  K. M. JamaspAsa and M. Boyce

  (1873-1944), Parsi scholar, son of Tahmuras Dinshah Anklesaria, born and educated in Bombay.

• ZAND DYNASTY

  John Perry

  a dynasty that ruled in Persia (excluding Khorasan) from Shiraz, from the time when Nāder Shah’s (r. 1736-47) successors, the Afsharids, failed to recover western Persia until the founding of the Qajar dynasty by Āḡā Moḥammad Khan Qajar (r. 1779-97).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI i. Achaemenid Period

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  At the beginning of the Achaemenid period, the institution of slavery was still poorly developed in Iran. In Media a custom existed whereby a poor man could place himself at the disposal of a rich person if the latter agreed to feed him. The position of such a man was similar to that of a slave.

• CHUPANIDS

  Cross-Reference

  See CHOBANIDS.

• EBN ḴĀQĀN

  See Supplement.

• TRAJAN

  Erich Kettenhofen

  Marcus Ulpius Traianus, Roman emperor (98-117 CE), born probably in 53 CE, and died in early August 117. During his reign, the Imperium Romanum stretched to its widest extent, but only for a short period. This entry focuses on the emperor’s Parthian campaigns, the official cause of which was the ousting of the Armenian king Axidares without the approval of Rome.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤAMID-AL-DIN KERMĀNI

  Farhad Daftary

  , ABU’L-ḤASAN AḤMAD b. ʿAbd-Allāh b. Moḥammad (d. after 1020-21), a prominent Ismaʿili dāʿi and one of the most accomplished Ismaʿili theologians and philosophers of the Fatimid period.

• JEYḤUNĀBĀDI

  Mojan Membrado

  , ḤĀJJ NEʿMAT-ALLĀH MOKRI (1871-1920), an influential mystic whose stated mission was to collect and record the previously oral traditions of the Ahl-e Ḥaqq.

• ĀL-E ʿABĀ

  H. Algar

  “The Family of the Cloak,” i.e., the Prophet Moḥammad, his daughter Fāṭema, his cousin and son-in-law ʿAlī, and his grandsons Ḥasan and Ḥosayn.

• ĀṮĀR-E ʿAJAM

  M. Dabīrsīaqī

  a study of the geographical features and historical monuments of Fārs.

• FEQH

  Norman Calder

  lit. "jurisprudence"; term used to designate the processes of exposition, analysis, and argument which constitute human effort to express God’s law (šarīʿa).

• BOKĀVOL

  David O. Morgan

  (büke’ül), a term used in the Il-khanid period and after for a royal food taster or, later and more commonly, a military commissariat officer.

• MAGOPHONIA

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  An appropriate Iranian word for magophonia is the Sogdian mwγzt- (killing of the Magi).

• DATAPHERNES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  name of an Iranian (perhaps Bactrian) officer in the entourage of Bessos, murderer of Darius III (336-30 B.C.E.).

• ETTEHĀD-E ESLĀM

  Cross-Reference

  See KUČEK KHAN.

• NEẒĀMI QUNAVI

  Osman G. Özgüdenlı

  (Neẓāmi of Konya; d. 1469-73?), poet in Persian, Arabic, and Turkish.

• GĪĀṮVAND

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe of the Qazvīn region.

• ABU’L-FAŻL ŠĪRĀZĪ

  L. A. Giffen

  vizier in the time of the Buyids, patron of the Shiʿi Arab poet Ebn al-Ḥaǰǰāǰ, born in Shiraz in 303/915, died at Kūfa in 362/973.

• ANZAN

  Cross-Reference

  The name of an important Elamite region in western Fārs and of its chief city. See ANSHAN.

• BĀMDĀD, MAHDĪ

  ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  (d. 1973), civil servant, author of the multi-volume dictionary of national biography of Iran.

• LUṬI

  Willem Floor

  A Persian term with a variety of meanings, with both positive and negative connotations.

• ČIΘRAFARNAH

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Iranian personal name meaning “with shining splendor.”

• EBN RĀVANDĪ, ABU’l-ḤOSAYN AḤMAD

  Josef van Ess

  b. Yaḥyā (d. 910?), Muʿtazilite theologian and “heretic” of Ḵorāsānī origin.

• QĀʾENI, Shaikh Moḥammad-ʿAli

  Minou Foadi

  (1860-1924), prominent Bahai apologist and director of the Bahai school in Ashkabad.

• HARĀT

  cross-reference

  See HERĀT.

• JOSEPH iii. IN PERSIAN ART

  Chad Kia

  The popularity of Joseph as a subject in the visual arts is by and large a reflection of the popularity of the story of Joseph in Islamic literatures.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA, MĪRZĀ AḤMAD KHAN

  Ḥ. Maḥbūbī Ardakānī

  (d. 1329/1911), the son of Moḥammad Raḥīm Khan ʿAlāʾ-al-dawla.

• AΘURĀ

  Achaemenid province. See ASSYRIA.

• FEUVRIER, JEAN-BAPTISTE

  Jean Calmard

  (1842-1926), Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah’s personal physician (1889-1892), author of Trois ans à la cour de Perse, with engravings from photographs in the collections of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah and his retinue, Feuvrier’s own drawings, and Persian contemporary paintings. The book is a major source of information, notably on the Tobacco Concession and its aftermath.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BORĀQ, ḤĀJEB

  cross-reference

  See QOṬLOQḴĀNĪYA (Kermān).

• Z~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the Z entries

• DAWRA

  See Supplement.

• EXILE

  Cross-Reference

  See DEPORTATIONS; DIASPORA.

• QAMAR-AL-MOLUK VAZIRI

  Erik Nakjavani

  (1905-1959), commonly referred to as Qamar, popular, pioneering Persian mezzo-soprano. Qamar’s first formal performance as a vocalist took place at Tehran’s Grand Hotel in 1924. The first public appearance of a Persian female vocalist without the obligatory veil (ḥejāb) signaled an immensely significant development in Persian music.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GLASS

  Jens Kröger

  Glass blowing was invented in the Syro-Palestinian region during the Parthian period in the mid-first century B.C.E. and quickly spread from there to neighboring regions. Production of glass was much more widely spread within the Sasanian empire; it also became in both shapes and types of decoration independent from Parthian prototypes.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INHERITANCE i. SASANIAN PERIOD

  Maria Macuch

  Our main source on jurisprudence during the Sasanian period is the Lawbook Hazār dādestān “One Thousand Judgements” of the 7th century.

• ABŪ ḤAYYĀN TAWḤĪDĪ

  W. M. Watt

  an outstanding man of letters and essayist of the Buyid period.

• ĀQĀSĪ

  A. Amanat

  , ḤĀJJĪ MĪRZĀ ABBĀS ĪRAVĀNĪ (ca. 1198-1265/1783-1848), grand vizier of Moḥammad Shah Qāǰār (r. 1834-48),  1835-48.

• BANGĀLA

  Cross-Reference

  See BENGAL.

• COCONUT

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  the fruit of the palm Cocos nucifera L., which grows in the East Indies, as well as in most other humid tropical regions.

• EBRĀHĪM FĀRŪQĪ

  Cross-Reference

  15th century poet and author of Farhang-e Ebrāhīmi. See under FARHANG-E EBRĀHIMI.

• MARTYRS, BABI

  Peter Smith and Moojan Momen

  adherents of the Babi religion who were killed for their faith during the period up to about 1866, when the Bahai faith (q.v.) emerged.

• ḤASAN B. MOHAMMAD NIŠĀBURI

  cross-reference

  See NIŠĀBURI, ḤASAN B. MOḤAMMAD.

• ʿĀLAM-E NESVĀN

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  a magazine founded in Mīzān 1299 Š./September 1920, one of the earliest periodicals published by and for women.

• AWQĀF

  Cross-Reference

  See WAQF (pending).

• FĪRŪZ MAŠREQĪ

  Aḥmad Edāračī Gīlānī

  (or Pīrūz; not Mošrefī as in Majmaʿ al-foṣaḥāʾ, p. 946), poet at the court of the Saffarids Yaʿqūb b. Layṯ (r. 867-78) and his brother ʿAmr b. Layṯ.

• BOTANICAL STUDIES

  Hūšang Aʿlam, S.-W. Breckle, Hūšang Aʿlam and Aḥmad Qahramān

  ON IRAN i. The Greco-Islamic tradition. ii. The Western tradition. iii. Persian Studies in the Western tradition. In the Islamic period, generally speaking, botany was an ancillary branch of medicine or, more precisely, pharmacology.

• DEFRÉMERY,Charles-François

  Francis Richard

  (b. Cambray, France, 18 December 1822, d. St.-Valéry-en Caux, France, 18 August 1883), French orientalist and scholar.

• FAḴR-AL-DĪN ʿERĀQĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿERĀQI, FAḴR-AL-DIN.

• ELEPHANT ii. In the Sasanian Army

  Michael B. Charles

  ii. IN THE SASANIAN ARMY

• ḠOLĀM ʿABD-AL-QĀDER NAẒIR

  Cross-Reference

  author of Golestān-e nasab. See NAẒIR.

• ABŪ MŪSĀ AŠʿARĪ

  G. R. Hawting

  a Companion of the Prophet and important participant in the troubles which occupied the caliphate of ʿAlī. 

• ARAMAIC

  F. Rosenthal, J. C. Greenfield, S. Shaked

  Aramaic is the comprehensive name for numerous dialects of a Northwest Semitic language closely related to Hebrew and Arabic, first attested in inscriptions dating from the ninth to eighth centuries B. C., and still spoken today.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAQQĀL-BĀZĪ

  F. Gaffary

  (lit. grocer play), a form of improvised, popular slapstick comedy; it is distinguished among the various forms of popular comedy in Iran by its own set of rules.

• QUAL

  Cross-Reference

  See BELDERČĪN.

• CONIFERAE

  Cross-Reference

  See DERAḴT.

• ECONOMY ix. IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD

  M. Hashem Pesaran

  Overall, under the Pahlavis the Persian economy made significant advances which compared favorably with the experience of countries such as Turkey and Egypt, which were in a better state of development after the First World War.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FLOODS

  Eckart Ehlers, Charles Melville

  (sayl, sayl-āb) in Persia. i. Geographical survey. ii. Historical survey. Surplus or deficit of water, mainly caused by Persia’s topography, undergoes seasonal variations with decisively stronger precipitation during the winter months, which explains why floods occur predominantly during these periods.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAUG, MARTIN

  Almut Hintze

  (1827-1876) Oriental scholar and one of the founders of Iranian studies. His contributions to Old and Middle Iranian studies remained influential well into the twentieth century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĪ, AMĪR SAYYED

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ AL-AʿLĀ.

