Search Results

• SOLṬĀN WALAD

  Cross-Reference

  13th-14th-century Sufi shaikh and poet, son and eventual successor of Mawlānā Jalāl-al-Din Rumi(Mawlawi). See BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN SOLṬĀN WALAD.

• BENNIGSEN, ALEXANDRE

  Michael Rywkin

  (1913-1988), scholar of Soviet Islam. Bennigsen saw the unassimilable quality of Soviet Muslim peoples and the continued strength of Soviet Islam based on the national-religious symbiosis.

• FREĬMAN, Aleksandr Arnol’dovich

  Solomon Bayevsky

  (1879-1968), founder and the head of the Soviet school of the comparative-historical method in Iranian linguistics. For sixty years, Freĭman worked in various areas of Iranian languages. His work on Sogdian, Chorasmian, and Ossetic is especially important.

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• HENNING, WALTER BRUNO

  Werner Sundermann

  (1908-1967), celebrated Iranist and linguist, one of the leading philologists of the past century.

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• ʿABD-AL-FATTĀH ḤOSAYNĪ

  M. B. Badakhshani

  Indian scholar of Persian and Arabic.

• ALLAHABAD

  Z. A. Desai

  Major city and headquarters of a district of the same name in Uttar Pradesh, India at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers.

• BĀBĀ SAMMĀSĪ

  H. Algar

  , ḴᵛĀJA MOḤAMMAD (d. 1354), Central Asian Sufi of the line known as selsela-ye ḵᵛājagān (line of the masters).

• ČAHĀR-BAYTI

  Cross-Reference

  See DO-BAYTI.

• DĪNĀRĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See BAḴTĪĀRĪ.

• ḴᵛĀNSĀLĀR

  Willem Floor

  title by which the supervisor and other workers of the kitchen department of the royal palace were known in the Ghaznavid and Saljuq periods.

• GOWHARIN, SAYYED SĀDEQ

  Peter Avery

  (b. Tehran, 1914; d. Tehran, 1995), scholar of Sufism and professor at the University of Tehran.

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• ADDĀ

  W. Sundermann

  one of the earliest disciples of Mani.

• ARSLĀN KHAN MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See ILAK-KHANIDS.

• BAYAZIT

  R. W. Edwards

  (Bāyazīd; Osm. Bayezid), a stronghold located three kilometers southeast of the modern village of Doğubayazit, Turkey, and approximately twenty-five kilometers southwest of Mt. Ararat, important in the defense of Anatolia against invasion from Iran.

• DABĪRE, DABĪRĪ

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  a term designating the “seven scripts” supposedly used in the Sasanian period.

• FARĪDAN

  Mīnū Yūsofnežād

  a county (šahrestān) located at the foot of the Zagros mountains in the western part of Isfahan province, bordered on the north by Ḵᵛānsār, on the northwest by Alīgūdarz (in Lorestān province), on the west by the county of Farīdūn-æahr, on the east by Najafābād, and on the south by Šahr-e Kord and Fārsān.

• EMĀM-E ZAMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  Mahdi or "The Hidden Imam." See ḠAYBA and ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM.

• KĀSEMI, NOṢRAT-ALLĀH

  Mostafa Alamouti and EIr.

  (1908-1996), physician, poet, writer, orator, and politician.

• LOUVRE MUSEUM i. IRANIAN ANTIQUITIES IN THE COLLECTIONS

  Pierre Amiet

  In 1793, when the Louvre Museum (Musıe du Louvre) was created under the name of Central Museum of Arts (Musıe Centrale des Arts), antiquities were exclusively represented by Greek and Roman sculptures.

• GATHAS ii

  William W. Malandra

  Of the entire corpus of the Avesta, the Gathas have been translated far more frequently than any of its other divisions.

• ʿABD-AL-MAJĪD ṬĀLAQĀNĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  evered as the calligrapher who gave šekasta script its definitive form.

• AMĀNALLĀH

  L. B. Poullada

  (1892-1961), ruler of Afghanistan (1919-29), first with the title of amir and from 1926 on with that of shah.  

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION vii. The constitutional movement in literature

  Sorour Soroudi

• ŠARQ

  Nasserddin Parvin

  a literary journal published occasionally in Tehran between 1924 and 1932.

• Great Britain ix. Iranian Studies in Britain, Pre-Islamic

  A. D. H. Bivar

• ĀDURBĀD ĒMĒDĀN

  A. Tafażżolī

  second author of the 9th century CE Zoroastrian compilation, Dēnkard.  

• ARTAḪŠAR

  Cross-Reference

  See ARTOXARES.

• BĀZĀRGĀNĪ

  cross-reference

  See COMMERCE.

• DAFTAR-E ASNĀD-E RASMĪ

  Aḥmad Mahdawī Dāmḡānī

  (Registry of of ficial documents), a government department where documents and records of transactions, contracts, marriages, divorces, and the like are kept and signa­tures verified.

• FARROḴZĀD

  Cross-Reference

  son of Ḵosrow II, ruled briefly in 630/631. See SASANIAN DYNASTY.

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA IRANICA

  Elton L. Daniel

  an alphabetically arranged reference work which seeks to provide scholarly articles relating to “all aspects of Iranian life and culture.”

• PĀDYĀB

  Ramiyar P. Karanjia

  a Pahlavi word meaning “ritually clean,”.

• NISĀYA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  the Old Iranian name of several Iranian regions and places, which cannot easily be distinguished from one another.

• GADŌTU

  Cross-Reference

  a demon. See UDA.

• HIDDEN IMAM

  Cross-Reference

  See ISLAM IN IRAN vii. The Concept of Mahdi in Twelver Shi'ism.

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤĪM ḴĀN ḴĀNĀN

  N. H. Zaidi

  Mughal general and statesman (d. 1627).

• ʿAMĪD-AL-MOLK ABŪ ḠĀNEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ABZARĪ.

• BADĪʿ (1)

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  rhetorical embellishment. During the early Islamic period the word developed into a technical term through its use in discussions about Arabic poetry and ornate prose.

• ČĀPĀR

  Willem Floor

  (or čapar < Turk. čapmak “to gallop”), post rider.

• DOMES

  Bernard O’Kane

  circular vaulted roofs or ceilings. The variety of forms and decoration of Persian domes is unrivaled. Domes on squinches first appeared in Persia in the Sasanian period in the palace at Fīrūzābād in Fārs and at nearby Qalʿa-ye Doḵtar, both erected by Ardašir I (r. 224-40).

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• ASIA INSTITUTE, BULLETIN OF

  Richard N. Frye

  It began as the Bulletin of the American Institute of Persian Art and Archaeology in July 1931, and the first issue was edited by Arthur Upham Pope, director of the Institute.

• GUEVREKIAN, GABRIEL

  Mina Marefat

  (b. Istanbul, 1900; d. 1970), Armenian avant-garde architect, an influential figure in the development of modern architecture in Persia, linking Persian architects with Europe’s pioneers of the modern movement.

• JABBĀRA

  P. Oberling

  a group of Shiʿite Arabs in Fārs province who, together with the Šaybāni, form the Arab tribe of the Ḵamsa tribal confederation.

• AFŠĀRĪ

  H. Farhat

  one of the 12 dastgāhs or modal systems of classical Iranian music.

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• ARVAND-RŪD

  M. Kasheff

  name given to the river Tigris in some passages in the Mid. Pers. books.

• BEḤĀR AL-ANWĀR

  Etan Kohlberg

  (Oceans of light) by Mollā Moḥammad-Bāqer b. Moḥammad-Taqī Majlesī (d. 1699 or 1700), an encyclopedic compilation in Arabic of Imamite traditions.

• ḎAḴĪRA-YE ḴᵛĀRAZMŠĀHĪ

  ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  early 13th-century Persian ency­clopedia of medical knowledge compiled by Sayyed Esmāʿīl b. Ḥosayn Jorjānī.

• FATĀWĪ-E ʿĀLAMGĪRĪ

  S. H. Qasemi

  abridged Persian translation by Qāżī Najm-al-Dīn Khan Kākorī of a six-volume Arabic work on Hanafite law (ed. Būlāq, 1859) considered the authoritative compendium of religious law, policy, and practice in India.

• EPISCOPAL

  Hassan B. Dehqani-Tafti

  a diocese of the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, one of thirty-seven independent churches of the worldwide Anglican Communion.

• KALEMĀT-E MAKNUNA

  Moojan Momen

• SASANIAN ROCK RELIEFS

  G. Herrmann and V. S. Curtis

  one of the primary sources for documentation of the Sasanian period.

• GANDĀPŪR

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  one of two Šērānī Pashtun/Paxtun tribal segments (the other being the Baḵtīār), who claim origin in southwestern Afghanistan.

• ḤOJJAT

  Maria Dakake

  (“proof or argument”), a term used as: (1) a line of argument in debate; (2) designation of the Shiʿite Imams;  (3) an epithet of the Twelfth Imam; (4) a high official in the Ismaʿili missionary activities

• ʿABD-AL-ṢAMAD ŠĪRĀZĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Painter, calligrapher, and Mughal courtier (16th century). He entered the service of Homāyūn at Kabul in 956/1549 and remained an important artistic and governmental figure under Akbar (963-1014/1556-1605).

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• AMĪR AṢLĀN KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See MAJD-AL-DAWLA.

• BĀḠ-E JAHĀNNĀMA

  cross-reference

  See SHIRAZ.

• CARRHAE

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  (Ḥarrān), town in Mesopotamia where in May 53 B.C. a decisive battle was fought between the Parthians commanded by a member of the Sūrēn family and the Romans under the triumvir M. Licinius Crassus.

• DRAGON

  Cross-Reference

  See AŽDAHĀ.

• EXEGESIS vi. In Aḵbārī and Post-Safavid Esoteric Shiʿism

  Todd Lawson

• LITHOGRAPHY ii. IN INDIA

  Olimpiada P. Shcheglova

  From the 19th century to the first decade of the 20th, India was at the hub of a great expansion in lithographic printing. Hundreds of lithographic printing houses flourished in India, and although books in Persian were only a part of their production, it was there that the largest number of Persian lithographed books was published.

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• GUZAŠTAG ABĀLIŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABĀLIŠ.

• JAHĀNŠĀH QARĀ QOYUNLU

  Cross-Reference

  See QARĀ QOYUNLU DYNASTY. Forthcoming.

• AGRA

  G. Hambly

  City and district center in the state of Uttar Pradesh in northern India, situated on the west bank of the river Jumna (Yamonā) approximately 125 miles south of Delhi.

• ASAGARTA

  W. Eilers

  an Iranian tribe of uncertain location.

• BELOVED

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (maʿšūq in Arabic and Persian), together with Lover (ʿāšeq) and Love (ʿešq), making the three concepts that dominate the semantic field of eroticism in Persian literature and mysticism.

• DĀNEŠ-SARĀ-YE ʿĀLĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See EDUCATION; TEACHERS' TRAINING.

• FĀŻEL TŪNĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN

  Hūšang Etteḥād

  (b. Tūn, 1871; d. Tehran, 1960), scholar and teacher of Islamic philosophy.

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• ERBEL

  Cross-Reference

  See ARBELA.

• PHILATELY vi. POSTAL HISTORY

  Mano Amarloui

  The postal service is a government institution whose very nature entails facilitating communication among its citizens, and between its citizens and those living in other countries.

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• MEDIA

  M. Dandamayev and I. Medvedskaya

  ancient population region (from the end of the 2nd millennium BCE) and kingdom in northwestern Iran.

• ḠARČESTĀN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  name of a region in early Islamic times, situated to the north of the upper Harīrūd and the Paropamisus range and on the head waters of the Moṟḡāb.

• ʿABDALLĀH B. ḴĀZEM

  D. M. Dunlop

  Arab military leader, governor of Khorasan (d. 691-92).

• AMMŌ, MĀR

  J. P. Asmussen

  Manichean apostle, outstanding figure in the missionary history of Manicheism during the 3rd century CE.

• BAHĀʾ-AL-DAWLA, ʿALĪ

  255, 255, 255

  B. MASʿŪD. See ʿALĪ B. MASʿŪD.

• ČĀV

  Peter Jackson

  paper currency issued in Mongol Iran in 693/1294.

• ḎU’L-RĪĀSATAYN, ḤĀJJ MĪRZĀ ʿABD-AL-ḤOSAYN MŪNES-ʿALĪŠĀH

  Hamid Algar

  (b. Shiraz, 1873, d. Tehran, 15 June 1953), for thirty years qoṭb (leader) of a principal branch of the Neʿmatallāhī Sufi order. 

• JAMŠID ii. In Persian Literature

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

• KHARG ISLAND

  D.T. Potts

  island in the Persian Gulf, situated at about 30 km northwest of Bandar-e Rig and 52 km northwest of Bušehr.

• HADRIAN

  Ernst Badian

  (Publius Aelius Hadrianus), Roman emperor 117-38. He abandoned the Parthian War and the provinces east of the Euphrates that had been instituted by Trajan but never securely held.

• JAM

  M. Reza Fariborz Hamzeh’ee

  name given to a religious ceremony performed among two important religious communities living traditionally in the same historical region on the Zagros Mountain chain.

• AḤMAD ʿALĪ HĀŠEMĪ SANDĪLAVĪ

  S. S. Alvi

   Indo-Persian litterateur (b. 1162/1748-49 in Sandila, a town near Lucknow; d. after 1224/1809).

• ASHKHABAD

  B. Spuler

  (Russian; Persian ʿEšqābād), since 1924 the capital of the Soviet Republic of Turkmenistan.

• BĒṮ ĀRAMAYĒ

  Michael Morony

  lit. “land of the Arameans,” the region and Sasanian province of Āsōristān (q.v.) in Iraq between the Jabal Ḥamrīn and Maysān.

• DĀRĀ ŠOKŌH

  Annemarie Schimmel

  (b. near Ajmer, 20 March 1615, d. Delhi, 12 August 1659), first son of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahān and his wife Momtāz Maḥall, religious thinker, mystic, poet, and author of a number of works in Persian.

• FLAGS

  Multiple Authors

  This article is meant to supplement earlier entries on Iranian vexillology (see ʿALAM VA ʿALĀMAT, BANNERS, and DERAFŠ).

• EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA, ĀQĀ KHAN NŪRĪ

  Abbas Amanat

  , MĪRZĀ (1807-1865), prime minister (ṣadr-e aʿẓam) of Persia (1851-58) under Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qajar. Though relatively young when he took office, he represented the old school of Qajar statecraft. His very appearance, with a long beard, ornamented robes, and lavish entourage, as well as his love of  titles, decorations and other emblems of power, and court protocol, all conjured up images of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah’s (d. 1834) era.

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• SWEDEN iv. Iranian Community

  Hassan Hosseini-Kaladjahi and Melissa Kelly

  formation of the Iranian community (immigration), demographic profile and geographic distribution, economic, social, cultural and political life, and finally, return to Iran or emigration to other countries.