• AYNALLŪ

  P. Oberling

  (or ĪNALLŪ, ĪNĀLŪ, ĪMĀNLŪ), a tribe of Ḡozz Turkic origin inhabiting Azerbaijan, central Iran and Fārs.

• FREEMASONRY v. In Exile

  Hasan Azinfar, M.-T. Eskandari, and Edward Joseph

• BRỊTʾIATỊ (COPANỊ FỊRT) ELBỊZDỊQO

  Fridrik Thordarson

  (Russian: Elbyzdyko Britaev), playwright regarded as the founder of Ossetic drama(1881-1923). His first plays (two short comedies) were published in 1905.

• DELŠĀD ḴĀTŪN

  Charles Melville

  eldest daughter of the Chobanid Demašq Ḵᵛāja and Tūrsīn Ḵātūn, granddaughter of the Il-khanid sultan Aḥmad Takūdār.

• FANĀʾĪĀN, Mīrzā FARAJ-ALLĀH JONŪN

  Vahid Rafati

  b. Loṭf-ʿAlī b. Moḥammad-Reżā (b. Sangsar, 1873), poet.

• KIRSTE, Johann Ferdinand Otto

  Michaela Zinko

  (1851-1920), Austrian scholar of Indo-Iranian languages. He served from 1892 until his death as professor of Oriental languages at the University of Graz.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLHĀ, BARNĀMA-YE

  Daryush Pirnia with Erik Nakjavani

  lit. “Flowers Program”; a series of radio programs on music and poetry, on the air for almost twenty-three years (March 1956 to February 1979), which aimed at illustrating the perennial thematic and aesthetic relationships between poetry and traditional music in Persian culture.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU’L-RAYḤĀN BĪRŪNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  Scholar and polymath of the period of the late Samanids and early Ghaznavids and one of the two greatest intellectual figures of his time in the eastern lands of the Muslim world (362/973-after 442/1050). See BĪRŪNĪ, ABU’L-RAYḤĀN.

• ARDĀ WĪRĀZ

  Ph. Gignoux

  “Wīrāz the just,”  principal character of the Zoroastrian Middle Persian text Ardā Wīrāz-nāmag.

• BARDIYA

  M. A. Dandamayev

  the younger son of Cyrus the Great. Tarius in his Behistun inscription (DB 1.30-33) says that Cambyses, after becoming king, but before his departure to Egypt, slew Bardiya and that the assassination was kept a secret from the people.

• JAKKADI

  Maria Sabaye Moghaddam

  a dance style performed by Persian women, as documented in Sanskrit treatises of the 16th and 17th centuries.

• CORIANDER

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  an herb indigenous to the Mediterranean area, the Caucasus, and Persia and valued for its aromatic leaves and seeds.

• FORŪD (1)

  Jean During

  (lit. descent; Forūvard in Bukharian tradition, Ayaq in Azeri moqām), general designation of the concluding motif of a melodic sequence in Persian music.

• ḤAZIN LĀHIJI

  John R. Perry

  Persian poet and scholar (1692-1766), emblematic of the cultivated Shiʿite mirzā of Safavid and post-Safavid Iran who fled a politically dangerous and economically depressed milieu for the courts of Muslim India.

• ĀBĀDA

  C. E. Bosworth

  Name of 1) a small town in northern Fārs province and 2) a medieval town near the northern shore of Lake Baḵtegān in Fārs.

• ʿALĪ B. ṬAYFŪR

  M. A. Nayeem

  BESṬĀMĪ, historian and litterateur at the courts of Sultan ʿAbdallāh Qoṭbšāh (1626-72) and his successor Sultan Abu’l-Ḥasan (1672-86).

• AẔAR “fire”

  cross-reference

  See ĀDUR.

• ARABIC LANGUAGE i. Arabic elements in Persian

  A. A. Ṣādeqī

• BŪQĀ

  Bertold Spuler

  (Būqāy, Boḡā), Mongolian Boḡa, Mongol general who took part in the fighting between the il-khans Aḥmad Takūdār (Tegüder) and Arḡūn in 1284 and then became the vizier.

• DEUTSCHES ARCHÄOLOGISCHES INSTITUT

  Wolfram Kleiss

  or D.A.I., research institution administered by the German foreign ministry, with a number of branches, including the Abteilung Teheran in Persia.

• GONĀBĀDI ORDER

  Hamid Algar

  an offshoot of the Neʿmat-Allāhi Sufi order, still active in Persia.

• IRĀNŠAHR, ḤOSAYN KĀẒEMZĀDA

  Jamshid Behnam

  (1884-1962), ardent Iranian nationalist active during the First World War, prolific author on political, religious, and educational subjects, and publisher of the journal Irānšahr 1922-27; he resided in Berlin 1917-36, in Switzerland thereafter.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU ṬĀLEB TABRIZI

  ʿA. Kārang

  Poet and physician whose pen name was Ṭāleb (d. 1015/1606-07).

• ʿĀREFĪ HERAVĪ

  Z. Safa

  a poet of the 9th/15th century contemporary with the Timurid Šāhroḵ.

• BARŠABBĀ

  N. Sims-Williams

  legendary bishop of Marv and founder of the Christian church in eastern Iran. The only completely preserved versions of the legend are found in Arabic sources.

• QALA d-ŠRARA

  Eden Naby

  (The voice of truth) was a monthly publication of the mainly French Catholic Lazarist Mission in Urmia and ran from 1897 to 1915.

• CREMATION

  Cross-Reference

  See BURIAL.

• EKRĀM, MOḤAMMAD

  J. Bečka

  or Ekrom, b. ʿAbd-al-Salām (1847-1925), known as Dāmollā Ekrāmče, a Bukharan scholar and madrasa teacher.

• AMIR-ṬAHMĀSEBI, ʿAbd-Allāh

  Bāqer ʿĀqeli

  (1881-1928), Major General, Army Commander and Governor of Azerbaijan, Minister of War, Minister of Public Utilities and Commerce.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FRANCE xiii. INSTITUT FRANÇAIS DE RECHERCHE EN IRAN

  R. Boucharlat

• HEKMAT, ʿALI-AṢḠAR

  EIr, with an initial contribution by Abbas Milani

  man of letters, university professor, cabinet minister, and the chief architect of the modernization of the educational system under Reza Shah (1893-1980). Once Reza Shah decided to unveil Persian women, he placed Hekmat in charge of mapping out a plan of action, which included co-education in the first four years of elementary school.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABBĀS B. REŻĀ-QOLĪ KHAN NŪRĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Calligrapher and civil servant, d. 1255/1839-40.

• ʿALĪ AL-NAQĪ

  Cross-Reference

  IMAM. See ʿALĪ AL-HĀDĪ.

• ʿAŻOD-AL-DAWLA, ABŪ ŠOJĀʾ FANNĀ ḴOSROW

  Ch. Bürgel and R. Mottahedeh

  (936-83), the greatest Buyid monarch and the most powerful ruler in the Islamic East in the last years of his life. 

• ČĀDOR (2)

  Bijan Gheiby, James R. Russell, Hamid Algar

  A loose female garment covering the body, sometimes also the face.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DHĀRVĀL, QĀŻĪ KHAN BADR MOḤAMMAD DEHLAVĪ

  M. Saleem Akhtar

  or DHĀR, 15th-century Persian lexicographer in India, so named because he settled in Dhār (hence his nesba Dhārvāl), capital of the Ghurid principality of Malwa.

• SCHEFER, Charles-Henri-Auguste

  Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam

  (1820-1898), orientalist and academic administrator, as well as minister plenipotentiary and bibliophile.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GORGIN

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  son of Milād, one of the heroes of the reigns of Kay Kāvus and Kay Ḵosrow and the head of the Milād family.

• ACHAEMENES

  M. A. Dandamayev

  (Greek Achaiménēs), Old Persian proper name Haxāmaniš, traditionally derived from haxā- “friend” and manah “thinking power.”

• ARMAITI

  M. Boyce

  one of the six great Aməša Spəntas in Zoroastrianism.

• BASṬĀM, BASṬĀMĪ

  cross-reference

  See BESṬĀM, BESṬĀMĪ FAMILY.

• CURZON, GEORGE NATHANIEL

  Denis Wright

  (1859-1925), 1st Marquess of Kedleston, British statesman, traveler, and writer.

• ELLIPI

  Cross-Reference

  See ASSYRIA.

• ČERĀḠ-E HEDĀYAT

  J. R. Perry

  (“lamp of guidance”), a monolingual Persian dictionary by the Indo-Muslim poet and scholar Serāj-al-Din ʿAli Khan Ārzu.

• FRONTIERS

  Cross-reference

  See BOUNDARIES.

• HERACLIUS

  cross-reference

  See ḴOSROW II

• ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. ʿĪSĀ

  G. C. Anawati

  Physician, theologian, philosopher, and jurist (580-652/1184-1254).

• ALLĀHYĀR KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀFĪ, ALLĀHYĀR KHAN.

• BĀBĀʾĪ BEN LOṬF

  Amnon Netzer

  Jewish poet and historian of Kāšān during the first half of the 17th century (d. after 1662).

• BIBLE v. Sogdian Translations

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  The following manuscripts containing biblical texts in Sogdian have been made known. None of them survives in anything like complete form, and some are mere fragments.

• ČAHĀRŠANBA-SŪRĪ

  Manouchehr Kasheff and ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  (usually pronounced Čāršamba-sūrī), the last Wednesday of the Persian solar year, the eve of which is marked by special customs and rituals, most notably jumping over fire.

• DĪNĀVARĪYA

  Werner Sundermann

  in Manichean usage originally “the elect.”

• MANICHEISM iv. MISSIONARY ACTIVITY AND TECHNIQUE

  Werner Sundermann

  The main primary sources on the beginning of Manichean missionary work are the Cologne Mani Codex and the Kephalaia.

• GOWRAK

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe in northwestern Persia.

• ADHYARDHAŚATIKĀ PRAJÑĀPĀRAMITĀ

  R. E. Emmerick

  (“The perfection of wisdom in 150 lines”), title of a Praǰñāpāramitā text in Tantric.

• BAYHAQĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN MOḤAMMAD

  H. Halm

  B. ŠOʿAYB ʿEJLĪ NAYSĀBŪRĪ (d. 936), a jurist who helped promote the spread of the Shafeʿite school of Islamic law in Khorasan.

• EBN BAQIYA

  C. E. Bosworth

  called Naṣir-al-Dawla and Nāṣeḥ "Counselor,” vizier of the Buyids in Iraq, b. 314/926, d. 367/978.

• DĀD (2)

  Jean During

  a vocal and instrumental gūša (motif), in reality more of a melodic type than a modal structure.  

• EMĀMĪ HERĀVĪ, RAŻĪ-AL-DĪN ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH MOḤAMMAD

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  b. Abī Bakr b. ʿOṯmān (b. in Herat; d. in Isfahan, 1287), Persian poet of the Mongol period also noted for his learning.

• MAMSIRATI, DÄBE

  F. Thordarson

  (Russian: Dabe Mamsurov), Ossetic author (1909-1966).

• GAUMĀTA

  Pierre Briant

  according to the Bīsotūn inscriptions, the Magian pretender who seized the Achaemenid throne by claiming to be Bardiya (Smerdis), the son of Cyrus the Great.

• ʿABD-AL-MOʾMEN B. ʿABDALLĀH

  R. D. McChesney

  generally reckoned as the eleventh khan of the Shaibanid (Abu’l-Ḵayrī) dynasty of Māvarāʾ al-Nahr and Balḵ.

• AMAR NĀTH

  B. Ahmad

  Persian writer and poet of the Punjab under the Sikhs (1822-67).

• BĀD (1)

  X. de Planhol

  “wind.” On the plateau of Iran and Afghanistan winds depend on a general regime of atmospheric pressures characterized, in the course of the year, by the succession of markedly distinct seasons with relatively stable barometric gradients.

• CENTRAL ASIA xv. Modern Literature

  Keith Hitchins

• CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF IRAN

  Hubert S. G. Darke

  a survey of the history and historical geography of the land which is present-day Iran, as well as other territories inhabited by peoples of Iranian descent, from prehistoric times up to the present in seven volumes (vol. III being a double volume), of which the first volume was published in 1968 and the last in 1989.

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• DOʿĀ-NEVĪSĪ

  Aḥmad Mahdawī Dāmḡānī

  the act of writing charms against various evils.

• SYRIAC LANGUAGE ii. SYRIAC WRITINGS ON PRE-ISLAMIC IRAN

  Phillipe Gignoux

  The Syriac works which provide information about pre-Islamic Iran can be divided into several groups, excluding literary works as such.

• AFGHANI

  ʿA. Ḥabībī

  (afḡānī), the unit of currency in modern Afghanistan. 

• ARTAXERXES I

  R. Schmitt

  a son of Xerxes I and Amestris.

• BEADS

  cross-reference

  See JEWELRY.

• SABALĀN MOUNTAIN

  Eckart Ehlers

  Kuh-e-Sabalān; 4,740 m), the highest and spatially most extended volcano in northwestern Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DAHM YAZAD

  Mary Boyce

  the Middle Persian name of the Zoroastrian divinity (also known as Dahmān Āfrīn and Dahmān) who is the spirit or force inherent in the Avestan benediction called Dahma Vaŋuhi Āfriti, or Dahma Āfriti.

• ENJŪ

  Cross-Reference

  See INJU DYNASTY.

• HIPPOCRATES

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  or Boqrāṭ in Islamic tradition, where he is often referred to as “the first codifier of medicine” (4th-3rd cents. BCE).

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN B. SOYŪNJ

  R. D. MacChesney

  An Uzbek amir in Balḵ (17th century).

• AMĪN-AL-DAWLA, ʿALĪ EBRĀHĪM KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ EBRĀHĪM KHAN.

• BADĪʿ-AL-ZAMĀN HAMADĀNĪ

  F. Malti-Douglas

  (968-1008), Arabic belle-lettrist and inventor of the maqāma genre. His maqāmāt are a set of adventures narrated in rhymed prose and poetry, revolving around a rogue hero and a narrator.

• ČĀR BAKR

  G. A. Pugachenkova

  (lit. “four Bakrs”), family necropolis of the powerful Jūybāri shaikhs near the village of Sumitan.

• DONBĀVAND

  Cross-Reference

  See DAMĀVAND.

• CANADA i. Iranian Studies in

  Colin Paul Mitchell

  several factors in the last half-century have led to a rapid expansion of Iranian studies in Canada in the fields of history, literature, language, philosophy, religion, art history, and archaeology.

• GUJARAT

  Gavin R. G. Hambly

  (Skt. Gurjaṛ), a province of India on its northwestern coastline.

• JACKSON, ABRAHAM VALENTINE WILLIAMS

  William W. Malandra

  (1862-1937), pioneer of Iranian studies in America and prominent Iranist for half a century. The most important book of Jackson perhaps was Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran (1898). He was not among those who belittled indigenous traditions, nor did he embrace positivistic historiography. He had an abiding faith in the basic historicity of these sources.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀFTĀB

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  (“Sun”), name of several Persian periodicals.

• ARYANA VAĒJAH

  Cross-Reference

  See ĒRĀN-WĒZ.

• FARANG, FARANGĪ

  Forthcoming online.

• BEHBAHĀNĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ʿALĪ

  Hamid Algar

  B. MOḤAMMAD-BĀQER, ĀQĀ  (1731-1801), Shiʿite mojtahed celebrated primarily for his ferocious hatred of Sufis.

• MOSHFEQ-e KAZEMI, SAYYED MORTAZA

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  (1904-1978), author of Iran’s first social novel.

• DAM (1)

  Cross-Reference

  See BAND.

• EQBĀL, MANŪČEHR

  Ahmad Ashraf

  (1909-1977), prime minister 1957-60, minister of the Royal Court, head of National Iranian Oil Company, and professor of medicine. He was regarded as an honest and ascetic man. His authoritarian character, obedience and unswerving loyalty to the shah, and political ambition, made him a trusted aide, but not a popular political figure.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SUYĀB

  Gregory Semenov

  now called Ak-Beshim, the site of an important city on the Silk Road, located 60 km to the east of the city of Bishkek in Kyrgyzstan.

• GĀNEMĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ḤOLWI, JAMĀL-AL-DIN MAḤMUD

  Tahsin Yazi

  biographer of the leaders of the Ḵalwati Sufi order and minor poet (1574-1654).

• ʿABD-AL-VĀḤED JŪZJĀNĪ

  D. Pingree

  Pupil of Ebn Sīnā (980-1037).

• AMĪR ḴORD

  K. A. Nizami

  Indo-Muslim author of the Sīar al-awlīāʾ  (8th/14th century).

• BAGA

  H. W. Bailey, N. Sims-Williams, St. Zimmer

  an Old Iranian term for “god,” sometimes designating a specific god. i. General. ii. In Old and Middle Iranian. iii. The use of baga in names.

• CLASS SYSTEM ii. In the Median and Achaemenid Periods

  Pierre Briant

• ČARZA

  Ehsan Yarshater

  village in the mountainous area of the Upper Ṭārom district (baḵš) in the šahrestān of Zanjān, at 49°1′ E, 36°52′ N, 42 km north of the district center, Sīrdān. It is one of the few villages in Ṭārom where Iranian Tati dialects have not yet given way to Turkish.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DRÁPSAKA

  Frantz Grenet

  Greek name of a Bactrian city in northern Afghanistan, the first town captured by Alexander the Great after crossing the Hindu Kush.

• MOOREY, Peter Roger Stuart

  John Curtis

  (1937-2004), British archeologist and curator at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GYPSY

  Jean-Pierre Digard, Gernot L. Windfuhr

  Gypsies are generally referred to by the term kowli in Persian, seemingly a distortion of kāboli, that is, coming from Kabol, the capital of Afghanistan. It is not at all certain, however, that all the groups referred to as kowli are authentic gypsies; nor that only the groups referred to as kowli should be considered as gypsies.

• JAHN, KARL EMIL OSKAR

  J. T. P. DE Bruijn

  (1906-1985), Czech orientalist who specialized in Central Asian history, Persian historiography, and Turcology.

• ĀHAN

  V. C. Pigott

  "iron," from prehistory to the ethnographic present.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AŠʿARĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  scholastic theologian (motakallem) and founder of the theological school of the Ašʿarīya.

• FARHANG-E RAŠĪDĪ

  Solomon Bayevsky

  Persian dictionary compiled in India in 1654 by the poet and scholar ʿAbd-al- Rašīd b. ʿAbd-al-Ḡafūr Ḥosaynī Tattavī.

• BENDŌY

  Cross-Reference

  See BESṬĀM O BENDŌY.

• KĀŠḠARI, SAʿD-AL-DIN

  Hamid Algar

  (d. 1456), propagator of the Naqšbandi order in Timurid Herat, noteworthy primarily as the initiator ofʿAbd-al-Raḥmān Jāmi into the path.

• DĀNEŠGĀH-E JANG

  Cross-Reference

  See MILITARY.

• ERĒZ

  Cross-Reference

  See ARZENJĀN.

• ʿOLAMĀ-YE ESLĀM

  Siamak Adhami

  “The Doctors of Islam,” title given to two medieval Zoroastrian polemical treatises written in Modern Persian.

• GARDEN iv. BOTANICAL GARDENS

  Borhan Riazi

• HORMOZGĀN PROVINCE

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ʿABDALLĀH B. ʿOMAR

  ʿA. Ḥabībī

  Author of an Arabic monograph on the city of Balḵ (d. after 610/1213).

• ĀMOLĪ, SAYYED BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN

  E. Kohlberg

  early representative of Imamite theosophy (b. 720/1320, or perhaps 719/1319).

• BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD WALAD

  H. Algar

  B. ḤOSAYN B. AḤMAD ḴAṬĪB BALḴĪ (1151-1231), scholar, father of the great Sufi poet Mawlānā Jalāl-al-Dīn Rūmī.

• COMMERCE iv. Before the Mongol conquest

  Bertold Spuler

• ČAXRĀ

  Cross-Reference

  town mentioned in the Avesta. See ČARḴ.

• DUBAI

  Sussan Siavoshi

  (Dobayy), second largest of the seven emirates constituting the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.) on the southern shores of the Persian Gulf.

• KURDISH TRIBES

  Pierre Oberling

  Kurdish tribes are found throughout Persia, eastern Anatolia and northern Iraq, but very few comprehensive lists of them have been published.

• JAMĀL-AL-DIN ʿASADĀBĀDI

  cross-reference

  See AFGANI.

• AḤMAD KĀSĀNĪ

  J. Fletcher

  (866/1461-62—949/1542-43), known as MAḴDŪM-E AʿẒAM, Sufi, author of about thirty religious treatises, political activist, and founding ancestor of two important saintly lineages of Naqšbandī ḵᵛāǰagān.

• ASINAEUS AND ANILAEUS

  M. Smith

  figure in Josephus’ Jewish Antiquities.

• FARMING

  Mohammad-Said Nouri Naini

  in Persia. In the mid-1990s Persian agriculture accounted for over 25 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 25 percent of employment, and 33 percent of non-oil exports. It also met 75 percent of domestic food requirements and 90 percent of the needs of agricultural industries in the country.