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• SŪDGAR NASK and WARŠTMĀNSR NASK

  Yuhan Sohrab-Dinshaw Vevaina

  the first and second of three commentaries on the Old Avesta, extant in a Pahlavi resume in book nine of the Dēnkard, the third being the Bag nask.

• ḠAŻĀʾERĪ

  Etan Kohlberg

  nesba of two Imami authors and traditionists (10th-11th centuries).

• ḤOSAYN KHAN ŠĀMLU

  Roger M. Savory

  , b. ʿAbdi Beg Šāmlu (d. 1535), nephew of Shah Esmāʿil I, Safavid governor of Herat.

• ĀBEŠ ḴĀTŪN

  B. Spuler

   Salghurid ruler of Fārs (1263-84), daughter of Atābeg Saʿd II.

• ĀNANDRĀJ, FARHANG-E

  Cross-Reference

  Persian dictionary by Monšī Moḥammad Bādšāh, completed in 1306/1888. See FARHANG-E ĀNANDRĀJ.

• BAHMAN MĪRZĀ

  ʿA. Navāʾī

  (d. 1883-84), the fourth son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā and brother of Moḥammad Shah (r. 1834-48). Throughout his relatively long exile, he enjoyed the protection and support of the Czarist government.

• CENTRAL TREATY ORGANIZATION

  Joseph A. Kechichian

  (CENTO), a mutual defense and economic cooperation pact among Persia, Turkey, and Pakistan, with the participation of the United Kingdom and the United States as associate members.

• DVIN

  Erich Kettenhofen

  city in Armenia located north of Artaxata on the left bank of the Azat, about 35 km south of the present Armenian capital at Yerevan. It remained a significant center from the Sasanian period to the 13th century, and its pleasant climate was mentioned by many authors.

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• CROWN iii. On monuments from the Islamic conquest to the Mongol invasion

  Elsie H. Peck

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• PONTUS

  Brian McGing

  a Greek word meaning “sea,” generally taken in the ancient world to refer to the Black Sea— Pontos Euxeinos, or Axeinos (Strabo 1.2.10 C21).

• HAFTVĀD

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  (Haftwād), the hero of a legend associated with the rise of the Sasanian Ardašir I (r. 224-39). The Šāh-nāma gives his “strange story” (dāstān-e šegeft).

• JAMŠID (JAMSHID)

  Multiple Authors

  (or JAM), mythical king of Iran; Avestan Yima (Old Indic Yama), with the epithet xšaēta.

• AHRIŠWANG

  B. Schlerath

  a learned transcription of the Avestan nominative Ašiš vaŋuhī, the goddess “Good Recompense.”

• ASPABAD

  Cross-Reference

  or ASPAPAT. See ASPBED.

• BĪD

  Wilhelm Eilers, Hūšang Aʿlam

  common desig­nation in modern Persian for the genus Salix L., willow. Willow trees are found in all the Iranian lands, mainly along streams and canals.

• DARIC

  Michael Alram

  (Gk. dareikós statḗr), Achaemenid gold coin of ca. 8.4 gr, which was introduced by Darius I (r. 522-486 BCE) toward the end of the 6th century. The daric and the similar silver coin, the siglos (Gk. síglos medikós), represented the bimetallic monetary standard that the Achaemenids developed from that of the Lydians.

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• FICTION, ii(c)

  Jamāl Mīrṣādeqī

  ii(c). THE SHORT STORY. Historically, the modern Persian short story has undergone three stages of development: a formative period, a period of consolidation and growth, and a period of diversity.

• ESKANDAR BEG TORKAMĀN MONŠĪ

  Roger M. Savory

  sixteenth century author of Tārīḵ-e ʿālamārā-ye ʿabbāsī, a history of the reign of Shah ʿAbbās I.

• W~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the W entries

• SOFRA

  Mahmoud Omidslalar

  a piece of cloth that is spread on the floor, and on which dishes of food are placed at meal times.

• GELŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See GAYŌMART.

• HUMORS

  cross-reference

  See HUMORALISM.

• ABROCOMES

  M. Dandamayev

  a son of Darius I by Phrataguna, daughter of his brother Artanes.

• ANGAJĪ, ḤĀJJ MĪRZĀ ABŪ’L-ḤASAN

  H. Algar

  (1282-1357/1865-1939), a leading moǰtahed of Tabrīz, politically active during both the Constitutional Revolution and the reign of Reżā Shah.

• BAHRĀMŠĀH B. MASʿŪD (III)

  C. E. Bosworth

  B. EBRĀHĪM, ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR, Ghaznavid sultan in eastern Afghanistan and northwestern India (r. 1117-1157?).

• CHARITABLE FOUNDATIONS

  Maria Macuch; John R. Hinnells, Mary Boyce, and Shahrokh Shahrokh

  (MPers. ruwānagān lit. “relating to the soul”), pious endow­ments to benefit the souls of the dead, as specified by the individual founders.  i. In the Sasanian period.  ii. Among Zoroastrians in Islamic times.

• EBN ʿAYYĀŠ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM

  Daniel Gimaret

  b. Moḥammad Baṣrī, Muʿtazilite theologian (d. late 10th century), member of the so-called “school of Baṣra” and a partisan of the ideas of Abū Hāšem Jobbāʾī.

• GLASS INDUSTRY

  Willem Floor

  Glass making has been known and practiced in Iran for about 3,500 years. Until about 1930 local glass making was done in small craft workshops. The raw materials needed for glass production abound in Iran except for soda ash, but this input will also soon be entirely domestically produced.

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• ḤĀKEM BE-AMR-ALLĀH

  Farhad Daftary

  , ABU ʿALI MANṢUR, the sixth Fatimid caliph and sixteenth Ismaʿili Imam (r. 996-1021), arguably the most controversial member of the Fatimid dynasty.

• JAŠN

  cross-reference

  See GĀHANBĀR; FESTIVALS ii.

• AJMER

  F. Lehmann

  (Aǰmēr, from Skt. Ajayameru), a city in Rajasthan, western India, of great strategic, commercial, and cultural importance from the 6th/12th to the 12th/18th centuries.

• ĀŠTĀD

  G. Gnoli

  Old Iranian female deity of rectitude and justice.

• BĪRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  or BĪRĪTEKĪN. See BÖRI.

• DĀRYĀ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a Tehran morning daily of news and politics, published with a number of interruptions from May 1944 to March 1951.

• FISCAL SYSTEM i. ACHAEMENID, ii. SASANIAN

  Mohammad A. Dandamayev, Rika Gyselen

  There probably was no clear distinction between state and royal incomes in the Achaemenid empire. All state receipts were considered royal property, as was the income from the king’s estates. Beginning from ca. 519 B.C.E., when Darius I established a new tax system, the peoples subject to the Persians paid 7,740 Babylonian talents of silver (i.e., 232,200 kg) a year.

• ESMĀʿĪL KHAN ṢĪMQO

  Cross-Reference

  or SEMĪTQŪ. See ṢĪMQO.

• KASHMIR v. PERSIAN INFLUENCE ON KASHMIRI ART

  Mehrdad Shokoohy

  The Iranian influence on the art and architecture of Kashmir is indirect, appearing in ancient times via Hellenistic and Kushan culture and later through Muslim India. 

• MOḤAMMAD NĀDER SHAH

  May Schinasi

  (1883-1933), king of Afghanistan, first representative of the new Dorrāni dynasty.

• GEORGIEVSK, TREATY OF

  Cross-Reference

  See GEORGIA, iii.

• ʿID-E QORBĀN

  cross-reference

  See PILGRIMAGE. forthcoming online.

• ABŪ BAKR KALĀBĀḎĪ

  W. Madelung

  author of the well-known compendium of Sufism al-Taʿarrof le-maḏhab ahl al-taṣawwof.

• ANJOMAN-E KALĪMĪĀN

  A. Netzer

  (JEWISH ASSOCIATION), name given to the Jewish Association of Tehran in the 1930s, and to the Jewish Association of Iran since 1974.

• BAḴTĪĀRĪ MOUNTAINS

  E. Ehlers

  central part of the Zagros mountain range, more or less identical to the settlement area of the Baḵtīārī nomads.

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• CHORIENES

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  Sogdian nobleman and opponent of Alexander.

• EBN ḤAWŠAB, ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤASAN

  Heinz Halm

  b. Faraj (or Faraḥ) b. Ḥawšab b. Zāḏān Najjār Kūfī, known also as Manṣūr al-Yaman (d. 914), Ismaʿili dāʿī and founder of the Ismaʿili community in northern Yemen.

• WILLOW

  Cross-Reference

  See BĪD.

• SHIʿITE DOCTRINE

  Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi

  Shiʿite doctrine is usually considered to be based on five principles. However, to articulate matters of faith in such a manner seems reductionist and late.

• ḤAMĀVAND

  Pierre Oberling

  (from MOḤAMMADVAND), a Kurdish tribe of northeastern Iraq which has been described as “the most celebrated fighting tribe of southern Kurdistan.”

• JENN

  cross-reference

  See GENIE.

• AḴTAR newspaper

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  a Persian newspaper published in Istanbul, 1876 to 1895-96.

• ʿAṬĀʾ SAMARQANDĪ

  D. Pingree

  author of a set of astronomical tables for an unidentified prince of the Yuan dynasty of China, 1362-63.

• BOIR AḤMADĪ

  Reinhold Loeffler, Gernot L. Windfuhr

  the largest of the six tribal groups of Kūhgīlūya, inhabiting the mountainous territory from east of Behbahān and north of Dogonbadān to the Kūh-e Denā range in the northeast, an area of some 2,500 sq miles.

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• DASTJERDĀNĪ, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN

  David O. Morgan

  Il-khanid bureaucrat.

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN viii. Indology

  Bruce B. Lawerence

  Bīrūnī’s magnum opus in Indology is Ketāb taḥqīq mā le’l-Hend men maqūla maqbūla fi’l-ʿaql aw marḏūla (The book confirming what pertains to India, whether rational or despicable).

• ETHICS

  C.-H. de Fouchıcour

  a body of practical moral doctrine was elaborated as part of the earliest development of Persian literature, at which time considerable reflection was devoted to topics ranging from morals to ethics, from the exhortation not to harm one’s fellow creature to the search for the meaning of life.

• GREECE xv. Ancient Greek borrowings of Perisan herbs and plants of medicinal value

  Luigi Arata

• GĪĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  a Lori dialect. See GĪŌNĪ.

• INDIA

  Multiple Authors

  This series of entries covers Indian history and its relations with Iran.

• ABU’L-FATḤ KHAN ZAND

  H. Busse

  eldest son of Karīm Khan (Wakīl) of the Īnāq lineage of the Zand, b. 1169/1755-56.

• ANTONY, MARK

  M. L. Chaumont

  Roman general (ca. 82-30 B.C.) who led a campaign in Armenia during the Parthian period.

• BALḴĪ, ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿABD-ALLĀH AḤMAD

  cross-reference

  B. AḤMAD. See ABU’L-QĀSEM KAʿBĪ.

• CIRCESIUM

  Joseph Wieseh

  a Roman border fortress in Mesopotamia, on the spit of land formed where the Ḵābūr, the present-day al-Boṣayra, flows into the Euphrates (see maps in Kettenhofen).

• EBN NAWBAḴT, ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See NAWBAḴTĪ FAMILY.

• SPULER, Bertold

  Werner Ende, Bert Fragner, Dagmar Riedel

  (1911-1990), German scholar of East European history and Oriental studies.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ORANSKIĬ, IOSIF MIKHAILOVICH

  Ivan Steblin-Kamensky

  (1923-1977), prominent Soviet (Russian-Jewish) Iranologist.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤANẒALA BĀDḠISI

  François de Blois

  one of the earliest (possibly the earliest) Persian poets of whom we have any record.

• JONG

  David J. Roxburgh

  literary miscellany of Persian prose and poetry, and album of pictures and illustrations. Inventiveness in the production of jongs peaked in Persia in the 1400s and continued into the 1500s, when techniques such as découpage, gold-sprinkled, stenciled, and/or painted borders, and  colored inks or outline for calligraphy were introduced.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀL-E MOḤTĀJ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a local dynasty, most probably of Iranian origin but conceivably of Iranized Arab stock, who ruled in the principality of Čaḡānīān on the right bank of the upper Oxus in the basin of the Sorḵān river.

• ATROPATENE

  Cross-Reference

  See AZERBAIJAN.

• BONYĀD-E MOSTAŻʿAFĀN

  cross-reference

  See MOSTAZ­AFAN FOUNDATION.

• DAWLATĀBĀD

  Daniel Balland

  name of several localities in Afghanistan that have grown up around civil or military government buildings.

• ARMENIA and IRAN v. Accounts of Iran in Armenian sources

  M. Van Esbroeck

• EVĪN PRISON

  See Supplement.

• KUŠ-NĀMA

  Jalal Matini

  part of a mythical history of Iran written between 1108 and 1111, dealing with the eventful life of Kuš the Tusked.

• GINDAROS

  Erich Kettenhofen

  present-day Jendīres, a town in the ancient region of Cyrrhestike in Syria.

• INDO-IRANIAN LANGUAGES

  cross-reference

  See IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN MOJTAHED

  H. Algar

  (1121-1279/1806-63), member of a prominent family of Shiraz who led a turbulent life alternating between government service and the cultivation of religious knowledge in a manner unusual in Qajar Iran.

• ĀQĀ KHAN

  H. Algar

  title of the imams of the Nezārī Ismaʿilis since early 19th century.

• BANDAR

  W. Eilers

  “harbor, seaport; commercial town.” The concept of bandar probably continues an old Oriental tradition. Its double meaning of “harbor” on a river or a sea and “town, center of commerce and communications” (also in the inland) agrees well with that of Akkadian kārum.

• CLOUDS

  Eckart Ehlers

  Large tracts of central Persia and the adjacent arid plateaus of Afghanistan lie under cloudless skies for most of the year, which contributes to typical “conti­nental” climatic conditions.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ADHAM

  EIr

  b. Manṣūr b. Yazīd b. Jāber ʿEjlī (d. 777-78), prominent Sufi and ascetic of 8th century.

• LIGHTING EQUIPMENT AND HEATING FUEL

  Willem Floor

  Before the widespread use of electricity in Iran, the main illuminants were vegetable oils and animal fat.

• HĀRUT and MĀRUT

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  two fallen angels who taught mankind magic in Babylon, mentioned once in the Koran. Their names derive from the Zoroastrian Ḵordād and Amurdād, two of the Aməša Spəntas.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES

  Multiple Authors

   OF IRAN, one of the oldest Jewish populations in the Diaspora. 

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-MOLK

  Ḥ. Maḥbūbī Aardakānī

  son of Mīrzā ʿAlī Aṣḡar Mostawfī, governor and minister in the later Qajar period (1258-1344/1842-1925).

• AVROMANI

  D. N. MacKenzie

  the dialect of Avroman.

• BORZŪ-NĀMA (article 1)

  William L. Hanaway, Jr.

  an epic poem of ca. 65,000 lines recounting the exploits and adventures of the legendary hero Borzū, son of Sohrāb.

• DEATH (1)

  Mary Boyce

  AMONG ZOROASTRIANS

• FĀDŪSBĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀDŪSPĀN.

• QOM i. History to the Safavid Period

  Andreas Drechsler

  The present town of Qom in Central Iran dates back to ancient times. Its pre-Islamic history can be partially documented.

• GOL

  Hušang Aʿlam

  or gul; rose (Rosa L. spp.) and, by extension, flower, bloom, blossom.

• IRAN

  Multiple Authors

  The following sub-entries will provide an overview of the unifying factors which constitute Iran through time and across space, while also showing the complexity and heterogeneity of the components of Iranian culture.

• ABŪ MANṢŪR ṬŪSĪ

  D. Pingree

  mathematician.

• ARABIAN SEA

  Cross-Reference

  See OMAN, SEA OF.

• BANŪ SĀJ

  W. Madelung

  a family named after its ancestor Abu’l-Sāj which served the ʿAbbasid caliphate (9tth-10th centuries).

• COMMAGENE

  Michael Weiskopf

  the portion of southwestern Asia Minor (modern Turkey) bordered on the east by the Euphrates river, on the west by the Taurus mountains, and on the south by the plains of northern Syria. It was part of the Achaemenid empire and its successor kingdoms and did not achieve status as an independent kingdom until the mid-2nd century B.C.E.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿEBRAT

  EIr

  a monthly magazine first published on 4 February 1956 as the organ of Tūda party prisoners under the auspices and with the facilities of the Office of Tehran’s Military Governor, General Teymūr Baḵtīār.

• TIŠTRYA

  Antonio Panaino

  (Pahl. Tištar, NPers. Teštar), an important Old Iranian astral divine being (yazata-), to whom the eighth hymn (Tištar Yašt) of the Later Avestan corpus was dedicated (Panaino, 1990).

• HAŠT BEHEŠT (2)

  Michele Bernardini

  (lit: “the Eight Heavens, the Eight paradises”), a cosmological concept used on several occasions as the title of literary works, or as the name of a particular architectural form in Persian, Turkish, and Indian contexts.

• JUYBĀRIS

  R. D. McChesney

  prominent Bukharan family dynasty, whose leading social position lasted more than 500 years.

• ALESSANDRI

  A. M. Piemontese

  (d. after 1595), Venetian secretary and diplomat, author of an important report on Safavid Persia.

• ĀYANDA

  Ī. Afšār

  Persian journal which began publication in Tīr, 1304 Š./June-July, 1925, under the editorship of its founder, Maḥmūd Afšār (1893-1983).

• BRASS

  cross-reference

  See BERENJ.

• DELBARJĪN

  Paul Bernard

  urban site 40 km northwest of Balḵ, on the northern limit of an oasis irrigated by the Balḵāb, near a defensive wall built during the Greek period (ca 329-130 BCE) to protect the oasis. The earliest stage of the citadel may date from the Achaemenid period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BOUNDARIES iv. With Iraq

  Joseph A. Kechichian

  In 1921, Iraq became a state under British mandate, inheriting the old Ottoman dispute with Iran over the Šaṭṭ al-ʿArab. Relations between Iran and Iraq were thus strained from the beginning.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FALLĀḤ, REŻĀ

  Bāqer ʿĀqelī and EIr

  (b. Kāšān, 1910; d. London, 1981), deputy manager of the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC; Šerkat-e mellī-e naft-e Īrān), in charge of international relations and marketing.

• ARJOMAND, Ḵalil

  Rava Azeredo da Silveira

  (1910-1944), mechanical and electrical engineer, inventor, and industrialist.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLESTĀN PALACE

  Cross-Reference

  See KĀḴ-E GOLESTĀN.

• ABU’L-QĀSEM KERMĀNĪ

  D. Pingree

  Author of a Ketāb fī oṣūl al-aḥkām (“Book concerning the foundations of astrological judgments”).

• ARBĀYISTĀN

  G. Widengren

  name of a Mesopotamian province in the Sasanian empire.

• BARBERRY

  EIr

  (zerešk; Berberis spp., family Berberidaceae). Species of this genus are found in the northern, eastern, and southeastern highlands of Iran.

• COON, CARLETON STEVENS

  Robert H. Dyson, Jr.

  (b. Wakefield, Massa­chusetts, 23 June 1904, d. Gloucester, Massachusetts, 4 June 1981), American anthropologist and educator.

• CYPRUS in the Achaemenid Period

  Antigone Zournatzi

  The kings of the southeastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus reportedly submitted willingly to Cyrus II and offered military assistance to the Persians in their campaigns against Caria and Babylon (539 BCE).

• FOREIGN AFFAIRS

  Willem Floor

  administration and ministry of foreign affairs.

• HAZĀRA

  Arash Khazeni, Alessandro Monsutti, Charles M. Kieffer

  the third largest ethnic group of Afghanistan, after the Pashtuns and the Tājiks, who represent nearly a fifth of the total population. OVERVIEW of article: i. Historical geography of Hazārajāt, ii. History, iii. Ethnography and social organization, iv. Hazāragi dialect.

• ĀB-E GARM

  E. Ehlers

  “warm water.” Hot springs and mineral springs in Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĪ B. MOḤAMMAD B. ABĪ ṬĀHER

  cross-reference

  See ABŪ ṬĀHER.

• ʿAZĀDĀRĪ

  J. Calmard

  to hold a commemoration of the dead, by extension, mourning, a word deriving from Arabic ʿazāʾ, which means commemorating the dead.

• BŪF

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  owl, commonly called joḡd. Eleven species, from two families, occur in Iran.

• DERAFŠ

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  lit. “banner, standard, flag, emblem,” in ancient Iran. In the Avesta Bactria “with tall banners,”  a fluttering “bull banner,” and enemy banners are mentioned. In the Achaemenid period each Persian army division had its own standard (Herodotus, 9.59), and “all officers had banners over their tents"  (Xenophon, Cyropaedia 8.5.13). 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EMMERICK, RONALD ERIC

  Mauro Maggi

  (1937-2001), distinguished Australian scholar of the ancient civilizations and languages of Iran, India, and Tibet.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLSORḴI, ḴOSROW

  Maziar Behrooz

  (1943-1974), poet and revolutionary figure whose defiant stand during his televised show trial, and subsequent execution by firing squad in 1974, enshrined his place in the cultural and political history of modern Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRANIAN IDENTITY v. POST-REVOLUTIONARY ERA

  Cross-Reference

  Forthcoming online.

• ABŪ ŠOJĀʿ EṢFAHĀNĪ

  H. Halm

  (434-500/1042-43 to 1106, Shafeʿite jurist. 

• ARDESTĀN

  X. De Planhol, R. Hillenbrand

  a town of central Iran between Kāšān and Nāʾīn.

• BĀRMĀN

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the son of Vīsa, one of the Turanian heroes mentioned in the Šāh-nāma as a member of the army that Afrāsīāb led into Iran during the reign of Nowḏar.

• ČOVĀRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See LORESTĀN.

• EḤTĪĀJ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  weekly newspaper published in Tabrīz by ʿAlīqolī Khan Tabrīzī, known as Ṣafarov, who had distributed political šab-nāmas (lit. "night letters") in 1892.

• MAKRĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  (also Mokrān) the coastal region of Baluchistan, extending from the Somniani Bay to the northwest of Karachi in the east westwards to the fringes of the region of Bashkardia/Bāšgerd in the southern part of the Sistān and Balučestān province of modern Iran.

• ʿADL, MOṢṬAFĀ

  Bāqer ʿĀqeli

  jurist, professor of law, diplomat, minister and senator, known by the title Manṣur-al-Salṭana (1882–1950). 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HEDAYAT, SADEQ v. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

  EIr

• ʿABBĀD B. SALMĀN

  W. Madelung

  (or SOLAYMĀN), Muʿtazilite theologian of the 3rd/9th century.

• ʿALĪ KHAN ḤĀJEB-AL-DAWLA

  H. Busse

  Qajar official (1222-84/1807-08 to 1867).

• ʿAẒĪMĀBĀD

  Q. Ahmad

  (Patna), ancient Pataliputra, present capital of Bihar state in northeast India.

• BŪZĪNA

  Maḥmūd Omīdsālār

  monkeys. Other names: meymūn (common), ʿantar (vulgar), kappī (Mid. Pers. kabīg, from Indian kapi). Two myths of the creation of monkeys exist in the Zoroastrian literature.

• DEŽ Ī NEBEŠT

  Mansour Shaki

  (Mid. Pers. diz ī nibišt “fortress of archives,” lit. “writing”), supposedly one of two repositories in which copies of the Avesta and its exegesis (zand) were deposited for safekeeping.

• CHINESE TURKESTAN viii. Turkish-Iranian Language Contacts

  Gerhard Doerfer

• MOLLA NASREDDIN ii. POLITICAL AND SOCIAL WEEKLY

  Hasan Javadi

  a political and social weekly in Azeri Turkish (1906-31, with interruptions), with tremendous impact on the course of journalism and development of ideas.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GORGĀN iii. Population

  Ḥabib-Allāh Zanjāni

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISAAC

  Sebastian Brock

  bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon and Catholicos of the Church of the East (399-410). Isaac is said to have come from Kashgar.

• ABŪZAYDĀBĀDĪ

  E. Yarshater

  (Būzābādī for short), a variety of the local dialects of Kāšān province, spoken in the village of Abūzaydābād and its farms, and belonging to the Central or Median group of Iranian dialects.

• ARIOBARZANES

  M. A. Dandamayev, A. Sh. Shahbazi, P. Lecoq

  Greek form of an Old Iranian proper name.

• BĀŠGĀH-E MEHRAGĀN

  Ḥ. Maḥmūdī

  (Mehragān Club), an organization of the Iran Teachers Association open to teachers, students, and other in­tellectuals in Tehran and eventually in the provinces, 1952-62.

• CULTURE

  Cross-Reference

  See FARHANG.

• FARḠĀNĪ, EMĀM-AL-ḤARAMAYN SERĀJ-Al-DĪN ABU’L-MOḤAMMAD ʿALĪ

  Sayyāra Mahīnfar

  b. ʿOṯmān Ūšī or Ūsī (d. 1173), oṣūlī jurist (faqīh), traditionist, and author.

• ELEMENTS

  Mansour Shaki

  i. In Zoroastrianism. ii. In Manicheism. iii. In Persian.

• NEMRUD DAĞI

  Bruno Jacobs

  mountain (elev. 2,150 m) in the Anti-Taurus range, Adıyaman province, Turkey, and site of the tomb sanctuary of King Antiochus I of Commagene (ca. 69-36 BCE).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAILEY, HAROLD WALTER

  John Sheldon

  (1899-1996), one of the greatest scholars in the field of the comparative study of Iranian languages, especially notable for much ground-breaking work on the Middle Iranian Saka language of Khotan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FREEMASONRY

  Multiple Authors

  This famous fraternal order, bound by rituals and secret oaths, was introduced to Persia and adopted by Persian notables in the 19th century. It developed in the early 20th century and burgeoned in the period from 1950-78. Its practice still continues among some middle- and upper-class Persians in exile at the turn of the 21st century.  The topic will be treated in five entries.

• HEMIN MOKRIĀNI

  Joyce Blau

  the pen name of Sayyed Moḥammad Amini Šayḵ-al-Eslām Mokri, Kurdish poet and journalist (1921-1986).

• ʿABD-AL-BĀQĪ NAHĀVANDĪ

  Hameed ud-Din

  Mughal noble and biographer.

• ʿALĪŠĀH, TĀJ-AL-DĪN

  B. Spuler

  vizier of the two Il-khans Ölǰeytü (r. 703-17/1304-16) and Abū Saʿīd (r. 717-36/1317-35).

• BĀBĀ ḤĀTEM

  A. S. Melikian-Chirvani

  11th-century mausoleum in northern Afghanistan, some 40 miles west of Balḵ. It follows the simple plan of the earliest Islamic mausoleums in the Iranian world—a single square room with a cupola resting on squinches.

• ČAHĀR ONṢOR

  Sharif Husain Qasemi

  (Four elements), an autobiographical work in prose by the poet and Sufi Abu’l-Maʿānī Mīrzā ʿAbd-al-Qāder Bīdel.

• DIMLĪ

  Garnik S. Asatrian

  or Zāzā; the indigenous name of an Iranian people living mainly in eastern Anatolia, in the Dersim region (present-day Tunceli) between Erzincan in the north and the Muratsu in the south, the far western part of historical Upper Armenia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḴERQA

  Erik S. Ohlander

  term for the tattered cloak, robe, or overshirt traditionally worn by the Sufis as a symbol of wayfaring on the mystical path.

• GOWHAR

  Nasereddin Parvin

  a cultural journal published monthly from January 1973 to December 1978 (issue no. 72) of the philanthropic organization of Mortażā Nuriāni.

• ĀDAMĪYAT

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  (“Humanity”), name of two Iranian periodicals.

• ARSANJĀNĪ, ḤASAN

  F. Azimi

  journalist and politician (1922-69).

• BAYĀT-E EṢFAHĀN

  M. Caton

  or ĀVĀZ-e EṢFAHĀN, a musical system based on a specific collection of modal pieces (gūšahā) which are performed in a particular order.

• DABESTĀN JOURNAL

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (“school”), Persian monthly cultural journal published in Mašhad, 1922-27. 

• FARĪD-AL-DĪN, ABŪ’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ ŠARVĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See FAHHĀD.

• EMĀM

  Cross-Reference

  (Imam), see SHIʿITE DOCTRINE; ČAHĀRDAH MAʿSŪM.

• KĀŠEF-AL-ḠEṬĀʾ, MOḤAMMAD ḤOSAYN

  Hamid Algar

  (1877-1954), descendant of the great Shiʿite jurist of the early Qajar period, Sheikh Jaʿfar Kāšef-al-Ḡeṭāʾ, prodigious and versatile author, teacher, and lecturer.

• ḴALAF B. AḤMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Moḥammad, Abu Aḥmad (d. 1009), Amir in Sistān of the “second line” of Saffarids, who ruled between 963 and 1003.

• ḠAṢB

  concept in Shiʿite law, meaning usurpation or unlawful seizure. See Supplement.

• HERMITAGE MUSEUM

  B. I. Marshak and A. B. Nikitin, Anatol Ivanov

  The State Hermitage Museum of St. Petersburg, Russia, possesses some of the richest collections of Persian art.

• HAWK

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀZ.

• AMAHRASPAND

  Cross-Reference

  See AMƎŠA SPƎNTA.