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• BĒṬANĪ

  Daniel Balland

  a Pash­tun tribe on the eastern edge of the Solaymān moun­tains. The recent history of the Bēṭanī has been largely determined by the land that they now inhabit, adjacent to the plains of the middle Indus and the Wazīr uplands.

• DĀRĀBĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See CITRUS FRUITS.

• EʿTEŻĀD-AL-DAWLA

  Cross-Reference

  See SOLAYMĀN KHAN QĀJĀR QOVĀNLŪ.

• KĀKUYIDS

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  [KAKWAYHIDS], a dynasty of Deylamite origin that ruled in western Persia, Jebāl, and Kurdistan about 1008-51 as independent princes.

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD, iv

  Nasrollah Pourjavady

  iv. Minor Persia works.

• ḤOSAYNI DAŠTAKI ŠIRĀZI

  cross-reference

  See DAŠTAKI, AMIR JAMĀL-AL-DIN.

• ABHARĪ, AMĪN-AL-DĪN

  D. Pingree

   mathematician, said to have died in 1332-33.

• ANĀRAK

  C. E. Bosworth

  a baḵš and its town on the southern fringes of the Dašt-e Kavīr.

• BAHMANID DYNASTY

  N. H. Ansari

  dynasty (1347-1528) in the Deccan, the tableland region in India. The Bahmanid kingdom was not only the first independent Muslim kingdom in southern India, but it was also one of the greatest centers of Iranian culture in the subcontinent.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS vi. In the Safavid period

  Roger M. Savory

• ČERĀḠĀNĪ

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  (also čerāḡān, čerāḡbānī, čerāḡbārān), the decoration of buildings and open spaces with lights during festivals and on occasions like weddings, coronations, royal birthdays, circumcision ceremonies, and so on.

• EARTHQUAKES

  Daniel Balland, Habib Borjian, Xavier de Planhol, Manuel Berberian

  Persia and Afghanistan lie on the great alpine belt that extends from the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean through the Indonesian archipelago and forms the world’s longest collision boundary, between the Eurasian plate in the north and several former Gondwanan blocks in the south, including the so-called “Iranian plates” and “Afghan plates.”

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SHATT AL-ARAB

  D. T. Potts

  (ŠAṬṬ AL-ʿARAB), combined effluent of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers.

• ḤAIM, MOREH ḤAḴĀM

  Amnon Netzer

  eminent Jewish scholar (b. Tehran, 1872; d. Tehran, 1942).

• JANDAQ

  M. Badanj

  a town and rural district (dehestān) in the Ḵor and Biābānak district (baḵš) of Nāʾin sub-province in the province of Isfahan.

• ĀHŪ

  B. P. O’Regan, H. Javadi

  Two species of gazelle occur in Iran, Gazella sub-gutturosa and G. dorcas.

• ASPASII

  C. J. Brunner

  one of the tribal people encountered by Alexander the Great in Gandhāra, 327-26 B.C.

• FĀRYĀBĪ, ẒAHĪR-AL-DĪN ABU’L-FAŻL ṬĀHER

  J.T.P. de Bruijn

  b. Moḥammad, twelfth century Persian poet who used Ẓahīr as his pen name.

• BĪDĀRĪ-E ĪRĀNĪĀN, TĀRĪḴ-E

  cross-reference

  See TĀRĪḴ-E BĪDĀRĪ-E ĪRĀNĪĀN.

• DERAḴT-E ANJIR-E MAʿĀBED

  LOQMĀN TADAYON-NEŽĀD

  the last and highly acclaimed work of fiction by Ahmad Mahmud.

• DARIUS iv. Darius II

  Heleen Sanchisi-Weerdenburg

• ESKANDARĪ, SOLAYMĀN (MOḤSEN) MĪRZĀ

  Cosroe Chaqueri

  (1875-1944), constitutionalist, civil servant, statesman, founder of the Ejtemāʿīyūn (Socialists) political party in the 1920s. His interest in social justice and egalitarianism was more rooted in Islam than in the European Enlightenment or European socialism. A devout Muslim, he opposed women’s membership in the Tudeh party.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN iii. Mathematics and Astronomy

  George Saliba

  Ninety-five of 146 books known to have been written by Bīrūnī, about 65 percent, were devoted to astronomy, mathematics, and related subjects like math­ematical geography.

• GENDER RELATIONS ii

  Hammed Shahidan

  ii. In the Islamic Republic.

• HUR

  Nassereddin Parvin

  name of a newspaper (1943-45) and a bilingual (Persian and Armenian) monthly journal (1971-74).

• ABU’L-ʿABBĀS MARVAZĪ

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  Sufi, jurist, and traditionist, one of the first poets to write in New Persian. 

• ANGLO-AFGHAN TREATY OF 1921

  L. W. Adamec

  the outcome of peace negotiations following the Third Anglo-Afghan War. 

• BAḤRĀNĪ, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN

  W. Madelung

  (also KAMĀL-AL-DĪN) ʿALĪ B. SOLAYMĀN SETRAWĪ, Imami Shiʿite scholar and philosopher inclining to mysticism (13th century).

• EMĀMZĀDA iii. Number, distribution, and important examples

  PARVĪZ VARJĀVAND

• CHASE, THORNTON

  Moojan Momen

  (b. Springfield, Mass., 22 February 1847), regarded by Bahais as the first Amer­ican Bahai and the first Bahai of the West.

• EBN AL-BALḴĪ

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  conventional name for an otherwise unknown author of Fārs-nāma, a local history and geography of the province of Fārs written in Persian during the Saljuq period.

• KRÁMSKÝ, JIRÍ

  Jiri Bečka

  (1913-1991), Czech general linguist who specialized in Persian language studies.

• ḤALABI, ABU'L-ṢĀLEḤ

  Etan Kohlberg

  Taqi-al-Din b. Najm-al-Din b. ʿObayd-Allāh b. ʿAbd-Allāh b. Moḥammad (b. 984-85, d. 1055), Imami jurist and theologian.

• JAVĀNMARDI

  Mohsen Zakeri

  also fotowwa, denoting a wide variety of amorphous associations with initiation rituals and codes in the Islamic world, primarily in its eastern regions.

• AKBAR I

  F. Lehmann

  (949-1014/1542-1605), third and greatest of the Mughal emperors of India. 

• ASTARĀBĀD

  C. E. Bosworth, S. Blair

  (or ESTERĀBĀD), the older Islamic name for the modern town of Gorgān in northeastern Iran, and also the name of an administrative province in Qajar times.

• FAUSTUS

  James R. Russell

  fifth-century author of the Patmutʿiwn Hayocʿ (History of the Armenians) or Buzandaran.

• BISHOP, ISABELLA L.

  cross-reference

  See BIRD, ISABELLA L.

• MARDONIUS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Name of several Persians in Achaemenid times, as OPers. M-r-d^u-u-n-i-y- /Mr̥duniya-/ (DB 4.84) is rendered in Greek (Mardónios) and Latin (Mardonius).

• DARYĀ-YE SĪĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See BLACK SEA.

• EŠPOḴTOR

  Cross-Reference

  See TSITSIANOV.

• PARSI COMMUNITIES i. EARLY HISTORY

  John R. Hinnells

  The creation of a Parsi settlement in India was the outcome of the migration of Zoroastrian refugees from their original homeland in medieval Islamic Persia.

• GERDŪ

  Cross-Reference

  See WALNUT.

• IJEL

  John Woods

  Timurid prince (1394-1415), the fourth son of Mirānšāh b. Timur.

• ABŪ BAKR SARAḴSĪ

  J. W. Clinton

  a follower (but apparently not a contemporary) of Shaikh Abū Saʿīd b. Abi’l-Ḵayr (d. 440/1049).

• ANJOMAN-E TABLĪḠĀT-E ESLAMĪ

  H. Algar

  (The Society of Islamic Propagation), an Islamic cultural and educational society established in 1941 by ʿAṭāʾallāh Šehābpūr. 

• BAKTOḠDĪ

  cross-reference

  See BEKTOḠDĪ.

• FASĀ ii. Tall-e Żaḥḥāk

  JOHN F. HANSMAN

  a tell or artificial mound, lying within a still broader archeological zone, built up by successive layers of human occupation from prehistoric to medieval times; it is located 130 km south of Shiraz and 3 km southeast of Fasā.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CHRONICLE OF ARBELA

  Peter Kawerau

  a Syriac church history of Adiabene, written in the 6th century by Mĕšīḥā-Zĕḵā under the title Kĕtaḇā ḏ-ĕqlisyastīqī ḏă-Mĕšīḥā-Zĕḵā, chosen in conscious imitation of the Ekklēsiastikḕ historía by Eusebius of Caesarea.

• EBN ḴAFĪF

  See Supplement.

• SMBAT BAGRATUNI

  N. Garsoian

  distinguished Armenian prince and head of the Bagratid house at the turn of the 6th to the 7th century.

• HAMDARD ISLAMICUS

  Ansar Zahid Khan

  English-language quarterly for Islamic Studies, founded in Pakistan in 1978.

• JEVDET, ʿABD-ALLĀH

  Osman G.

  (1869-1932), Ottoman poet, writer, translator, and thinker.

• AḴŪND ḴORĀSĀNĪ

  A. Hairi, S. Murata

  (1255-1329/1839-1911), Shiʿite religious leader.

• ATĀBAKĀN-E LORESTĀN

  B. Spuler

  rulers of Lorestān, part of the Zagros highlands of southwestern Iran in the later middle ages. Lorestān had a mixed population of Lors, Kurds, and others.

• BOḴĀRĪ, AMĪR AḤMAD

  Hamid Algar

  (d. 1516), a Sufi instrumental in establishing the Naqšbandī order in Turkey.

• GORGĀN

  Multiple Authors

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Geography, ii. Dašt-e Gorgān, iii. Population, iv. Archeology, v. Pre-Islamic history, vi. History from the rise of Islam to the beginning of the Safavid Period, vii. To the end of the Pahlavi era.

• ḎĀT-AL-SALĀSEL

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  lit., “provided with chains”; place near Obolla in southern Iraq where in 633 C.E., one of Ṭabarī’s informants, Ḵāled b. Walīd and an Arab force of about 18,000 men defeated a small Sasanian garrison led by a frontier commander named Hormoz.

• ʿEṬR

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAṬR.

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Peter Jackson and Charles Melville

  (d. 1336), Il-khanid vizier, the son of Rašīd-al-Dīn Fażl-Allāh Hamadānī (executed 1318), the celebrated historian and vizier of Ḡāzān Khan.