• BABR-E BAYĀN

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  (or babr, also called palangīna), in the traditional history, the name of the coat which Rostam wore in combat.

• DĪVĀNĪ, ḴAṬṬ-E

  Cross-Reference

  See CALLIGRAPHY.

• ISMAʿILISM xii. ISMAʿILI HADITH

  Cross-Reference

  See HADITH iii.

• ĀDUR-BŌZĒD

  A. Tafażżolī

  a Sasanian mobad of mobads (mowbedān mowbed) or high priest.

• ARTABANUS

  K. Schippmann

  name borne by several Arsacid kings.

• BAZAG

  Cross-Reference

  “toilette.” See COSMETICS.

• DADYSETH AGIARY

  Mary Boyce and Firoze M. Kotwal

  in 1771 C.E. Dadibhai Noshirwanji Dadyseth established an agiary (see ātaškada) with an Ādarān fire for the sake of the soul of his first wife, Kunverbai, in the Fort district of Bombay.

• FARROḴ KHAN KĀŠĪ, AMĪN-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪN-AL-DAWLA, ABŪ ṬĀLEB FARROḴ KHAN.

• EN ISLAM IRANIEN, ASPECTS SPIRITUELS ET PHILOSOPHIQUES

  Daryush Shayegan

  (4 vols., Paris, 1971-73), the magnum opus of Henry Corbin, consisting of essays summarizing most of the major themes that defined his scholarly career and revealing his intellectual grasp of Persian philosophical thought.

• NAJM-E ṮĀNI

  Michel M. Mazzaoui

  (d. 918/1512), the third holder of the office of wakil-e nafs-e nafis-e Homāyun under Shah Esmāʿil Ṣafawi, the representative of the Shah both in his religious and in his political capacity.

• GAČSAR

  Minu Yusof Nezhad

  a village in the Karaj district, situated at an altitude of 2,210 m at 110 km northwest of Tehran and 7 km south of the Kandavān Tunnel on the main road to the Caspian coast.

• ḤEṢĀR, TEPE

  Cross-Reference

  (Tappa Ḥeṣār), prehistoric site located just south of Dāmḡān in northeastern Persia. See TEPE HISSAR.

• ʿABD-AL-QODDŪS GANGŌHĪ

  B. B. Lawrence

  Indo-Muslim saint and litterateur (d. 1537).

• AMESTRIS

  R. Schmitt

  Greek form of an Old Persian female proper name.

• BADĀYEʿNEGĀR, ĀQĀ MOḤAMMAD-EBRĀHĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See NAWWĀB-E TEHRĀNĪ.

• ČANG

  Ḥosayn-ʿAlī Mallāḥ

  “harp," a musical instrument of the free-stringed family.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DOLGORUKOV MEMOIRS

  Moojan Momen

  document published under the title Eʿterāfāt-e sīāsī yā yāddāšthā-ye Kenyāz Dolqorūkī (Political confessions or memoirs of Prince Dolgorukov) in the historical portion of the “Khorasan yearbook,” issued in Mašhad in 1943.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS x. Court poetry

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

• ZOROASTER iii. ZOROASTER IN THE AVESTA

  Manfred Hutter

• GRÜNWEDEL, ALBERT

  Werner Sundermann

  (b. Munich, 1856; d. Lenggries, 1935), prominent German Indologist, Tibetologist, art scholar, and archeologist.

• IVORY

  Oscar White Muscarella

  AND ITS USE IN PRE-ISLAMIC IRAN. Prior to the 1st millennium BCE ivories are not commonly documented from excavations in Iran.

• ĀFRĪNAGĀN

  M. F. Kanga

  a term for one of the outer Zoroastrian liturgical services.

• ARUKKU

  M. Dandamayev

  a son of Cyrus I, king of Parsumaš and grandfather of Cyrus the Great.

• BEGRĀM

  Martha L. Carter

  the site of ancient Kāpiśa, located 80.5 km north of Kabul overlooking the Panjšīr valley at the confluence of the Panjšīr and Ḡorband rivers.

• DAJJĀL

  Hamid Algar

  lit. "the great deceiver"; in Islamic tradition the maleficent figure gifted with supernatural powers whose advent and brief, though quasi-universal, rule will be among the signs heralding the approach of the resurrection.

• FAṢD

  Cross-Reference

  See BLOODLETTING.

• EPICS

  François de Blois

  narrative poems of legendary and heroic content.

• EY IRĀN

  Morteza Hoseyni Dehkordi and Parvin Loloi

• REICHELT, HANS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (1877 -1939), Austrian scholar of Indo-European and Iranian studies.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GAMBRA

  Cross-Reference

  See BANDAR-e ʿABBĀS(Ī).

• HODIVALA, SHAHPURSHAH HORMASJI DINSHAHJI

  Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa

  (d. 1944), professor of literature, history, and political economy,  best known for his works on Parsi history and on numismatics.

• ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ KHAN

  M. Bayat

  (d. 1249/1833), deputy-governor and powerful noble of Yazd.

• AMĪNĀ QAZVĪNĪ

  Hameed ud-Din

  also known as MĪRZĀ AMĪNA or AMĪNA-YE MONŠĪ, Mughal historian and poet of Shah Jahān’s reign.

• BĀḠ (BAGH)

  Multiple Authors

  “garden.”  In Iranian agriculture, the word bāḡ means, more precisely, an enclosed area bearing permanent cultures— all kinds of cultivated trees and shrubs, as opposed to fields under annual crops.

• CARMELITES IN PERSIA

  Francis Richard

  in 1604 Pope Clement VIII, with the support of Sigismund III Vasa of Poland, dispatched a mission of Discalced Carmelite fathers to Persia; the embassy represented the culmination of a policy of seeking alliances against the Ottoman empire that had been initiated by Pius V when he had attempted to formalize relations with Shah Ṭahmāsb.

• DŌST MOḤAMMAD KHAN

  Amin H. Tarzi

  (b. Qandahār December 1792, d. Herat, 9 June 1863), first ruler of the Bārakzay/Moḥammadzay dynasty of Afghanistan. He was the first to bring the region that today constitutes Afghanistan under the control, occasionally tenuous, of a single central government.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ESCHATOLOGY iii. Imami Shiʿism

  M. A. Amir-Moezzi

• ḴOSROW I i. LIFE AND TIMES

  Multiple Authors

  Sasanian king (r. 531-579). i. Life and Times (forthcoming).

• GUSFAND

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  sheep, ovine.

• JAHĀNGIR

  Lisa Balabanlilar

  the fourth Mughal emperor, the first of his dynasty to have been born in India (1569-1627).

• AGATHANGELOS

  R. W. Thomson

  (Greek for “messenger of good news”), the supposed author of a History of the Armenians, which describes the conversion of King Trdat of Armenia to Christianity at the beginning of the 4th century CE.

• ĀṢAF-AL-DAWLA, ʿABD-AL-WAHHĀB

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• BELGIAN-IRANIAN RELATIONS

  Annette Destrée

  Official diplomatic relations between Belgium and Iran date from the end of the nineteenth century.

• FAYŻĪ, ABU’L-FAYŻ

  Munibur Rahman

  (b. Agra, 1547; d. Lahore, 1595), Mughal court poet, also known as Fayżī Fayyāżī, who wrote mainly in Persian.

• ĒRĀN-XWARRAH-ŠĀBUHR

  Rika Gyselen

  lit. "Ērān, glory of Šāpūr"; Sasanian province (šahrestān) containing Susa and probably created by Šāpūr II (r. 309-379).

• MOJMAL al-TAWĀRIḴ wa’l-QEṢAṢ

  Siegfried Weber and Dagmar Riedel

  an anonymous chronicle from the 12th century in the Persian tradition of literary historiography.

• LYSANDER

  Ernst Badian

  (ca. 454-395 BCE), Spartan commander and politician.

• GANZAK

  Mary Boyce

  a town of Achaemenid foundation in Azerbaijan. The name means “treasury” and is a Median form (against Pers. gazn-), adopted in Persian administrative use.

• HORMOZĀN

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  one of the last military leaders of Sasanian Persia, a member of one of the seven great families of Sasanian Persia (d. 644).

• ʿABDALLĀH B. AḤMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See EBN AL-BAYṬĀR.

• ʿĀMMA

  E. Kohlberg

  (pl. ʿawāmm), a common Emāmī Shiʿite appellation for the Sunnites. 

• BAGRATIDS

  C. Toumanoff

  possibly the most important princely dynasty of Caucasia (Bagratuni in Armenia, Bagrationi in Georgia), attaining to the kingly status in the ninth century and retaining it in Georgia to the 19th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ČATR

  Eleanor Sims

  parasol or umbrella, an attribute of royalty in Iran.

• CENSUS ii. In Afghanistan

  Daniel Balland

  The first national census of Afghanistan was not conducted until 1979, but the idea of such a survey had  already taken root  in the reign of Šēr-ʿAlī Khan (r. 1868-79), when gradual suppression of tax farming in favor of direct collection of taxes by government officials made it imperative for the administration to know the number of taxable households.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KASHTARITI

  M. Dandamayev

  (kaš-ta-ri-ti, Old Iranian Khshathrita), a city lord of Karkashshi in the Central Zagros mountains. during the reign of the Assyrian king Esarhaddon (680–669 BCE).

• HADITH ii. IN SHIʿISM

  A. Kazemi-Moussavi

  The Twelver Shiʿite conception of Hadith is generally in line with that of the Sunnites as discussed in Section i. However, Hadith about the Imams are authoritative as well.

• JALILAVAND

  Pierre Oberling

  a small Laki-speaking tribe inhabiting the Kermānšāh and Lorestān regions, most of whom belong to the Ahl-e Haqq sect.

• AḤMAD B. ʿOMAR B. SORAYJ

  T. Nagel

  Shafeʿite author from Shiraz (249/863-306/918-19)/

• ASFĀR AL-ARBAʿA

  F. Rahman

  (The four journeys), title of the magnum opus of Mollā Ṣadrā (d. 1050/1641).

• BESṬĀMĪ family

  Richard W. Bulliet

  leading family among the Shafeʿites of Nīšāpūr from the late 4th/10th through the early 6th/12th century.

• TURKEY

  Cross-Reference

  See BŪQALAMŪN.

• FERDOWSĪ MAGAZINE

  Esmail Nooriala

  the name of two periodicals, a bi-monthly and a weekly magazine published in Tehran.

• ESTRĀBĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See ASTARĀBĀD.

• RUDBĀR

  Marcel Bazin and Christian Bromberger

  town and district in southwestern Gilān (q.v.). Rudbār is located on both banks of the Safidrud river at lat 36°51′ N, long 49°25′ E, at an average altitude of 300 m.

• BHOWNAGGREE, Mancherjee Merwanjee

  John McLeod

  , Sir, Parsi statesman (1851-1933). His ancestors were from the principality of Bhāvnagar in Gujarat, whence his surname originates.

• GAZ (2)

  Minu Yusofnezhad

  or Jaz; a town in the province of Isfahan, of the šahrestān of Barḵᵛār and Mayma, situated 18 km north of the city of Isfahan at an altitude of 1,578 m above sea level.

• ḤOSAYN BĀYQARĀ

  Hans R. Roemer

  the common designation for Sultan Abu’l-Ḡāzi Ḥosayn Mirzā b. Manṣur b. Bāyqarā, the last Timurid ruler of major importance in Khorasan (r. 1469-70 and 1470-1506).

• ʿABDĪ NĪŠĀPŪRĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  16th-century calligrapher and poet.

• ANA’L-ḤAQQ

  A. Schimmel

  “I am the Truth,” the most famous of the Sufi šaṭḥīyāt (ecstatic utterances, or paradoxes).

• BAHMAN “avalanche"

  cross-reference

  See BARF.

• CENSORSHIP

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak

  (sānsūr) in Persia; censorship has been exercised in most societies, including Persia, by the religious establishment, by the political authority, and by unofficial groups.

• DŪST MOḤAMMAD KHAN BĀRAKZĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See DŌST MOḤAMMAD KHAN.

• SHADMAN, Sayyed Fakhr-al-Din

  Ali Gheissari

  (1907-1967), cultural critic and writer of fiction, professor of history, civil servant, and cabinet minister.

• OUSELEY, Gore

  Peter Avery and EIr

  (1770-1884), entrepreneur, diplomat, and orientalist.

• HAFT TEPE

  Ezat O. Negahban

  large Elamite archeological site in Ḵūzestān province, in the southwestern alluvial plains of Persia, about 10 km southeast of Susa and 60 km south of Andīmešk.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĀMI RUMI

  OSMAN G. ÖZGÜDENLI

  (or Jāmi Meṣri), AḤMAD, Ottoman official, poet, and translator (fl. 10th/16th century).

• AḤMADPURĪ, GOL MOḤAMMAD

  K. A. Nizami

  (d. 1243/1827), a Panjabi saint and Češtī hagiographer.

• AŚOKA

  J. G. De Casparis, G. Fussman, P. O. Skj

   Mauryan emperor of India (ca. 272-231 B.C.).

• BIBLE

  Multiple Authors

  This series of articles covers various aspects of the Bible, as pertaining to Iran and Iranian lands.

• DARGĀHQOLĪ KHAN ḎU’L-QADR

  M. Saleem Akhtar

  also known as Moʿtaman-al-Dawla Moʿtaman-al-Molk Sālār-Jang Ḵān-e Dawrān Nawwāb (b. Sangamnēr, Deccan, 1710, d. Awrangābād, 22 October 1766), Persian official at Hyderabad and Awrangābād, best known for his description of Delhi.

• FEYLĪ DIALECT

  Cross-Reference

  See LORĪ.

• ESKĀFI, ABŪ ḤANĪFA

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  11th century Persian poet, mentioned among the court poets of Ḡazna.

• KĀŠI

  Cross-Reference

  and Kāšisāzi. See CERAMICS xiv. THE ISLAMIC PERIOD, 11TH-15TH CENTURIES.

• QALʿA-YE DOḴTAR

  Dietrich Huff

  fortress with a palace of royal dimensions, built by the founder of the Sasanian empire, Ardašir I  (q.v.) before his decisive victory against the last Parthian king in 224 CE.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GEIGER, WILHELM

  Bernfried Schlerath

  (b. Nuremberg, 1856; d. Neubiberg, 1943), German scholar of Iranian and Indian philology.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HUMAN RIGHTS

  cross-reference

  See Supplement.

• ABRĀZ

  C. J. Brunner

  Middle Persian “high, superior, height,” old Iranian *uparyānk- “above, high.”

• ANDĪMEŠK

  X. De Planhol

  (also ANDĀMEŠ, ANDĀLMEŠK), the name of medieval Dezfūl.

• BAHRĀM MĪRZĀ, MOʿEZZ-AL-DAWLA

  ʿA. Navāʾī

  (d. 1882), second son of the crown prince ʿAbbās Mīrzā, minor figure in military affairs and administration.

• CHARAX

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  town in the Seleucid and Parthian province of Rhagiana, the area around modern Ray.

• EBN AL-ʿARABĪ, MOḤYĪ-al-DĪN Abū ʿAbd-Allāh Moḥammad Ṭāʾī Ḥātemī

  William C. Chittick

  (b. 28 July 1165; d. 10 November 1240), the most influential Sufi author of later Islamic history, known to his supporters as al-Šayḵ al-akbar, “the Greatest Master.”

• SANJANA, Darab Dastur Peshotan

  Michael Stausberg

  (1857-1931), Zoroastrian head-priest and scholar.

• LAWḤ

  M. Momen and B. T. Lawson

  (tablet), a term used distinctively in the Bahai writings as part of the title of individual compositions of Bahāʾ-Allāh (q.v.) addressed to individuals or groups of individuals.

• ḤĀJJ SAYYĀḤ

  Ali Ferdowsi

  , Mirzā Moḥammad ʿAli Maḥallāti (ca. 1836-1925), constitutionalist and human rights activist, the first modern Persian to tour the world and the first to become a naturalized U.S. citizen. He was among the first Persians to  actively pursued democratic political reforms in Persia, and he wrote the first modernist Persian book of travels and the first modern prison notebook in Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JARQUYA i. The District

  Habib Borjian

  Separated from Isfahan by the Šāhkuh range, Jarquya spreads over 6,500 km², stretching in a northwest-southeast direction to the wasteland that separates it from Abarquh.

• ʿAJAMĪ

  A. A. Kalantarian

  6th/12th century architect under the Eldigüzid atabegs, founder of the Nakhchevan architectural school.

• ASSASSINS

  Cross-Reference

  (Ar. Ḥaššāšin), pejorative name given to Neẓāri Ismaʿilis by their adversaries during the Middle Ages. See ISMAʿILISM iii. History.

• BĪNEŠ KAŠMĪRĪ, ESMĀʿĪL

  N. H. Ansari

  Persian poet of India in the 17th century. He left six maṯnawīs and a dīvān of ḡazals and qaṣīdas.

• DARVĪŠ ʿALĪ BŪZJĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See BŪZJĀNĪ.

• FĪRŪZA

  Cross-reference

  See TURQUOISE.

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. Yasār NESĀʾĪ

  Kevin Lacey

  an eighth century poet of Persian origin from Medina.

• ʿID-E FEṬR

  cross-reference

  See FASTING.

• ABŪ ʿAWN

  R. W. Bulliet

  a distinguished ʿAbbasid general, twice governor of Egypt and once of Khorasan.

• ANJOMAN

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  a newspaper published in Tabrīz in Raǰab 1325/February-March 1907 by the Anǰoman-e Mellī of Tabrīz, which had previously published Rūz-nāma-ye mellī and Jarīda-ye mellī.

• BAḴTĪĀR, ABŪ ḤARB

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  B. MOḤAMMAD, the patron of the poet Manūčehrī (d. 1040-41) who praised his bravery, nobility, magnanimity, learning, and eloquence.

• CHOBANIDS

  Charles Melville and ʿAbbās Zaryāb

  a fam­ily of Mongol origin descended from the amir Čobān Noyan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EBN FONDOQ

  Cross-Reference

  See BAYHAQĪ, ẒAHĪR-AL-DĪN.

• ROSE WATER

  Cross-Reference

  See GOLĀB.

• SAIIDO NASAFI, MIROBID

  Keith Hitchins

  (Mir ʿĀbed Sayyedā Nasafi), Tajik poet (d. Bukhara, between 1707 and 1711).

• HAMADĀNI, ABU YAʿQUB YUSOF

  cross-reference

  See ABU YAʿQUB HAMADĀNI.

• JELWA, KETĀB AL-

  Philip Kreyenbroek

  (Kurd. Kitēba jilwe “the Book of splendor”), title of a notional sacred text in Yazidism.

• AḴSĪKAṮ

  C. E. Bosworth

  in early medieval times the capital of the then still Iranian province of Farḡāna.

• ASTYAGES

  R. Schmitt

  the last Median king.

• BOḠRĀ KHAN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  , ABŪ MŪSĀ HĀRŪN, the first Qarakhanid khan to invade the Samanid emirate from the steppes to the north in the 990s.

• DASTGĀH

  Jean During

  modal system in Persian music, representing a level of organization at which a certain number of melodic types (gūšas) are regrouped and ordered in relation to a dominant mode (māya).

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN ii. Bibliography

  David Pingree

  Ca. 1035-36 Bīrūnī wrote a Resāla fī fehrest kotob Moḥammad b. Zakarīyāʾ al-Rāzī in two parts, the first devoted to Rāzī and his works, the second to the books that he himself had authored up to that time.

• EŠTEHĀRDĪ

  Gernot L. Windfuhr

  the easternmost of the nine Southern Tati (Tātī) dialects and sharing with the others most phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical features. These are part of a band of dialects extending from the Aras River to central Persia and farther east.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• PREHISTORY OF IRAN: ARTIFICIAL CRANIAL MODIFICATIONS

  Aurelie Daems and Karina Croucher

  Cranial modification is caused during infancy through the shaping of a baby’s head whilst it is still malleable. Such shaping can be caused by both intentional and unintentional means.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GHIRSHMAN, ROMAN

  Laurianne Martinez-Sève

  (b. Kharkov, 1895; d. Budapest, 5 September 1979), French archeologist of Ukranian origin, one of the pioneers of archeological research in Persia where he spent almost thirty years excavating numerous sites.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ÏNĀNČ ḴĀTUN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  wife of the Atābeg Jahān-Pahlavān Moḥammad (r. 1175-86), the Eldigüzid (or Ildegizid) ruler in Arrān, most of Azerbaijan, and then Jebāl.

• ABU’L-FARAJ SEJZĪ

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  4th/10th century poet of Sīstān, author of several lost works on the art of poetry.

• ANTIA, EDULJI KERSASPJI

  K. M. JamaspAsa and M. Boyce

  (1842-1913/1212-83 yazdegerdi), Parsi scholar, born of priestly stock in Navsari in Gujarat.

• BĀLEḠ

  S. H. Amin

  Ar. “of full age, adult, mature,” in contrast to the term ṣaḡīr (minor): coming of age in Islamic law.

• CINNAMON

  Cross-reference

  See DĀRČĪNĪ.

• EBN MORSAL, LAYṮ

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Fażl, a client (mawlā) and governor of Sīstān 815-19.

• PALM READING

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  (chiromancy or palmistry; Pers. Kaf-bini), a form of physiognomy that deduces personal characteristics from the form of the lines on the subject’s palm.

• MARR, NIKOLAĭ YAKOVLEVICH

  I. Yakubovich

  Russian philologist and archeologist, the founder of the “New Linguistic Doctrine” (ca. 1864-1934).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HANBALITE MAḎHAB

  Merlin Swartz

  a school of Sunni law and theology named after Aḥmad b. Ḥanbal (d. 855) which was founded largely under his influence in Baghdad.

• JOMUR

  P. Oberling

  (also angl. Jumur), a small Sunnite Kurdish tribe of northern Lorestān.

• ĀL-E KART

  B. Spuler

  or perhaps ĀL-E KORT, an east Iranian dynasty (643-791/1245-1389).

• ATOSSA

  R. Schmitt

  Achaemenid queen.

• BONGĀH-E MOSTAQELL-E ĀBYĀRĪ

  EIr

  (Inde­pendent irrigation agency), established by the Majles on 19 May 1943 to improve irrigation in Iran.

• DAWĀTDĀR

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  lit. “keeper, bearer of [the royal] inkwell or inkstand”; title of various officials in medieval Islamic states.

• ARABIC LANGUAGE iv. Arabic literature in Iran

  V. Danner

• EVANGELICAL CHURCH OF IRAN

  Cross-Reference

  See CHRISTIANITY viii. Christian Missions in Persia.

• KHAYYAM, OMAR xi. IMPACT ON THE LITERARY AND SOCIAL SCENE ABROAD

  Jos Biegstraaten

• INDIAN OCEAN

  D. T. Potts

  This entry will deal with the role of Indian Ocean in international trade in the following periods:

  i. Pre-Islamic period. ii. Islamic Period. See Supplement.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN ḴARAQĀNĪ

  H. Landolt

  (352-425/963-1033), Sufi shaikh of Ḵaraqān, some 20 km north of Basṭām in Khorasan.

• ʿĀQ-E WĀLEDAYN

  J. Calmard

  (ʿĀQQ-E WĀLEDAYN), Ar. “[the son] disobedient to [his] parents,” a theme in popular Shiʿite literature.

• BAND-E AMĪR (1)

  J. Lerner

  (the amir’s dike) or Band-e ʿAżodī (for the Daylamite ruler ʿAżod-al-Dawla, r. 949-83), a dam or weir constructed across the Kor river at the southeast end of the Marvdašt plain in Fārs.

• CLIMATE

  Eckart Ehlers

  both the climate of Persia as a whole and the differences in weather among its various re­gions are determined primarily by its location within the arid belt of the eastern hemisphere.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EBN TORKA

  Cross-Reference

  See ṢĀʾN-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ EṢFAHĀNĪ.

• KARAPAN

  William Malandra

  (or Karpan), designation of members of a class of daivic priests opposed to the religion of Zarathustra.

• BRICKS AND CERAMICS INDUSTRY

  Willem Floor

  IN IRAN Iran is rich in clay, marl, feldspar, silicate, limestone, gypsum, bentonite, talc, kaolin, quartz, and many other minerals, including a large variety of mineral oxides.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HARTNER, WILLY

  A. Panaino

  (1905-1981), professor of the History of Sciences specializing in astronomy,  author of many works devoted to Oriental studies, including ancient Persian calendar systems.

• JOWZJĀNI, MIR JUJOK

  R. D. McChesney

  a late 16th-century literary figure given the title malek al-šoʿarāʾ at Balkh by the Shibanid (Šaybānid) ruler there, ʿAbd-al-Moʾmen Khan (r. at Balkh 1583-98).

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD BOḴĀRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See BOḴĀRĪ.

• AVESTAN PEOPLE

  M. Boyce

  The term Avestan people is used here to include both Zoroaster’s own tribe, with that of his patron, Kavi Vištāspa, and those peoples settled in Eastern Iran.

• BORŪJERD

  Eckart Ehlers

  (or Barūjerd), town and šahrestān in the province of Lorestān in western Iran. Ithas always been a road and railway junction of great strategic importance.

• DE BODE, Baron

  See Supplement.

• AZERBAIJAN ix. Iranian Elements in Azeri Turkish

  L. Johanson

• ʿEZZAT-AL-DAWLA, MALEKAZĀDA ḴĀNOM

  Kambiz Eslami

  (1834/35-1905), the only full sister of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah. The first (1849-52) of her five marriages was as second wife of Mīrzā Taqī Khan Amīr Kabīr. One of her two daughters by him married the crown prince Moẓaffar-al-Din Mirza and bore a son, the future Moḥammad-ʿAlī Shah (r. 1907-09). 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MEʿRĀJ ii. Illustrations

  Christiane J. Gruber

  From the turn of the 14th century onward, depictions of the Prophet Moḥammad’s night journey (esrāʾ) and heavenly ascent (meʿrāj) were integrated into illustrated world histories and biographies.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠOJDOVĀN

  Habib Borjian

  (also Ḡojdavān, Ḡajdovān), town and district in the oasis of Bukhara.

• IQĀʿ

  Gen'ichi Tsuge

  (pl. iqāʿāt), an Arabic term used in texts on music to denote rhythmic mode (or cycle) or rhythmic pattern.

• ABU’L-MAʿĀLĪ

  J. van Ess

  Author of Bayān al-adyān, the oldest work on religions and sects written in Persian (11th-12th centuries).

• ʿARAB MOḤAMMAD B. ḤĀJJĪ

  G. L. Penrose

  khan of Ḵīva 1013-32/1602-23 (?).

• BANŪ MĀJŪR

  cross-reference

  See BANŪ AMĀJŪR.

• COLLEGES

  Cross-reference

  For important individual colleges, see EDUCATION; FACULTIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEHRAN.

• EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN, ABU’L-QĀSEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-QĀSEM EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN.

• STEEL INDUSTRY IN IRAN

  Willem Floor

   In 1927, plans were drawn up to establish smelting works in the north of the country to produce rail tracks domestically.

• ḤASANLU TEPPE ii. THE GOLDEN BOWL

  Robert H. Dyson, Jr

  The “gold bowl of Ḥasanlu” was found in the debris of Burned Building I West on the Citadel Mound at Ḥasanlu in 1958. It had fallen into room 9 in the southeastern corner of the building.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JULIAN

  Erich Kettenhofen

  (Flavius Claudius Iulianus), Roman emperor (r. 361-63). The present article deals only with Julian’s military campaign against the Sasanians up to his death.

• ALBORZ COLLEGE

  Y. Armajani

  an American Presbyterian missionary institution in Tehran; starting as a grade school in 1873, it grew to a junior college in 1924 and an accredited liberal arts college by 1928. In 1940 it was closed and its property bought by the government of Iran.

• AYĀDGĀR Ī JĀMĀSPĪG

  M. Boyce

  “Memorial of Jāmāsp,” a short but important Zoroastrian work in Middle Persian, also known as the Jāmāspī and Jāmāsp-nāma.

• BOZPĀR

  Louis Vanden Berghe

  a valley situated about 100 km southwest of Kāzerūn and 11 km by donkey path through the mountains from Sar Mašhad, Fārs. The most important ruin in the Bozpār valley is the building known locally as Gūr-e Doḵtar.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DEITY

  Cross-Reference

  See under ACHAEMENID RELIGION; AHRIMAN; AHURA MAZDĀ; MANICHEISM ii. The Manichean Pantheon; ZOROASTRIANISM; SHIʿITE DOCTRINE.

• BIBLE viii. Translations into other Modern Iranian Languages

  Kenneth J. Thomas

  John Leyden, a gifted Scottish linguist and poet who went to Calcutta in 1803 as a surgeon’s assistant for the East India Company and subsequently became a professor at the College of Fort William, was involved in translating the Gospels into a number of languages, including both Pashto and Bal­uchi.

• FALĀḴAN

  Parviz Mohebbi

  a sling.

• TAJIKISTAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

  Habib Borjian

  Tajikistan’s leading research institution for coordinating and conducting theoretical and applied research projects.

• GOLD

  James W. Allan

  Persia possesses a number of gold sources—in the northwest (Azerbaijan and Zanjān), near Kāšān at the western edge of the central plateau, and, according to Strabo, in Kermān. Gold sources in Afghanistan are located in Badaḵšān, which is also the source region for lapis lazuli and, possibly, tin. The gold of the Āmu Daryā lies just north of Afghanistan. 