• ABU’L-FAŻL ʿALLĀMĪ

  R. M. Eaton

  historian, officer, chief secretary, and confidant of the Mughal emperor Akbar I.

• ANŪŠTIGIN ḠARČAʾĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  Turkish slave commander of the Saljuqs; in the late 11th century, he bore the traditional title of Ḵᵛārazmšāh.

• BALYSA-

  H. W. Bailey

  (Khotan Saka), bārza- (Tumšuq Saka), a word adapted to Buddhist use for the transcendental Buddha, translating Buddhist Sanskrit buddha- and also several epithets of the Buddha.

• CARPETS xii. Pahlavi Period

  Willem Floor

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ČĪSTĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See RIDDLE.

• EBN QEBA, ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD

  Martin McDermott

  b. ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān Rāzī (d. Ray, before 931), one of the most prominent and active Imami theologians.

• PERSONAL NAMES, IRANIAN ii. AVESTAN NAMES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  In the Avesta (q.v.) at least 400 personal names are attested. The bulk of these names is found in the second part of the Fravardīn Yašt in a litany-like enumeration.

• ḤAQIQAT (2)

  Habib Borjian

  (“truth,” apparently a rendering of Russian Pravda),  the title of several newspapers in Tajik Persian.

• JORJĀNI, ZAYN-AL-DIN ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALI

  Josef van Ess

  B. MOḤAMMAD B. ʿALI AL-ḤOSAYNI (1340-1413), prolific author and scholar of the early Timurid period.

• ĀL-E VARDĀNZŪR

  Cross-Reference

  See ATĀBAKĀN-E YAZD.

• ATTABI

  E. Sims

  one of many names for cloth used by medieval Islamic writers.

• FEṬR

  Cross-Reference

  See FESTIVALS iii.

• BOOKBINDING (article 1)

  Duncan Haldane

  (tajlīd, ṣaḥḥāfī) in Iran at first followed the pattern of previous Near Eastern book covers, but subsequently Persian craftsmen developed new types.

• KHALAJ

  Multiple Authors

  i. Tribe Originating in Turkistan.  ii. Language.

• DAWLATŠĀH, MOḤAMMAD-ʿALĪ MĪR-ZĀ

  Abbas Amanat

  (1789-1821), eldest son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah and powerful prince-governor of western provinces of Persia.

• ĒWĒNBED

  Philippe Gignoux

  lit. "master of manners"; Pahlavi title attested from the 3rd century C.E.

• NOZHAT AL-MAJĀLES

  Moḥammad Amin Riāḥi

  an anthology of over 4,000 quatrains (robāʾi) by some 300 poets of the 5th to 7th/11th-13th centuries, compiled around the middle of the 7th/13th century.

• GIV, ROSTAM

  Farhang Mehr

  , Arbāb (b. Yazd, 1888; d. San Diego, Calif., 1980), Majles representative, senator, president of Anjoman-e Zardoštiān of Tehran, businessman, and philanthropist.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INDUSTRIALIZATION i. THE REZA SHAH PERIOD AND ITS AFTERMATH, 1925-53

  Hassan Hakimian

  Prior to the 1920s, traditional crafts dominated the industrial scene in Iran; and, despite a growing interest in industrial modernization after the 1870s, the role of industry remained very limited.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN ṬĀLAQĀNĪ

  H. Algar

  (?-1350/1932), religious scholar and father of the celebrated Āyatallāh Maḥmūd Ṭālaqānī.

• ĀQĀ NAJAFĪ EṢFAHĀNĪ

  A.-H. Hairi

  (1262-1332/1846-1914), prominent religious leader involved with a number of important political events of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

• BANDAR-E PAHLAVĪ

  cross-reference

  See ANZALĪ.

• COBALT

  Elisabeth West FitzHugh and Willem M. Floor

  a chemical element that imparts a blue color to glass and glazes and to certain pigments.

• EBRĀHĪM B. NAṢR

  Cross-Reference

  See BÖRĪ.

• MAJALLA-ye JAMʿIYAT-e NESWĀN-e WAṬANḴᵛĀH-e IRĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  magazine of the women's association of that name, 1923-26.

• ḤASAN B. ʿABD-AL-MOʾMEN

  Tahsin Yaziçi

  full name: ḤASAN B. ʿABD-AL-MOʾMEN, ḤOSĀM-AL-DIN ḴOʾI, 13th-century scribe, poet, and lexicographer from Azerbaijan.

• ʿALAM VA ʿALĀMAT

  J. Calmard, J. W. Allan

  banner; more particularly, the banners carried in religious processions.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿAWFĪ, SADĪD-AL-DĪN

  J. Matīnī

  an important Persian writer of the late 6th/12th and early 7th/13th centuries.

• FIREARMS i. HISTORY

  Rudi Matthee

  While the traditional belief that firearms were first introduced to Persia under Shah ʿAbbās I was discredited long ago, the exact date remains uncertain. Terms hinting at firearms occur in late 14th-century Timurid chronicles, but it is unclear whether these mean mangonels projecting stones and inflammable naphtha or real cannon.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BOSTĀN AL-SĪĀḤA

  ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Šīrjānī

  a descriptive geography book by a mystic writer of the early 19th century, Mast-ʿAlīšāh, Ḥājī Zayn-al-ʿĀbedīn b. Mollā Eskandar Šīrvānī.

• DEDE BEG ḎU’L-QADAR

  Cross-Reference

  See ABDĀL BEG.

• FAHLABAḎ

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀRBAD.

• YAZICI, Tahsin

  Osman G. Özgüdenlı

  (1922-2002), Turkish scholar of Persian language, literature, and culture. During fifty-five years of scholarship, Yazıcı wrote, translated, and edited many books and articles. His translations from Persian into Turkish include Aflāki’s Manāqeb al-ʿārefin, the Persian version of Abu’l-Qāsem Qošayri’s Resāla, and the Aḥwāl-e Mawlānā of Faridun b. Aḥmad Sepahsālār.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOL-E SORḴI, ḴOSROW

  Cross-Reference

  (1943-1974), poet and revolutionary figure whose defiant stand during his televised show trial, and subsequent execution by firing squad in 1974, enshrined his place in the cultural and political history of modern Persia. See GOLSORḴI.

• ABŪ MOSLEM EṢFAHĀNĪ

  Wilferd Madelung

  secretary, official, man of letters, and Muʿtazilite Koran commentator, b. 254/868, probably in Isfahan.

• ARACHOSIA

  R. Schmitt

  province in the eastern part of the Achaemenid empire around modern Kandahār, which was inhabited by the Iranian Arachosians or Arachoti. 

• BĀQER KHAN SĀLĀR-E MELLI

  A. Amanat

  one of the popular heroes of the Constitutional Revolution during the defense of Tabrīz in the period of the Lesser Autocracy (June, 1908-July, 1909).

• OWL

  Cross-Reference

  See BŪF.

• CONCOBAR

  Cross-Reference

  See KANGĀVAR.

• ECONOMY

  Multiple Authors

• ZOROASTRIANISM i. HISTORICAL REVIEW

  William W. Malandra

  This article presents an overview of the history of Zoroastrianism from its beginnings through the 9th and 10th centuries CE. Details of different periods and specific issues relating to Zoroastrianism are discussed in the relevant separate entries.

• HATAMTU

  Cross-Reference

  See ELAM.

• KĀBOL MAGAZINE

  Wali Ahmadi

  monthly magazine of the Kabul Literary Society, 1931-40.

• ALEXANDRIA

  P. Leriche

  general designation of cities whose foundation is credited to Alexander the Great (356-23 B.C.).

• AYBAK

  L. Dupree

  (Uzbek “cave dweller”), now called Samangān, capital of Samangān province, associated with several important archeological sites.

• BREST-LITOVSK TREATY

  Joseph A. Kechichian

  treaty signed by the Central Powers and Soviet Russia on 3 March 1918 that was consequential in the history of modern Iran.

• DELĪKĀNLŪ

  Pierre Oberling

  tribe of the Ḵalḵāl region in eastern Persian Azerbaijan.

• FĀMĪ

  Cross-reference

  See ABU NAṢR FĀMI.

• KHALAJ ii. Language

  Michael Knüppel

  spoken by the inhabitants of Khalaj, located approximately 250 km to the southwest of Tehran.

• GOLESTĀNA, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-ḤASAN GOLESTĀNA.

• ABU’L-QĀSEM NĀʾĪNĪ

  L. Richter-Bernburg

  Major representative (practitioner, instructor, author) of traditional medicine in late Qajar Persia (1245-1322/1829-30 to 1904-05).

• ARCHEOLOGY

  Multiple Authors

  The history of archeological research in Iran may be divided into two periods, before and after the Second World War. The early period can in turn be subdivided into a first phase of mainly French activity (ca. 1884-1931), and a second phase in which archeology in Iran became a multinational affair (1931-40). The modern period can be subdivided into what might best be called the “quiet phase” (1940-57) and the “explosive phase” (1958-78).

• BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI

  Multiple Authors

  Slaves and slavery.  i. In the Achaemenid period. ii. In the Sasanian period. iii. In the Islamic period up to the Mongol invasion. iv. From the Mongols to the abolition of slavery. v. Military slavery in Islamic Iran.

• ŠARAFĀBĀD

  Robert M. Schacht and Henry T. Wright III

  the name of a village and an adjacent ancient settlement called Tepe Šarafābād in Southwest Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• COPTIC MANICHEAN TEXTS

  Aloïs van Tongerloo

  primary source text fragments, written in previously undeciphered or little-known languages and scripts which considerably changed the interpretation and apprecia­tion of Manicheism.

• FORGERIES i. INTRODUCTION, ii. OF PRE-ISLAMIC ART OBJECTS

  Abolala Soudavar, Oscar White Muscarella

  Early in the Islamic era, Abū Rayḥān Bīrūnī described in his al-Aṯār al-bāqīa how emergent Islamic rulers of Persia had forged their lineage and invented connections with previous dynasties in order to affirm their own legitimacy.

• HAZĀRASPIDS

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a local dynasty of Kurdish origin which ruled in the Zagros mountains region of southwestern Persia, essentially in Lorestān and the adjacent parts of Fārs, and which flourished in the later Saljuq, Il-khanid, Mozaffarid, and Timurid periods.

• ĀB-E ĪSTĀDA

  C. E. Bosworth

  “Still water,” a salt lake in the province of Ḡazna in modern Afghanistan, lying 30 km southeast of the present Ḡazna-Kandahār highway and 100 km south of Ḡazna itself.

• ʿALĪ B. ʿOṮMĀN

  cross-reference

  B. ḤARB. See ʿALĪ B. ḤARB.

• ĀZĀDVĀR

  C. E. Bosworth

  (or Āzaḏvār), a small town of Khorasan in the district (kūra, rostāq) of Jovayn, which flourished in medieval Islamic times, apparently down to the Il-khanid period.