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• ABU’L-QĀSEM ESḤĀQ SAMARQANDI

  W. Madelung

  Hanafite scholar, Sufi, and judge (qāżī) of Samarqand (9th-10th centuries).

• ARBĀB KAY-ḴOSROW-E ŠĀHROḴ

  Cross-Reference

  See ŠĀHROḴ.

• BARAQĪ

  H. Algar

  , ḴᵛĀJA ʿABD-ALLĀH, 12th-century Sufi of Bukhara.

• COMPUTERS in Persia

  Moḥammad-Reżā Moḥammadīfar

  electronic data-processing equipment, in Persia.

• ʿOTBI

  C. E. Bosworth

  the family name of two viziers of the Samanids of Transoxiana and Khorasan.

• FOOTBALL

  Houchang Chehabi

  (soccer). The game of football was introduced to Persia in the first two decades of the 20th century by British residents and American missionaries. In Tehran the employees of the British legation, the Imperial Bank, and the Indo-Persian Telegraph Company

• ḤAYRAT, MOḤAMMAD ṢEDDIQ

  Habib Borjian

  (1878-1902) Tajik poet from Bukhara.

• WATER

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀB.

• ʿALĪ B. ʿĪSĀ B. DĀʾŪD

  D. Sourdel

   B. AL-JARRĀḤ (245-334/859-946), vizier during the reign of the caliph Moqtader (r. 908-32). His family was of Persian origin resident in Iraq.

• ĀZĀD, MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN

  K. N. Pandita

  Scholar and writer in Urdu and Persian, born about 1834 in Delhi.

• BŪDAG

  Mansour Shaki

  Middle Persian term, in Mazdean theological and philosophical texts as “material becoming, genesis,” the counterpart of āfrīdag “spiritually/ideally created."

• DENMARK

  Fereydun Vahman, Jes P. Asmussen

  Danish-Persian relations have been concentrated in three main areas: politics and diplomacy; trade and other economic relations; and Iranian studies in Denmark, including collections of Persian art in Danish museums.

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• BUKHARA viii. Historiography of the Khanate, 1500-1920

  Anke von Kügelgen

  About 70 extant works of Persian historiography focus on the politics of the Shïbanid–Abulkhayrid (Shaybanid) dynasty (r. 1500-99), the Janids (also known as Toqay-Timurids or Ashtarkhanids, r. 1599-1747), and the Manḡïts (r. 1747-1920).

• GOLŠANĪ, EBRĀHIM

  Tahsin Yazici

  b. Moḥammad b. Ebrāhim b. Šehāb-al-Din (d. 1534), Sufi poet and the founder of the Golšaniya branch of the Ḵalwati Sufi order.

• IRANI, DINSHAH JIJIBHOY

  Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa

  Parsi lawyer and scholar (1881-1938). He served the Parsi community in many capacities. He was one of the founders of the Parsi Statistical Bureau, gave thrust to the move for the increase of housing accommodation for poor Parsis of Bombay, and was an ardent supporter of the Fasli (Faṣli) movement for revision of the Parsi calendar.

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• ABŪ ṢĀLEḤ MANṢŪR

  C. E. Bosworth

  Samanid prince, the cousin of the amir Aḥmad b. Esmāʿīl (295-301/907-14) and uncle of his successor Naṣr b. Aḥmad (301-31/914-43).

• ARDAŠĪR SAKĀNŠĀH

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  a vassal king of the first Sasanian king of kings, Ardašīr I.

• BARKĪĀROQ

  C. E. Bosworth

  ROKN-AL-DĪN ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR B. MALEKŠĀH, Great Saljuq sultan (r. 1092-1105); his reign convention­ally marks the opening stages of the decline of Great Saljuq unity.

• COTTON

  Multiple Authors

  Cotton (panba < Mid. Pers. pambag; katān; in Isfahan kolūza; genus Gossypium), particularly the short-staple species Gossypium herbaceum, is cultivated in almost all parts of Persia, and is of great economic importance both for home consumption and for export.

• EḤSĀN-ALLĀH KHAN DŪSTDĀR

  Cosroe Chaqueri

  (ʿAlī-ābādī; b. Sārī, Māzandarān, 1883, d. Baku, ca. 1938), second most prominent figure in the the Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran (Ḥokūmat-e jomhūrī-e šūrawī-e Īrān), the radicalized second phase of the Jangalī movement in the years 1920-21.

• TĀRIḴ-E SISTĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  an anonymous local history in Persian of the eastern Iranian region of Sistān, the region that straddles the modern Iran-Afghanistan border. It forms a notable example of the flourishing genre of local histories, dealing with towns and provinces, in the pre-modern Iranian lands.

• ʿABBĀSĀBĀD

  Kamran Ekbal

  fortress built in 1810 by ʿAbbās Mīrzā (q.v.) on the northern bank of the Araxes river; it commanded the passage of the Araxes and was of special strategic importance for the defense of the Naḵjavān khanate.

• FRAHANG Ī OĪM

  William W. Malandra

  an Avestan-Pahlavi glossary so named after its first entry, Av. oīm glossed by Pahl. ēwag, though the work is introduced with the lengthy title: “On the understanding of the speech and words of the Avesta, namely, what and how its zand is.”

• HEDAYAT, SADEQ

  Homa Katouzian and EIr, Michael Craig Hillmann, Touraj Daryaee

  (Hedāyat, Ṣādeq), the eminent fiction writer (1903-1951), who had a vast influence on the next generation of Persian writers.

• ABARŠAHR

  H. Gaube

  Name of Nīšāpūr province in western Khorasan. From the early Sasanian period, Nišāpur, which was founded or rebuilt by Šāpur I in the first years of his reign, was the administrative center of the province.

• ʿALĪ HAMADĀNĪ

  G. B

  full name: ʿALĪ B. ŠEHĀB-AL-DĪN B. MOḤAMMAD HAMADĀNĪ, MĪR SAYYED, surnamed ʿAlī-e Ṯānī, Šāh-e Hamadān, and Amīr-e Kabīr, major 8th/14th century Sufi saint.

• AẒFARĪ GŪRGĀNĪ

  M. Baqir

  18th-century Indo-Persian poet and lexicographer.

• BŪSTĀN

  G. Michael Wickens

  in early sources referred to as Saʿdī-nāma, a moralistic and anecdotal verse work consisting of some 4,100 maṯnawī couplets by Shaikh Moṣleḥ-al-Dīn Saʿdī, completed in 1257. 

• DEZ

  Cross-Reference

  or DEŽ, (fortress, castle; Mid. Pers. diz; OPers. didā- “wall, fortress”; Av. daēz-; Yidgha lizo“fort”). See BĀRŪ; CASTLES.

• CHINESE TURKESTAN iii. From the Advent of Islam to the Mongols

  Isenbike Togan

• KUSHAN DYNASTY i. Dynastic History

  A. D. H. Bivar

  During the first to mid-third centuries CE, the empire of the Kushans (Mid. Pers. Kušān-šahr) represented a major world power in Central Asia and northern India.

• GORDIA

  Cross-Reference

  a female character in the Shah-nama. See BAHRĀM (2) vii. Bahrām VI Čōbīn.

• IRON IN EASTERN IRAN

  B. A. Litvinsky

  Ancient iron objects in Central Asia were found for the first time at the southern mound of Anau (Turkmenistan) in 1904; these should be dated to the 9th-8th centuries BCE.

• ABŪ ZAYD BALḴĪ

  W. M. Watt

  noted scholar in both Islamic and philosophical disciplines, but now known chiefly as a geographer. He was born in the village of Šāmestīān, near Balḵ in Khorasan, ca. 235/849 and died there in Ḏu’l-qaʿda, 322/October, 934. 

• ARIAEUS

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  military commander in the army of Cyrus the Younger.

• BAŠĀKERD

  B. Spooner

  a roughly rectan­gular mountainous district (dehestān) east of Mīnāb and north of Jāsk. The topography and the natural conditions are similar to Makrān to the immediate east.

• ČŪB BĀZĪ

  Robyn C. Friend

  a category of folk dance found all over Persia (Hamada) and distinguished from other types of folk dance by the fact that the dancers carry sticks, which they strike together.

• FĀRESĪYĀT

  Aḥmad Mahdawī Dāmḡānī

  a literary term used in Arabic literature to refer to poems in Arabic which contain some Persian words or even phrases in their original form, the most notable example being the Fāresīyāt of Abū Nowās.

• ELBURZ

  Cross-Reference

  See ALBORZ.

• SADEQI, BAHRAM

  Saeed Honarmand

  poet and noted modernist fiction writer of the 20th century, who explored new literary techniques with almost each piece he wrote.

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• AZERBAIJAN xii. MONUMENTS

  Wolfram Kleiss

  The Iranian provinces of Azerbaijan, both West and East, possess a large number of monuments from all periods of history.

• FRAWARDĪN

  Cross-reference

  name of the nineteenth day of a month and also the name of the first month of the year in the Zoroastrian calendar. See CALENDARS i.

• HELMAND RIVER iv. IN THE LATE 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES

  Arash Khazeni

  The late 19th and 20th centuries saw a number of colonial and national schemes, including boundary commisions and large-scale irrigation projects, that aimed to demarcate the Iran-Afghan borderlands.

• ʿABD-al-ʿAZĪZ ḤEKĪMBĀŠĪ

  T. Yazici

  Ottoman physician and translator (d. 1782-83).

• ʿALĪ-ŠĪR NAVĀʾĪ, AMĪR

  Cross-Reference

  See NAVĀʾĪ.

• BĀBĀ AFŠĀR

  cross-reference

  , MĪRZĀ. See ḤAKĪMBĀŠĪ.

• ČAHĀR BĀḠ

  Cross-Reference

  See ČAHĀRBĀḠ.

• DIEULAFOY, MARCEL-AUGUSTE

  Pierre Amiet

  (b. Toulouse, 3 August 1844, d. Paris, 25 February 1920), French archeologist.

• HAFTA

  Babri Gharib

  (“week”), history of the calendar week in Iran.

• GOTARZES

  Cross-Reference

  See GŌDARZ.

• ĀDĀB AL-MAŠQ

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  (“Manual of penmanship”), a short essay on writing the nastaʿlīq hand by the noted Safavid calligrapher Mīr ʿEmād (961-1024/1553-54 to 1615-16).

• ARŠAK

  Cross-Reference

  See ARSACIDS.

• BAYĀN (1)

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  term (lit. “statement,” “exposition,” “explanation”) from an early date encompassing the various arts of expression in speech and writing. Often ʿelm-e bayān merely denotes rhetoric as a whole.

• DA AFḠĀNESTĀN TĀRĪḴ ṬŌLANA

  Cross-Reference

  See Anjoman-e Tāriḵ-e Afḡānestān.

• FARĪBORZ

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  son of Key Kāvūs.

• ʿEMĀD-AL-ESLĀM

  Maria E. Subtelny

  b. Moḥammad ʿAtīq-Allāh (1470-1506), a vizier of the Timurid Sultan Ḥosayn Bāyqarā, executed in Herat in 1498.

• KARUN RIVER i. Geography and Hydrology, ii

  Habib Borjian

  the largest river and the only navigable waterway in Iran. It rises in the Baḵtiāri Zagros mountains west of Isfahan, flows out of the central Zagros range, traverses the Khuzestan plain, and joins the Shatt al-Arab. before the latter discharges into the Persian Gulf.

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• KARĀʾI

  P. Oberling

  a Turkic-speaking tribe of Azerbaijan, Khorasan, Kermān and Fārs.

• GARŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See GAYŌMART.

• HERMELIN, AXEL ERIC

  Bo Utas

  (1860-1944), Swedish author and prolific translator of Persian works of literature.

• ʿABD-AL-ḴĀN

  P. Oberling

  An Arab tribe of Ḵūzestān, it was originally affiliated with the Bani Lām tribal confederacy and resided in the region of ʿAmāra, in present-day Iraq.

• ALVAND KŪH

  E. Ehlers

  mountain range near Hamadān, an isolated massif at a point of junction between the Zagros folds and the central Iranian plateau. 

• BĀBOR

  M. E. Subtelny

  Timurid prince (1422-1457), the youngest son of Bāysonqor and a great-grandson of the conqueror Tīmūr.

• ČĀLI

  Cross-Reference

  See ČĀL.

• DĪVĀL-E ḴODĀYDĀD

  Klaus Fischer

  an extensive area of historic remains in the center of an ancient canal system fed by the rivers Helmand and Ḵāšrūd and located between the eastern border of the Hāmūn-e Aškīnʿām and the lower Ḵāšrūd, about 45 km to the northeast of Zaranj in southwest Afghanistan.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION i. Intellectual background

  Abbas Amanat

• RUSSIA iv. RUSSIANS AT THE COURT OF MOḤAMMAD-ʿALI SHAH

  Elena Andreeva

  The presence of Russians at the court of Moḥammad-ʿAli Shah (r. 1907-09) reflected Russia’s efforts to improve her competitive position against the British by strengthening her influence over the Qajar rulers.

• ART IN IRAN x. Qajar 2. Painting

  B. W. Robinson

  The Qajar artistic style, like the Timurid style centuries before, had its origins outside the historical period from which it derives its name.

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• BAYT-AL-ʿADL

  M. Momen

  (House of Justice), a Bahai administrative institution.

• DĀDĪŠOʿ

  Erica C. D. Hunter

  (Syr. “beloved of Jesus”; Payne Smith, col. 824, s.v.; Pers. “given by Jesus”), catholicus of the Sasanian “Nestorian” church in 420/21-455/56.

• FARŌḴŠI

  Mary Boyce and Firoze Kotwal

  the name of a Zoroastrian ceremony for departed souls, also called Farošīn, in Irani Zoroastrian dialect Parošīn.

• EMIRATES OF THE PERSIAN GULF

  Cross-Reference

  See UNITED ARAB EMIRATES.

• ḴORRAMIS

  Patricia Crone

  adherents of a form of Iranian religion often identified as a survival or revival of the Zoroastrian heresy, Mazdakism.

• MOʿEZZ-AL-DAWLA

  Claude Cahen

  , ABU’L-ḤOSAYN, Aḥmad ebn Abi Šojāʿ (d. 356/967), 4th/10th century Buyid prince, the youngest of the three brothers who conquered western, southern, and central Persia.

• GABRI WARE

  Cross-Reference

  See CERAMICS.

• HERZFELD, ERNST iv. HERZFELD AND THE PAIKULI INSCRIPTION

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  The monument at Paikuli (Pāikūlī) lies on the Iraqi side of the border with Iran on a north-south line drawn from Solaimānīya in Iraq to Qaṣr-e Šīrīn in Persia on the ancient road from Ctesiphon to Azerbaijan.

• ʿABD-AL-QĀDER ŠĪRĀZĪ

  E. Baer

  Metalworker of late 13th century, whose one attested signed work is a silver and gold-inlaid brass bowl (Galleria Estense, Modena, no. 8082).