• BULLAE

  Richard N. Frye

  the sealings, usually of clay or bitumen, on which were impressed the marks of seals showing ownership or witness to whatever was attached to the sealing.  

• DERHAM

  Cross-Reference

  See DIRHAM.

• KAFTARI WARE

  C. A. Petrie

  distinctive ceramic vessels dated to the late 3rd and early 2nd millennia BCE, primarily found in Fārs.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOMIŠĀN

  Cross-Reference

  a district in Golestān Province. See GORGĀN.

• IRĀNŠĀH, BAHĀʾ-AL-DAWLA

  cross-reference

  See SALJUQS OF KERMAN.

• ABŪ TAHER ḴOSRAVĀNĪ

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  a poet of the Samanid period.

• ARDWAHIŠT YAŠT

  M. Boyce

  (ORDĪBEHEŠT YAŠT), the third in the series of Avestan hymns addressed to individual divinities. It is devoted to one of the greatest of the Zoroastrian Aməša Spəntas, Aša Vahišta.

• BARQ

  W. Floor and B. Hourcade, D. Balland

  the modern Persian term for electricity, borrowed from Arabic barq “lightning, flash of lightning.”  i. In Iran.  ii. In Afghanistan.  The electrification of individual government build­ings appears to have begun during the reign of Nāṣer-al-­Dīn Shah (ca. 1887) with the state armory and the shah’s residence in Tehran. In 1900 the first electrical plant (of 6,6 kw) was built in Iran, in the city of Mašhad.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SHAHSEVAN

  Richard Tapper

  (Šāhsevan), name of a number of tribal groups in various parts of northwestern Iran, notably in the Moḡān and Ardabil districts of eastern Azerbaijan and in the Ḵaraqān and Ḵamsa districts between Zanjān and Qazvin.

• CRAFTS

  compiled from personal observations and reports by Carole Bier, Mehdī Ebrāhīmīān, Iran Ala Firouz, and Jay Gluck.

  Although crafts have always played a predominant role in the artistic history of Persia, in this century new market forces and social currents have interacted with deeply rooted traditions to produce new types of objects, as well as variations on more familiar ones.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EJMIATSIN

  S. Peter Cowe

  currently designation of three separate but interrelated entities: the cathedral and monastic complex which forms the residence of the supreme patriarch and catholicos of all the Armenians, the city in which this complex is located, and the district of which the latter is the administrative center.

• AḤMAD, NEẒĀM-AL-DIN

  Erika Glassen

  vizier and amir under the Timurids (d. 912/1507).

• FRANCE x. FRENCH LITERATURE IN PERSIA

  Christophe Balay

• ḤEJĀB

  cross-reference

  See ČĀDOR (2).

• ʿABBĀS B. ʿALĪ B. ABŪ ṬĀLEB

  J. Calmard

  Half brother of Imam Ḥosayn, who fought bravely at the battle of Karbalā. According to most traditions, he was killed on the day of ʿĀšurā (10 Moḥarram 61/10 October 680) while trying to bring back water from the Euphrates river to quench the unbearable thirst of the besieged Ahl-e Bayt (holy family).

• ʿALĪ-MOḤAMMAD ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀBISM.

• ʿAZĪZ KHAN MOKRĪ

  J. Calmard

  SARDĀR-E KOLL (1792-1871), an army chief and dignitary of Qajar Iran.

• AVICENNA xiii. The influence of Avicenna on medical studies in the West

  U. Weisser

• CABBAGE

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  (Pers. kalam).Many medicinal properties and uses have been attributed in the Islamic period to the leaves and seeds of the karanb, most of which can be traced to the writings of the Greek masters Dioscorides, Galen,snd others.

• DHABHAR, BAHMANJI NUSSERWANJI

  Mary Boyce and Firoze M. Kotwal

  (b. 1869, Navsari, d. 1952, Bombay), eminent Parsi scholar of Bhagaria stock.

• RESĀLA-YE MADANIYA

  Sen McGlinn

  a treatise of some 130 pages by Abd-al-Baha, internally dated in 1292/1875, which calls on the Iranian people to ‘awake’ and take the steps necessary to modernize the country.

• GORGĀNI, FAḴR-AL-DIN ASʿAD

  Julie Scott Meisami

  (fl. ca. 1050), poet, best known for his verse romance Vis o Rāmin, completed in 1055 or shortly thereafter and dedicated to the Saljuq governor of Isfahan, the ʿAmid Abu’l-Fatḥ Moẓaffar b. Moḥammad.

• ABZARĪ, ḴᵛĀJA ʿAMĪD-AL-DĪN

  A. E. Khairallah

  Poet and the vizier of the Salghurid Atabeg of Fārs Saʿd b. Zangī (594-623/1197-1226).

• ʿARĪŻĪ, ABŪ ṬĀLEB ḤOSAYNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  Mughal scholar chiefly famous for his alleged discovery of Malfūẓāt-e Tīmūrī or Wāqeʿāt-e Tīmūrī, an autobiographical account of Tīmūr from the 7th to the 74th year of his life. See ABŪ ṬĀLEB ḤOSAYNĪ ʿARĪŻĪ.

• ḴAMSA OF NEẒĀMI

  Domenico Parrello

  the quintet of narrative poems for which Neẓāmi Ganjavi (1141-1209) is universally acclaimed.

• ČŪPĀN

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  or čōbān “shepherd” (Mid. Pers. and NPers. šobān); even today the shepherd remains a central figure, in both the technological life and consequently the symbolic life, of all systems of animal husbandry.

• ELĪF EFENDI, Ḥaṣīrīzāda

  Tahsin Yaziçi

  (b. in Sütlüce, May 1850; d. 4 December 1926), Turkish poet and scholar.

• BENNIGSEN, ALEXANDRE

  Michael Rywkin

  (1913-1988), scholar of Soviet Islam. Bennigsen saw the unassimilable quality of Soviet Muslim peoples and the continued strength of Soviet Islam based on the national-religious symbiosis.

• FREĬMAN, Aleksandr Arnol’dovich

  Solomon Bayevsky

  (1879-1968), founder and the head of the Soviet school of the comparative-historical method in Iranian linguistics. For sixty years, Freĭman worked in various areas of Iranian languages. His work on Sogdian, Chorasmian, and Ossetic is especially important.

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• HENNING, WALTER BRUNO

  Werner Sundermann

  (1908-1967), celebrated Iranist and linguist, one of the leading philologists of the past century.

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• ʿABD-AL-FATTĀH ḤOSAYNĪ

  M. B. Badakhshani

  Indian scholar of Persian and Arabic.

• ALLAHABAD

  Z. A. Desai

  Major city and headquarters of a district of the same name in Uttar Pradesh, India at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers.

• BĀBĀ SAMMĀSĪ

  H. Algar

  , ḴᵛĀJA MOḤAMMAD (d. 1354), Central Asian Sufi of the line known as selsela-ye ḵᵛājagān (line of the masters).

• ČAHĀR-BAYTI

  Cross-Reference

  See DO-BAYTI.

• DĪNĀRĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See BAḴTĪĀRĪ.

• ḴᵛĀNSĀLĀR

  Willem Floor

  title by which the supervisor and other workers of the kitchen department of the royal palace were known in the Ghaznavid and Saljuq periods.

• GOWHARIN, SAYYED SĀDEQ

  Peter Avery

  (b. Tehran, 1914; d. Tehran, 1995), scholar of Sufism and professor at the University of Tehran.

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• ADDĀ

  W. Sundermann

  one of the earliest disciples of Mani.

• ARSLĀN KHAN MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See ILAK-KHANIDS.

• BAYAZIT

  R. W. Edwards

  (Bāyazīd; Osm. Bayezid), a stronghold located three kilometers southeast of the modern village of Doğubayazit, Turkey, and approximately twenty-five kilometers southwest of Mt. Ararat, important in the defense of Anatolia against invasion from Iran.

• PIR-E ZAN

  Anna Krasnowolska

  a calendar-related legend about an Old Woman who personifies winter.  Besides Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia, the legend is widespread all over southern Europe and the Balkans (from Portugal to Bulgaria), as well as in Turkey, Arab Near East, and North Africa (from Morocco to Egypt).

• DABĪRE, DABĪRĪ

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  a term designating the “seven scripts” supposedly used in the Sasanian period.

• EMĀM-E ZAMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  Mahdi or "The Hidden Imam." See ḠAYBA and ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM.

• LOUVRE MUSEUM i. IRANIAN ANTIQUITIES IN THE COLLECTIONS

  Pierre Amiet

  In 1793, when the Louvre Museum (Musıe du Louvre) was created under the name of Central Museum of Arts (Musıe Centrale des Arts), antiquities were exclusively represented by Greek and Roman sculptures.

• GATHAS ii

  William W. Malandra

  Of the entire corpus of the Avesta, the Gathas have been translated far more frequently than any of its other divisions.

• ʿABD-AL-MAJĪD ṬĀLAQĀNĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  evered as the calligrapher who gave šekasta script its definitive form.

• AMĀNALLĀH

  L. B. Poullada

  (1892-1961), ruler of Afghanistan (1919-29), first with the title of amir and from 1926 on with that of shah.  

• BACHER, WILHELM

  A. Netzer

  (1850-1913), Hungarian scholar of Persian and Judeo-Persian language and literature.

• CALLISTHENES

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  the name of a Greek historian of the period of Alexander the Great.

• DJEITUN WARE

  Cross-Reference

  See CERAMICS i.

• SHIRVANLU, FIRUZ

  EIr

  (1938-1989), art critic, scholar, and artist, who played an instrumental role in the creation and management of several museums and cultural centers in the 1960s and 1970s.

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• Great Britain xiii. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)

  F. Safiri and H. Shahidi

  In the late 1930s, the British Government began to fund BBC broadcasts in languages other than English designed to counter anti-British broadcasts from Germany and Italy. The first were  in Arabic, in January 1938, followed by Spanish and Portuguese to Latin America in March. Persian broadcasts followed  in December 1940.

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• ISRAEL iii. IRANIAN STUDIES

  Shaul Shaked

  A department of Iranian Studies was only formally established in Israel in 1970, but scholars working in Israel have been interested in aspects of Iranian history and culture since long before that date.

• AĒŠMA

  J. P. Asmussen

  “wrath” in Younger Avestan, both metaphysically, as a distinct demon, and psychologically as the function and quality of that demon realized in man.

• ARTATĀMA

  M. Mayrhofer

  king of Mitanni.

• BĀZRANGĪ

  Richard N. Frye

  the family name of a dynasty of petty rulers in Fārs overthrown during the rise of the Sasanians.