• ʿĀMELĪ EṢFAHĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See AḤMAD ʿALAWĪ.

• BĀDĀN PĪRŪZ

  Cross-Reference

  See ARDABĪL.

• CANDLE

  Mahmoud Omidsalar, J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (Pers.-Ar. šamʿ); the Arabic word literally means “beeswax."

• DOḴTAR-E NŌŠERVĀN

  MARKUS MODE

  lit., “daughter of Nōšervān”; rock-cut architectural complex with important wall paintings in the Ḵolm valley in northern Afghanistan, discovered in 1924. Surrounding the deity’s head is a tripartite nimbus with attached animal protomes. This complex system seems to emphasize the supernatural force of the “king of gods” as ultimate creator of all life.

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• COURTS AND COURTIERS iii. In the Islamic period to the Mongol conquest

  C. E. Bosworth

• ZĀL

  A. Shapur Shahbazi and Simone Cristoforetti

  legendary prince of Sistān, father of Rostam, and a leading figure in Iranian traditional history. His story is given in the Šāh-nāma.

• GRĪW

  Werner Sundermann

  a Middle Iranian word meaning “neck, throat” and “self, soul.”

• Italy xiii. IRANIANS IN ITALY

  Mario Casari

  The presence of Persians in Italy has always been fragmentary and discontinuous, which never led to any extended, cohesive social groups of permanent residents.

• AFRĀŠTA, MOḤAMMAD-ʿALĪ

  B. Sholevar and H. Javadi

  poet, writer and satirist (1908-1959).

• BAY

  Cross-Reference

  See BARG-E BŪ.

• BEECH

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  Fagus L. Modern Iranian botanists tend to refer to this tree as rāš. Its timber is used more than any other wood for making doors, windows, inexpensive furni­ture, and tools.

• DĀʿĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā

  AL-DĀʿĪ ELAʾLLĀH SAYYED NEẒĀM AL DĪN MAḤMŪD(1407-65), poet, preacher, and leader of the Neʿmat-Allāhī Sufi order in Fārs.

• FARYŪMAD

  Chahryar Adle

  (modern FARŪMAD), MONUMENTS OF.

• ĖNTSIKLOPEDIYAI SOVETII TOJIK

  H. Borjian

  (Tajik Soviet Encyclopedia), the first general encyclopedia of Tajikistan, published in the Tajik Persian language and Cyrillic alphabet (8 vols., Dushanbe, 1978-88).

• BEHAZIN

  ḤASSAN MIRʿĀBEDINI

  noted translator, editor, fiction writer, and active Marxist, who, in different stages of his literary career, assumed other pseudonyms: Nowruz ʿAli Āzād, and Hormoz Malekdād. In January 1938, he returned to Iran to serve in the navy and was posted in Ḵorramπahr, where he found ample leisure time to pursue his literary interests.

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• PERSEPOLIS ELAMITE TABLETS

  Muhammad Dandamayev

  administrative records in Elamite inscribed on clay tablets. Parts of two archives of such tablets were discovered in Persepolis in 1933-34 and 1936-38.

• GALLIMARD PRESS

  Cross-Reference

  See PUBLISHING HOUSES.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY xiv. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

  Sara Nur Yildiz

  Ottoman historical works composed in Persian occupy an important place in the corpus of court-oriented Ottoman historical writing of the early and classical periods.

• FAVA BEANS

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀQELĀ.

• AMĪN-E ŠŪRĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See PĀŠĀ KHAN.

• BĀDŪSPĀN

  X. de Planhol

  in medieval geography, a mountainous district of northern Iran on the Caspian side of the Alborz mountains, in Ṭabarestān (Māzandarān).

• ČARKAS

  Beatrice Manz, Masashi Haneda

  (Cherkes), term used in Persian, Arabic, and Turkic for the Circassian people of the northwest Caucasus who call themselves Adygeĭ and speak a language of the Abazgo-Circassian branch of Caucasian (see caucasian languages).

• DORRAT AL-NAJAF

  Nassereddin Parvin

  lit. "Pearl of Najaf"; monthly religious journal published in Persian at Najaf in southern Iraq at the end of the first decade of the 20th century.

• EPIGRAPHY iii. Arabic inscriptions in Persia

  Sheila S. Blair

  In Persia, as in the rest of the Islamic lands, Arabic was the basic language for foundation and religious texts on buildings and objects. In the early Islamic period these texts were usually written in some variant of the angular script known as Kufic. From the 12th century inscriptions in Persian became more common, and cursive scripts tended to replace angular ones.

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• SOUTHEAST ASIA ii. SHIʿITES IN

  M. Ismail Marchinkowski

  Along with Sufism, Shiʿite elements too entered Malay-Indonesian Islam, certainly by way of southern India, where it was well represented.

• GURDZIECKI, BOGDAN

  Rudi Matthee

  known in Persia as Bohtam Beg; Polish envoy of Georgian-Armenian origin and first permanent Polish resident in Safavid Persia (d. Moscow, 1700).

• JAḠMINI, MAḤMUD

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  b. Moḥammad b. ʿOmar  (d. 1344), the author of a brief Arabic survey of mathematical astronomy.

• ĀḠĀJĀRĪ

  J. Qāʾem-Maqāmī

  town in Ḵūzestān and district (bakš) in the county (šahrestān) of Behbahān, situated seventy-eight km to the northwest of the city of Behbahān.

• ASADĀBĀDĪ, ʿABD-AL-JABBĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-JABBĀR.

• BEHZĀD, KAMĀL-AL-DĪN

  Priscilla Soucek

  master painter, proverbial for his skill, active in Herat during the reign of the Timurid Ḥosayn Bāyqarā (1470-1506).

• DANDĀN ÖILÏQ (“ivory houses”)

  Gerd Gropp

  lit. “ivory houses”; ruined city located about 50 km north of the Domoko oasis in the eastern portion of the oasis complex of Khotan, in Chinese Turkestan.

• FAYYĀŻ, ʿALĪ-AKBAR MAJĪDĪ

  Jalāl Matīnī

  (b. Mašhad, 1898; d. Mašhad, 1971), scholar and educator.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĒRĀN-ĀSĀN-KERD-KAWĀD

  Rika Gyselen

  lit. "Kawād [has] made Ērān peaceful"; name of a Sasanian province (šahr) created by Kawād I (r. 488-531).

• MASISTES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Greek rendering (Masístēs) of an Old Iranian name *Masišta- (reflected also in Bab. Ma-si-iš-tu₄) based on the superlative YAv. masišta-, OPers. maθišta- “greatest, supreme”.

• KALHOR, Mirzā Mohammad-Reżā

  Maryam Ekhtiar

  (1829-1892), one of the most prominent 19th-century Persian calligraphers.

• GANJAK

  Cross-Reference

  See GANZAK.

• ḤOQAYNI

  Wilferd Madelung

  the nesba of two 11th=century Zaydi Imams, father and son, scholars of religious law.

• ʿABDALLĀH (2)

  I. H. Siddiqi

  Author of Tārīḵ-e Dāʾūdī, fl. early 17th century.

• AMĪRḴĪZĪ, ESMĀʿĪL

  Ī. Afshar

  Iranian man of letters, poet, and political activist, born in the Amīrḵīz quarter of Tabrīz in December 1877.

• BAGHDAD i. The Iranian Connection: Before the Mongol Invasion

  H. Kennedy

  Baghdad, whose official name was originally Madīnat-al-Salām, the City of Peace, was founded in 762 by the second ʿAbbasid caliph, Abū Jaʿfar al-Manṣūr as his official capital.

• CASTOREUM

  cross-reference

  See BEAVER.

• ḎU’L-FAQĀR

  Jean Calmard

  lit., “provided with notches, grooves, vertebrae”; the miraculous sword of Imam ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭāleb, with two blades or points, which became a symbol of his courage on the battlefield.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ARDAŠĪR I ii. Rock reliefs

  H. Luschey

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CASPIAN SEA ii. DIPLOMATIC HISTORY IN MODERN TIMES

  Guive Mirfendereski

  A new area of sub-systemic studies in international relations, which encompasses the Caspian basin and its immediate surroundings, emerged in the post-Soviet Union era.

• ḤADIQAT AL-ḤAQIQA WA ŠARIʿAT AL-ṬARIQA

  J.T.P. de Bruijn

  a Persian didactical maṯnawi by the twelfth-century poet Ḥakim Majdud b. Ādam Sanāʾi.

• JALĀYER

  cross-reference

  See KHORASAN i. ETHNIC GROUPS.

• AḤMAD B. ḤOSAYN

  İ. Aka

  historian of the 9th/15th century born in Yazd, author of the Tārīḵ-e ǰadīd-e Yazd. 

• ʿĀŠEQ EṢFAHĀNĪ

  K. Amīrī Fīrūzkūhī

  a Persian poet of the 12th/18th century (pen name ʿĀšeq).

• BESSOS

  Michael Weiskopf

  satrap of Bactria and last Achaemenid king (ca. 336-329 BC). From his capital at Bactra (Zariaspa), in the area of modern Balḵ, Bessos exercised control over Bactria, Sogdia to the north, and border regions of India.

• DĀR AL- ḤARB

  Hamid Algar

  “the realm of war”; lands not under Islamic rule, a juridical term for certain non-­Muslim territory, though often construed, especially by Western writers, as a geopolitical concept implying the necessity for perpetual, even if generally latent, warfare between the Muslim state and its non-Muslim neighbors.

• FENDERESKĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See MĪR FENDERESKI, ABU’L-QĀSEM.

• EŠĀRĀT WA’L-TANBĪHĀT, AL-

  M. E. Marmura

  a late work of Avicenna (Ebn Sīnā, d. 1037), written sometime between 1030 and 1034, which sums up his thought in a language that is often deeply personal and expressive.

• ZĀYANDARUD newspaper

  Nassereddin Parvin

  weekly newspaper published in Isfahan by ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Mo ʿin-al-Eslām Ḵᵛānsāri from 1 RabiʿI 1327 to 22 Ḏu’l-ḥejja 1333 (23 March 1909 to 31 October 1915).

• ḠAYBA

  Said Amir Arjomand

  (Pers. ḡaybat) lit. "absence"; term used by the Shiʿites to refer to the occultation of the Hidden Imam.

• ḤOSAYN B. ʿALI i. LIFE AND SIGNIFICANCE IN SHIʿISM

  Wilferd Madelung

  In contrast to the pacifist and conciliatory character of his elder brother, Ḥosayn inherited his father’s fighting spirit and intense family pride, although he did not acquire his military prowess and experience.

• ʿABDALLĀH ṢAYRAFĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Influential calligrapher (d. after 1345-46).

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• AMYTIS

  R. Schmitt

  Median and Persian female name.

• BAHĀRLŪ

  P. Oberling

  a Turkic tribe of Azerbaijan, Khorasan, Kermān, and Fārs.  

• CEMETERIES

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  (qabrestān, gūrestān) in Persian folklore; cemeteries are found both inside and outside cities and villages, usually close to a holy shrine, or emāmzāda, in order to partake of its blessing.

• DÜRRI EFENDI, AḤMAD

  Tahsin Yazici

  (or Dorrī Afandī; (b. Van, date unknown, d. Istanbul, 1722), Ottoman poet, civil servant, and diplomat who served as ambassador to Tehran and wrote Sefārat-nāma, the first Turkish account of Safavid Persia.

• ḴOSROW II

  James Howard-Johnston

  the last great king of the Sasanian dynasty (590-628) in the last few decades before the coming of Islam. The principal extant history of the period, written in Armenia in the early 650s, was appropriately entitled The History of Khosrow.

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• NAFAR

  Pierre Oberling

  a tribe of Fārs and the Tehran region. Although of Turkic origin, the Nafar of Fārs have become a mixture of Turkic, Arab, and Lor elements.

• HAFT KEŠVAR

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  (seven regions), the usual geographical division of the world in Iranian tradition. Ancient Iranians  envisioned the world as vast and round and encircled by a high mountain (harā bərəzaitī: see ALBORZ). According to this tradition, the world was divided into seven (circular) regions.

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• JĀMEʿ AL-TAMṮIL

  Ulrich Marzolph

  a collection of Persian proverbs and their stories compiled in 1045/1644 by Moḥammad-ʿAli Ḥablarudi.

• AḤMAD YĀDGĀR

  Hameed-ud-Din

  10th/16th century historian of the Afghans in India.

• AṢNĀF

  W. M. Floor

  the plural of ṣenf (class, kind category), collective designation of guilds in Iran since the 11th/17th century.

• BĪA-PAS, BĪA-PĪŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See GĪLĀN.

• D'ARCY, WILLIAM KNOX

  Fuad Rouhani

  (b. Newton Abbot, Devonshire, England, 11 October 1849, d. Stanmore, Middlesex, England, 1 May 1917), petroleum entrepreneur and founder of the oil industry in Persia and the Middle East.

• FETYĀN

  Cross-reference

  See ʿAYYĀR; JAVĀNMARDI.

• ESḤĀQ

  Mohsen Zakeri

  b. ṬOLAYQ (or Ṭalīq), the secretary responsible for translating the financial dīvāns of Khorasan into Arabic in 741-42.

• RASHT ii. The District

  Marcel Bazin

   the largest distirct in the plain of Gilān and the most populated in the whole province. 

• NISIBIS

  Samuel Lieu

  city in northern Mesopotamia, a major focus of military confrontations between the Roman and Sasanian empires and a renowned center of theological studies for the Church of the East.

• GĀZORGĀHĪ, MĪR KAMĀL-AL-DĪN ḤOSAYN

  Shiro Ando

  b. Šeḥāb-al-Dīn Esmāʿīl Ṭabasī (b. 1469/70), a Timurid ṣadr and author of a collection of biographies of Sufis known as the Majāles al-ʿoššāq.

• HŪGAR

  cross-reference

  See ALBORZ.

• ABLUTION, ZOROASTRIAN

  Cross-Reference

  See PADYĀB.

• ANDARWAYWAZĪG

  C. J. Brunner

  Middle Persian term for “acrobat, tumbler” (lit. “one who plays in the air”).

• BAHRĀM newspaper

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  newspaper in Tehran, 1943-47.

• CHAMBER of GUILDS

  Ahmad Ashraf

  (Oṭāq-e aṣnāf), a federation of various guilds formed in 1350 Š./1971 under the “guild-organization act” (Qānūn-e neẓām-e ṣenfī) in most urban centers.

• EBN ABĪ ṢĀDEQ, ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿABD-al-RAḤMĀN

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  b. ʿAlī b. Aḥmad NAYŠĀBŪRĪ (Nīšāpūr, 11th century), medical author known in the century after his death, at least in Khorasan, as “the second Hippocrates," and reportedly a student of Avicenna.

• MOKRI TRIBE

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe of western Iranian Azerbaijan.