• TEHRĀNI, Ḥosayn

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi

  (1911-1973) well-known master performer of the tonbak.

• DAGUERREOTYPE

  Chahryar Adle

  the first practical photo­graphic process, introduced into Persia in the early 1840s, shortly after its official presentation to the French Académie de Science in Paris in 1839. Acceptance of the medium of photography in Persia reflected the cultural value attached to painting in general and portraiture in particular.

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• ENGINEERING

  See Supplement.

• ONṢOR AL-MAʿĀLI

  C. Edmond Bosworth

  , KAY KĀVUS b. Eskandar b. Qābus, penultimate prince of the Ziyarid dynasty of Tabaristan (Ṭabarestān) and Gilān, in origin Daylamite, which ruled in the 10th-11th centuries.

• ḠAFFARĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-Reference

  a prominent Qajar painter. See KAMĀL-AL-MOLK.

• BADĪʿ (1)

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  rhetorical embellishment. During the early Islamic period the word developed into a technical term through its use in discussions about Arabic poetry and ornate prose.

• CHILDREN vii. Children's Literature

  EIr

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• ČĀPĀR

  Willem Floor

  (or čapar < Turk. čapmak “to gallop”), post rider.

• DOMES

  Bernard O’Kane

  circular vaulted roofs or ceilings. The variety of forms and decoration of Persian domes is unrivaled. Domes on squinches first appeared in Persia in the Sasanian period in the palace at Fīrūzābād in Fārs and at nearby Qalʿa-ye Doḵtar, both erected by Ardašir I (r. 224-40).

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• ASIA INSTITUTE, BULLETIN OF

  Richard N. Frye

  It began as the Bulletin of the American Institute of Persian Art and Archaeology in July 1931, and the first issue was edited by Arthur Upham Pope, director of the Institute.

• GUEVREKIAN, GABRIEL

  Mina Marefat

  (b. Istanbul, 1900; d. 1970), Armenian avant-garde architect, an influential figure in the development of modern architecture in Persia, linking Persian architects with Europe’s pioneers of the modern movement.

• JABBĀRA

  P. Oberling

  a group of Shiʿite Arabs in Fārs province who, together with the Šaybāni, form the Arab tribe of the Ḵamsa tribal confederation.

• AFŠĀRĪ

  H. Farhat

  one of the 12 dastgāhs or modal systems of classical Iranian music.

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• ARVAND-RŪD

  M. Kasheff

  name given to the river Tigris in some passages in the Mid. Pers. books.

• FARĀMARZ, ABŪ MANṢŪR

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ MANṢŪR FARĀMARZ.

• BEḤĀR AL-ANWĀR

  Etan Kohlberg

  (Oceans of light) by Mollā Moḥammad-Bāqer b. Moḥammad-Taqī Majlesī (d. 1699 or 1700), an encyclopedic compilation in Arabic of Imamite traditions.

• SANG-E ṢABUR

  Ali Ferdowsi

  (1966, tr. by Mohammad Reza Ghanoonparvar, as The Patient Stone, 1989), the last, and arguably, the most critically acclaimed work of fiction by Sadeq Chubak.

• ḎAḴĪRA-YE ḴᵛĀRAZMŠĀHĪ

  ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  early 13th-century Persian ency­clopedia of medical knowledge compiled by Sayyed Esmāʿīl b. Ḥosayn Jorjānī.

• EPISCOPAL

  Hassan B. Dehqani-Tafti

  a diocese of the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, one of thirty-seven independent churches of the worldwide Anglican Communion.

• SASANIAN ROCK RELIEFS

  G. Herrmann and V. S. Curtis

  one of the primary sources for documentation of the Sasanian period.

• GANDĀPŪR

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  one of two Šērānī Pashtun/Paxtun tribal segments (the other being the Baḵtīār), who claim origin in southwestern Afghanistan.

• ḤOJJAT

  Maria Dakake

  (“proof or argument”), a term used as: (1) a line of argument in debate; (2) designation of the Shiʿite Imams;  (3) an epithet of the Twelfth Imam; (4) a high official in the Ismaʿili missionary activities

• ʿABD-AL-ṢAMAD ŠĪRĀZĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Painter, calligrapher, and Mughal courtier (16th century). He entered the service of Homāyūn at Kabul in 956/1549 and remained an important artistic and governmental figure under Akbar (963-1014/1556-1605).

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• AMĪR AṢLĀN KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See MAJD-AL-DAWLA.

• BĀḠ-E JAHĀNNĀMA

  cross-reference

  See SHIRAZ.

• CITIES i. Geographical Introduction

  Xavier De Planhol

• CARRHAE

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  (Ḥarrān), town in Mesopotamia where in May 53 B.C. a decisive battle was fought between the Parthians commanded by a member of the Sūrēn family and the Romans under the triumvir M. Licinius Crassus.

• DRAGON

  Cross-Reference

  See AŽDAHĀ.

• LITHOGRAPHY ii. IN INDIA

  Olimpiada P. Shcheglova

  From the 19th century to the first decade of the 20th, India was at the hub of a great expansion in lithographic printing. Hundreds of lithographic printing houses flourished in India, and although books in Persian were only a part of their production, it was there that the largest number of Persian lithographed books was published.

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• GUZAŠTAG ABĀLIŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABĀLIŠ.

• JAHĀNŠĀH QARĀ QOYUNLU

  Cross-Reference

  See QARĀ QOYUNLU DYNASTY. Forthcoming.

• AGRA

  G. Hambly

  City and district center in the state of Uttar Pradesh in northern India, situated on the west bank of the river Jumna (Yamonā) approximately 125 miles south of Delhi.

• ASAGARTA

  W. Eilers

  an Iranian tribe of uncertain location.

• FARHANG-E JAHĀNGĪRĪ

  Solomon Bayevsky

  one of the most complete and authoritative dictionaries of the Persian language, composed in India at the beginning of the 17th century by Mīr Jamāl-al-Dīn Ḥosayn b. Fakr-al-Dīn Ḥasan Enjū Šīrāzī.

• BELOVED

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (maʿšūq in Arabic and Persian), together with Lover (ʿāšeq) and Love (ʿešq), making the three concepts that dominate the semantic field of eroticism in Persian literature and mysticism.

• KĀR-NĀMA-YE BALḴ

  J. T . P. de Bruijn

  a short maṯnavi by Sanāʾi of Ghazna (d. 1131), containing panegyric as well as satirical verses addressed to, or describing, people from various layers of Ghaznavid society.

• DĀNEŠ-SARĀ-YE ʿĀLĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See EDUCATION; TEACHERS' TRAINING.

• ERBEL

  Cross-Reference

  See ARBELA.

• MEDIA

  M. Dandamayev and I. Medvedskaya

  ancient population region (from the end of the 2nd millennium BCE) and kingdom in northwestern Iran.

• ḠARČESTĀN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  name of a region in early Islamic times, situated to the north of the upper Harīrūd and the Paropamisus range and on the head waters of the Moṟḡāb.

• ʿABDALLĀH B. ḴĀZEM

  D. M. Dunlop

  Arab military leader, governor of Khorasan (d. 691-92).

• AMMŌ, MĀR

  J. P. Asmussen

  Manichean apostle, outstanding figure in the missionary history of Manicheism during the 3rd century CE.

• BAHĀʾ-AL-DAWLA, ʿALĪ

  255, 255, 255

  B. MASʿŪD. See ʿALĪ B. MASʿŪD.

• CLOTHING xxvii. Historical lexicon of Persian clothing

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

• ČĀV

  Peter Jackson

  paper currency issued in Mongol Iran in 693/1294.

• ḎU’L-RĪĀSATAYN, ḤĀJJ MĪRZĀ ʿABD-AL-ḤOSAYN MŪNES-ʿALĪŠĀH

  Hamid Algar

  (b. Shiraz, 1873, d. Tehran, 15 June 1953), for thirty years qoṭb (leader) of a principal branch of the Neʿmatallāhī Sufi order. 

• KHARG ISLAND

  D.T. Potts

  island in the Persian Gulf, situated at about 30 km northwest of Bandar-e Rig and 52 km northwest of Bušehr.

• HADRIAN

  Ernst Badian

  (Publius Aelius Hadrianus), Roman emperor 117-38. He abandoned the Parthian War and the provinces east of the Euphrates that had been instituted by Trajan but never securely held.

• JAM

  M. Reza Fariborz Hamzeh’ee

  name given to a religious ceremony performed among two important religious communities living traditionally in the same historical region on the Zagros Mountain chain.

• AḤMAD ʿALĪ HĀŠEMĪ SANDĪLAVĪ

  S. S. Alvi

   Indo-Persian litterateur (b. 1162/1748-49 in Sandila, a town near Lucknow; d. after 1224/1809).

• ASHKHABAD

  B. Spuler

  (Russian; Persian ʿEšqābād), since 1924 the capital of the Soviet Republic of Turkmenistan.

• FARMĀNFARMĀ, ʿABD-AL-ḤOSAYN MĪRZĀ

  Cyrus Mir and EIr

  (1858-1939), Qajar prince-governor, military commander, skillful politician, head of various ministries, and prime minister. He managed to sail successfully the stormy sea of Persian politics for several decades while the entire social and political landscape was undergoing dramatic change.

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• BĒṮ ĀRAMAYĒ

  Michael Morony

  lit. “land of the Arameans,” the region and Sasanian province of Āsōristān (q.v.) in Iraq between the Jabal Ḥamrīn and Maysān.

• KĀRIZ v. Kārēz in the Late 20th Century and Their Prospects

  Xavier de Planhol

  In 1990 it was estimated that the kārēz technique supplied water to around 1.5 million hectares of the planet’s total irrigated surface area, which constituted only the minor portion of approximately 0.6 percent.

• DĀRĀ ŠOKŌH

  Annemarie Schimmel

  (b. near Ajmer, 20 March 1615, d. Delhi, 12 August 1659), first son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahān and his wife Momtāz Maḥall, religious thinker, mystic, poet, and author of a number of works in Persian.

• EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA, ĀQĀ KHAN NŪRĪ

  Abbas Amanat

  , MĪRZĀ (1807-1865), prime minister (ṣadr-e aʿẓam) of Persia (1851-58) under Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qajar. Though relatively young when he took office, he represented the old school of Qajar statecraft. His very appearance, with a long beard, ornamented robes, and lavish entourage, as well as his love of  titles, decorations and other emblems of power, and court protocol, all conjured up images of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah’s (d. 1834) era.

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• SŪDGAR NASK and WARŠTMĀNSR NASK

  Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina

  the first and second of three commentaries on the Old Avesta, extant in a Pahlavi resume in book nine of the Dēnkard, the third being the Bag nask.

• ḠAŻĀʾERĪ

  Etan Kohlberg

  nesba of two Imami authors and traditionists (10th-11th centuries).

• ḤOSAYN KHAN ŠĀMLU

  Roger M. Savory

  , b. ʿAbdi Beg Šāmlu (d. 1535), nephew of Shah Esmāʿil I, Safavid governor of Herat.

• ĀBEŠ ḴĀTŪN

  B. Spuler

   Salghurid ruler of Fārs (1263-84), daughter of Atābeg Saʿd II.

• ĀNANDRĀJ, FARHANG-E

  Cross-Reference

  Persian dictionary by Monšī Moḥammad Bādšāh, completed in 1306/1888. See FARHANG-E ĀNANDRĀJ.

• BAHMAN MĪRZĀ

  ʿA. Navāʾī

  (d. 1883-84), the fourth son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā and brother of Moḥammad Shah (r. 1834-48). Throughout his relatively long exile, he enjoyed the protection and support of the Czarist government.

• COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY iv. In the Mazdakite religion

  Werner Sundermann

• CENTRAL TREATY ORGANIZATION

  Joseph A. Kechichian

  (CENTO), a mutual defense and economic cooperation pact among Persia, Turkey, and Pakistan, with the participation of the United Kingdom and the United States as associate members.

• DVIN

  Erich Kettenhofen

  city in Armenia located north of Artaxata on the left bank of the Azat, about 35 km south of the present Armenian capital at Yerevan. It remained a significant center from the Sasanian period to the 13th century, and its pleasant climate was mentioned by many authors.

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• PONTUS

  Brian McGing

  a Greek word meaning “sea,” generally taken in the ancient world to refer to the Black Sea— Pontos Euxeinos, or Axeinos (Strabo 1.2.10 C21).

• HAFTVĀD

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  (Haftwād), the hero of a legend associated with the rise of the Sasanian Ardašir I (r. 224-39). The Šāh-nāma gives his “strange story” (dāstān-e šegeft).

• JAMŠID (JAMSHID)

  Multiple Authors

  (or JAM), mythical king of Iran; Avestan Yima (Old Indic Yama), with the epithet xšaēta.

• AHRIŠWANG

  B. Schlerath

  a learned transcription of the Avestan nominative Ašiš vaŋuhī, the goddess “Good Recompense.”

• ASPABAD

  Cross-Reference

  or ASPAPAT. See ASPBED.

• FĀRS-NĀMA-YE NĀṢERĪ

  Heribert Busse; Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi

  a history and geography of the province of Fārs, with maps and illustrations, by Mīrzā Ḥasan Fasāʾī (1821-1898). Part two includes topics such as the climate of Fārs, its flora and fauna, agricultural products, the position of Fārs according to longitude and latitude, the problem of cartographic projection.

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• BĪD

  Wilhelm Eilers, Hūšang Aʿlam

  common desig­nation in modern Persian for the genus Salix L., willow. Willow trees are found in all the Iranian lands, mainly along streams and canals.

• KĒD

  NICHOLAS SIMS-WILLIAMS

  Pahlavi and Bactrian word with meanings ranging from “soothsayer” to “priest,” probably derived from OIran.

• DARIC

  Michael Alram

  (Gk. dareikós statḗr), Achaemenid gold coin of ca. 8.4 gr, which was introduced by Darius I (r. 522-486 BCE) toward the end of the 6th century. The daric and the similar silver coin, the siglos (Gk. síglos medikós), represented the bimetallic monetary standard that the Achaemenids developed from that of the Lydians.

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• ESKANDAR BEG TORKAMĀN MONŠĪ

  Roger M. Savory

  sixteenth century author of Tārīḵ-e ʿālamārā-ye ʿabbāsī, a history of the reign of Shah ʿAbbās I.

• SOFRA

  Mahmoud Omidslalar

  a piece of cloth that is spread on the floor, and on which dishes of food are placed at meal times.

• GELŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See GAYŌMART.

• HUMORS

  cross-reference

  See HUMORALISM.

• ABROCOMES

  M. Dandamayev

  a son of Darius I by Phrataguna, daughter of his brother Artanes.

• ANGAJĪ, ḤĀJJ MĪRZĀ ABŪ’L-ḤASAN

  H. Algar

  (1282-1357/1865-1939), a leading moǰtahed of Tabrīz, politically active during both the Constitutional Revolution and the reign of Reżā Shah.

• BAHRĀMŠĀH B. MASʿŪD (III)

  C. E. Bosworth

  B. EBRĀHĪM, ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR, Ghaznavid sultan in eastern Afghanistan and northwestern India (r. 1117-1157?).

• ELAM v. Elamite language

  FRANÇOISE GRILLOT-SUSINI

• CHARITABLE FOUNDATIONS

  Maria Macuch; John R. Hinnells, Mary Boyce, and Shahrokh Shahrokh

  (MPers. ruwānagān lit. “relating to the soul”), pious endow­ments to benefit the souls of the dead, as specified by the individual founders.  i. In the Sasanian period.  ii. Among Zoroastrians in Islamic times.

• EBN ʿAYYĀŠ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM

  Daniel Gimaret

  b. Moḥammad Baṣrī, Muʿtazilite theologian (d. late 10th century), member of the so-called “school of Baṣra” and a partisan of the ideas of Abū Hāšem Jobbāʾī.

• GLASS INDUSTRY

  Willem Floor

  Glass making has been known and practiced in Iran for about 3,500 years. Until about 1930 local glass making was done in small craft workshops. The raw materials needed for glass production abound in Iran except for soda ash, but this input will also soon be entirely domestically produced.

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• ḤĀKEM BE-AMR-ALLĀH

  Farhad Daftary

  , ABU ʿALI MANṢUR, the sixth Fatimid caliph and sixteenth Ismaʿili Imam (r. 996-1021), arguably the most controversial member of the Fatimid dynasty.

• JAŠN

  cross-reference

  See GĀHANBĀR; FESTIVALS ii.

• AJMER

  F. Lehmann

  (Aǰmēr, from Skt. Ajayameru), a city in Rajasthan, western India, of great strategic, commercial, and cultural importance from the 6th/12th to the 12th/18th centuries.

• ĀŠTĀD

  G. Gnoli

  Old Iranian female deity of rectitude and justice.

• FATIMIDS

  Farhad Daftary

  relations with Persia. A major Ismaʿili Shiʿite dynasty, the Fatimids founded their own caliphate, in rivalry with the ʿAbbasids, and ruled over different parts of the Islamic world, from North Africa and Sicily to Palestine and Syria.

• BĪRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  or BĪRĪTEKĪN. See BÖRI.

• DĀRYĀ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a Tehran morning daily of news and politics, published with a number of interruptions from May 1944 to March 1951.

• ESMĀʿĪL KHAN ṢĪMQO

  Cross-Reference

  or SEMĪTQŪ. See ṢĪMQO.

• MOḤAMMAD NĀDER SHAH

  May Schinasi

  (1883-1933), king of Afghanistan, first representative of the new Dorrāni dynasty.

• GEORGIEVSK, TREATY OF

  Cross-Reference

  See GEORGIA, iii.

• ʿID-E QORBĀN

  cross-reference

  See PILGRIMAGE. forthcoming online.

• ABŪ BAKR KALĀBĀḎĪ

  W. Madelung

  author of the well-known compendium of Sufism al-Taʿarrof le-maḏhab ahl al-taṣawwof.

• ANJOMAN-E KALĪMĪĀN

  A. Netzer

  (JEWISH ASSOCIATION), name given to the Jewish Association of Tehran in the 1930s, and to the Jewish Association of Iran since 1974.

• BAḴTĪĀRĪ MOUNTAINS

  E. Ehlers

  central part of the Zagros mountain range, more or less identical to the settlement area of the Baḵtīārī nomads.

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• FACULTIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEHRAN ii. Faculty of Fine Arts

  MORTAŻĀ MOMAYYEZ

• CHORIENES

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  Sogdian nobleman and opponent of Alexander.

• EBN ḤAWŠAB, ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤASAN

  Heinz Halm

  b. Faraj (or Faraḥ) b. Ḥawšab b. Zāḏān Najjār Kūfī, known also as Manṣūr al-Yaman (d. 914), Ismaʿili dāʿī and founder of the Ismaʿili community in northern Yemen.

• SHIʿITE DOCTRINE

  Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi

  Shiʿite doctrine is usually considered to be based on five principles. However, to articulate matters of faith in such a manner seems reductionist and late.

• ḤAMĀVAND

  Pierre Oberling

  (from MOḤAMMADVAND), a Kurdish tribe of northeastern Iraq which has been described as “the most celebrated fighting tribe of southern Kurdistan.”

• JENN

  cross-reference

  See GENIE.

• AḴTAR newspaper

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  a Persian newspaper published in Istanbul, 1876 to 1895-96.

• ʿAṬĀʾ SAMARQANDĪ

  D. Pingree

  author of a set of astronomical tables for an unidentified prince of the Yuan dynasty of China, 1362-63.

• FEHİM SÜLEYMAN EFENDİ

  Tahsın Yazici

  or FAHĪM SOLAYMĀN (b. Istanbul, 1789; d. 1846), a Persian teacher and poet of Turkish origin.

• BOIR AḤMADĪ

  Reinhold Loeffler, Gernot L. Windfuhr

  the largest of the six tribal groups of Kūhgīlūya, inhabiting the mountainous territory from east of Behbahān and north of Dogonbadān to the Kūh-e Denā range in the northeast, an area of some 2,500 sq miles.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ZARINAIA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  legendary Saka queen during the reign of the likewise legendary Median king Astibaras.

• DASTJERDĀNĪ, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN

  David O. Morgan

  Il-khanid bureaucrat.

• ETHICS

  C.-H. de Fouchıcour

  a body of practical moral doctrine was elaborated as part of the earliest development of Persian literature, at which time considerable reflection was devoted to topics ranging from morals to ethics, from the exhortation not to harm one’s fellow creature to the search for the meaning of life.

• GREECE xv. Ancient Greek borrowings of Perisan herbs and plants of medicinal value

  Luigi Arata

• GĪĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  a Lori dialect. See GĪŌNĪ.

• INDIA

  Multiple Authors

  This series of entries covers Indian history and its relations with Iran.

• ABU’L-FATḤ KHAN ZAND

  H. Busse

  eldest son of Karīm Khan (Wakīl) of the Īnāq lineage of the Zand, b. 1169/1755-56.

• ANTONY, MARK

  M. L. Chaumont

  Roman general (ca. 82-30 B.C.) who led a campaign in Armenia during the Parthian period.