• TAJIKISTAN i. STATUS OF ISLAM SINCE 1917

  Muriel Atkin

  Tajikistan’s population, which numbered slightly more than six million in the year 2000, consists overwhelmingly of ethnic groups which have historically been Muslim.

• JAPAN xii. TRANSLATIONS OF PERSIAN WORKS INTO JAPANESE

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  Japanese readers were introduced to the Persian classics with translations of ʿOmar Ḵayyām’s Robāʿiyāt and Ferdowisi’s Šāh-nāma.

• ʿAJABŠĪR

  ʿA. Kārang

  a town and baḵš in East Azerbaijan. 

• ASRĀR AL-TAWḤĪD

  H. Algar

   principal source for the life and teachings of the well-known mystic of Khorasan, Abū Saʿid b. Abi’l-Ḵayr (b. 357/967, d. 440/1049).

• BILIMORIA, NUSHERWANJI FRAMJI

  Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa

  (1852-1922), Zoroastrian journalist, editor, and publisher.

• DARVĀZA TEPE

  Linda K. Jacobs

  or Tall-e Darvāza), a village site in the southeastern Kor river basin, in Fārs province, occupied in three stages from 1800 B.C.E. to 800 B.C.E., according to radiocarbon dates of the finds, and characterized by an essential continuity in both architecture and other aspects of material culture.

• FĪRŪZ

  Klaus Schippmann

  (PĒRŌZ) Sasanian king (r. 459-84), son of Yazdegerd II (r. 439-57). 

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. Rokn-al-Dīn Yaḥyā

  Cross-Reference

  See MAJD-AL-DĪN ESMĀʿĪL.

• SANĀʾI

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (d. ca. 1130), Persian poet of the later Ghaznavid era, celebrated particularly for his homiletic poetry and his great influence on the development of mystical literature in general.

• KÉPES, GÉZA

  Andr

  (1909-1989), Hungarian poet and translator of Persian poetry.

• ZARANGIANA

  Cross-Reference

  territory around Lake Hāmun and the Helmand river in modern Sistān. See DRANGIANA.

• HYRCANIA

  cross-reference

  See GORGĀN ii.

• ABU’L-ʿAMAYṮAL

  I. Abbas

  Tahirid court poet.

• ANĪS-AL-DAWLA

  G. Nashat

  (d. 1314/1896-97), the most important wife of Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah Qāǰār.

• BAḴTAK

  F. Gaffary

  a folkloric she-creature of horrible shape, personifying a nightmare. Baḵtak resembles the Āl, another “female devil” of Iranian folklore.

• CHLORITE

  Philip Kohl

  a mineral consist­ing of a group of closely related hydrous magnesium aluminum silicates of exceedingly varied chemical com­positions owing to isomorphous substitutions.

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• EBN ESFANDĪĀR, BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Charles Melville

  b. Ḥasan, historian, probably from Āmol, who flourished around the turn of the 13th century.

• PLANTAIN

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀRHANG.

• PERSIAN MANUSCRIPTS i. IN OTTOMAN AND MODERN TURKISH LIBRARIES

  OSMAN G. ÖZGÜDENLI

  The Persian manuscripts in the libraries of Istanbul and Anatolia today were collected from four sources: (1) Persian manuscripts written, translated, and copied in Anatolia; (2) those brought into Anatolia by immigrant scholars; (3) those brought by traders; 4) those brought as booty of the wars and conquests of the 16th and 18th centuries.

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• JEBRIL B. ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH

  cross-reference

  See BOḴTIŠUʿ.

• AḴLĀṬ

  C. E. Bosworth, H. Crane

  a town and medieval Islamic fortress in eastern Anatolia.

• ASTRAKHAN

  B. Spuler

  a town (Russian since 1556) on the river Volga.

• BOAR

  Paul Joslin

  (Sus scrofa, Pers. gorāz). The wild boar is found in a broad cross-section of habitats and has a range that extends over much of Europe and Asia.

• DASTĀN

  Jean During

  a term used in three different contexts in Persian music- melody, narrative composition, and fingering system.

• AFGHANISTAN xii. Literature

  R. Farhādī

• ESTĀLEF

  Daniel Balland

  large Persian-speaking village of the Kōhdāman, 55 km north of Kabul, built on a foothill of the Paḡmān range of the Hindu Kush between 1,875 and 1,950 m above sea-level.

• URGUT

  Alexei Savchenko

  town ca. 30 km southeast of Samarkand, Uzbekistan, containing monuments of historical, archeological, and epigraphic significance. In written sources, Urgut is first mentioned as the location of a monastery of the Church of the East. Aarcheological finds include wearable crosses of iron, ceramic wares with Christian motifs, a bronze censer,  and fragments of stucco decoration.

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• GĒTĪG AND MĒNŌG

  SHAUL SHAKED

  a pair of Middle Persian terms that designate the two forms of existence according to the traditional Zoroastrian view of the world as expressed in the Pahlavi books.

• ARROWS in Eastern Iran

  Boris A. Litvinsky

  Arrows came in use along with the bow, and the two developed in parallel. In the Bronze Age in eastern Iran, metal arrowheads of bronze were widespread, while skillfully made stone arrowheads, inherited from the earlier period, remained in use. 

• ABŪ ESḤĀQ AL-ŠĪRĀZĪ

  W. Madelung

  Shafeʿite jurist, b. 393/1003 in Fīrūzābād in Fār.

• ANṢĀRĪ, MĪRZĀ SAʿĪD KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  MOʾTAMEN-AL-MOLK. See MOʾTAMEN-AL-MOLK.

• BĀLĀSARĪ

  D. M. MacEoin

  term used by the Shaikhis to distinguish ordinary Shiʿites from members of their own sect. The history of conflicts between the Shaikhi and Shiʿite communities is reviewed.

• ČĪM Ī KUSTĪG

  Cross-Reference

  See KUSTĪG.

• EBN MOʿĀVĪA

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDALLAH B. MOʿĀVĪA.

• ṢĀBUN

  Cross-Reference

  "soap." See SOAP.

• KIDARITES

  Frantz Grenet

  a dynasty which ruled Tukharistan and later Gandhāra, probably also part of Sogdiana; the initial date is disputed (ca 390 CE for some modern authors, ca. 420-430 for others).

• HAMZA NİGARİ

  Tahsin Yazi

  (Ḥamza Negāri) Ḥāji Mir Ḥamza Efendi b. Mir Pāšā, Sufi and poet from Azerbaijan, who wrote in both Persian and Turkish (d. 1886).

• JOBBĀʾI

  Sabine Schmidtke

  the name of two Muʿtazilite theologians, Abu ʿAli Moḥammad b. ʿAbd-al-Wahhāb (849-915) and his son Abu Hāšem ʿAbd-al-Salām (890-933).

• ĀL-E FARĪḠŪN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a minor Iranian dynasty of Gūzgān.

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• ATHENAIOS OF NAUCRATIS

  J. Duchesne-Guillemin

  author of the Deipnosophistai, his only extant work, in which in about a hundred passages he deals with things Persian.

• BOMBAY

  John R. Hinnells, Momin Mohiuddin and Ismail K. Poonawala

  Persian communities of Bombay.

• DĀVARĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ, Mīrzā Moḥammad

  ʿAbd-al-Wahhāb Nūrānī Weṣāl

  (b. Shiraz 1822-23, d. Shiraz, 1866), poet, calligrapher, and painter of some renown in Qajar Persia and a contemporary of Moḥammad Shah and Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah.

• EUSTATHIUS, ACTS of

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  Christian martyrological text, of which versions survive in many languages, including Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Armenian.

• IḎEH

  Kaveh Ehsani

  town and county in northeast Khuzestan Province. Iḏa is located 20 km east of the Kārun River, in a small oval shaped valley, flanked by part of the Zagros range.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN EṢFAHĀNĪ

  H. Algar

  (1284-1365/1867-1946), an Iranian moǰtahed who was a leading religious authority in the Shiʿite world for more than thirty years.

• APŌŠ

  C. J. Brunner

  Middle Persian for Av. Apaoša, the demon of drought.  

• BANĀKAṮ

  C. E. Bosworth

  or BENĀKAṮ, the main town of the medieval Transoxanian province of Šāš or Čāč; it almost certainly had a pre-Islamic history as a center of the Sogdians.

• CLEMEN, CARL CHRISTIAN

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (1865-1940), Ger­man Protestant theologian and historian of religions who compiled the classical passages on Iranian reli­gion.

• EBN ṬABĀṬABĀ, ABU’L-ḤASAN MOḤAMMAD

  Ihsan Abbas

  b. Aḥmad b. Moḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Ebrāhīm Eṣfahānī (d. 933), poet and critic.

• FĀRSI, KAMĀL-AL-DIN

  Cross-Reference

  (d. 1320), the most significant figure in optics after Ebn al-Hayṯam. See FĀRESĪ, KAMĀL-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ḤASAN MOḤAMMAD.

• ADIB ḴᵛĀNSARI

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi and EIr

  a major vocalist of Persia in the first half of 20th century (1901-1982).

• HARKI

  Pierre Oberling

  (Herki), a Kurdish tribe of western Azerbaijan, eastern Anatolia, and northeastern Iraq.

• JOWŠAQĀN

  Habib Borjian

  district in Isfahan Province in central Persia, best known for its carpets and for its dialect.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN ḤOSAYN JAHĀNSŪZ

  C. E. Bosworth

  called JAHĀNSŪZ, Ghurid sultan and the first ruler of the Šansabānī family to make the Ghurids a major power in the eastern Islamic world (544-56/1149-61).

• AVARAYR

  R. Hewsen

  a village in Armenia in the principality of Artaz southeast of the Iranian town of Mākū.

• BÖRI

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  or Böritigin,  name of a Turkish commander in Ḡazna and of the ruler of the western branch of the Qarakhanid dynasty of Transoxania.

• DAYLAMITES

  Cross-Reference

  people inhabiting a shifting region in northern Persia and adjacent territories, including the Deylamān uplands. See DEYLAMITES; BUYIDS.

• ʿEZRĀʾĪL

  Cross-Reference

  lit. "Angel of Death." See Supplement (ANGELS).

• CASPIAN SEAL

  Eskandar Firouz

  (Phoca caspica), the only mammal in the Caspian Sea. It is a relict species, endemic to the Caspian Sea and the deltas of rivers that discharge into it—the region where its ancestors lived when the sea was still connected to the oceans.

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• GŌDARZ

  Mary Boyce, A. D. H. Bivar, A. Shapur Shahbazi

  name of various Iranian historical figures; an Iranian epic hero in wars against the “Turanians” in northeastern Iran; and the scion of a clan of paladins in Iranian traditional history.

• INSTITUTE OF SOCIAL STUDIES AND RESEARCH

  Kazem Izadi

  (MOʾASSESA-YE MOṬĀLEʿĀT WA TAḤQIQĀT-E EJTEMĀʿI), an academic body established in 1958 at the University of Tehran for research, counseling, education, and publication.

• ABU’L-ḴAṬṬĀB ASADĪ

  A. Sachedina

  Founder of the extremist Shiʿite sect Ḵaṭṭābīya.

• ĀQSŪ (2)

  C. Naumann

  a river in the Āmū Daryā system. The upper course, called the Morḡāb in the Soviet Union, finds its source in the Little Pamir, the eastern part of Afghanistan’s Waḵān-Pāmīr mountains.

• BĀNŪ

  W. Eilers

  originally “lady,” now also in common use as an alternative to ḵānom “Madam, Mrs.” (from Turkish xan-ım “my lord”).

• ČOḠŪR

  Jean During

  (also čoḡor, čogūr, more commonly called sāz in former Soviet Azerbaijan), is the typical pyriform lute of the ʿāšeq, the professional minstrel of Azerbaijan.

• EBRĀHĪM ṢAḤḤĀF-BĀŠĪ

  Cross-reference

  See ṢAḤḤĀF-BĀŠĪ.

• QOṬB-AL-DIN ŠIRĀZI

  Sayyed ʿAbd-Allāh Anwār

  Persian polymath, Sufi, and poet (b. Shiraz, October 1236; d. Tabriz, 7 February 1311).

• ḤASAN-ʿALI BEG BESṬĀMI

  Ernst Tucker

  one of Nāder Shah’s closest associates, who held the title moʿayyer al-mamālek or “chief assayer” and played an important advisory role throughout Nāder’s reign.

• JULFA i. SAFAVID PERIOD

  Vazken S. Ghougassian

  The original Julfa (Arm. ǰuła) is a very old village in the province of Nakhijevan (Naḵjavān), in historical Armenia.  In early summer of 1605, the Julfa deportees to Iran were given temporary shelter in Isfahan, and they began with the building of New Julfa on the right bank of the Zāyandarud. For the first decades after its foundation, New Julfa was exclusively populated by Armenians from Old Julfa.

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• ʿALAWĪS

  Cross-Reference

  OF ṬABARESTĀN, DAYLAMĀN, AND GĪLĀN. See ʿALIDS.

• ĀXWARR

  W. Eilers

  Middle Persian term meaning “manger” or “stall” and borrowed into Armenian as axoṙ.

• BOZORG

  Jean During

  one of the modes in traditional Iranian and Arabic music, mentioned for the first time by Ṣafī-al-Dīn ʿOrmavī among the twelve šodūd, later on called maqāmāt.

• DEHLĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See DELHI SULTANATE.

• BIBLE iii. Chronology of Translations

  Kenneth J. Thomas

  1. Middle Iranian translations. 4th century. Statement by John Chrysostom (Homily on John) that doctrines of Christ had been translated into the languages of the Persians. 5th century. Statement by Theodoret (Graecarum affect­ionum curatio IX.936) that Persians regarded the Gospels as divine revelation. ...

• FĀḴTAʾĪ, ḤOSAYN QAWĀMĪ

  Cross-Reference

  a master vocalist of Persia in the second half of the 20th century. See QAWĀMI, ḤOSAYN.

• QĀNUNI, JALĀL

  Houman Sarshar

  (1900-1987), master performer of the Persian modal system (dastgāh) and expert in Daštestāni music (folk music from Fārs province).

• GOL-ĀQĀ

  EIr

  a weekly satirical magazine founded by Kayumarṯ Ṣāberi which first began publication on 23 October 1990.

• ABŪ ʿOBAYDA MAʿMAR

  C. E. Bosworth

  Arabic philologist and grammarian (probably 110-209/728-824, but the sources have other, slightly different dates).

• ARAŠK

  Cross-Reference

  or AREŠK (Pahlavi), Avestan araska-, Persian rašk “envy,” in Middle Persian sometimes personified as a demon. See RAŠK.

• BARĀMEKA

  Cross-Reference

  See BARMAKIDS.

• CONSUMERS AND CONSUMPTION

  Cross-Reference

  See ECONOMY.

• EDITING

  Karim Emami

  the techniques of preparing a text for publication, now widely practiced at the major publishing houses in Persia.

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ b. AḤMAD b. ḤASAN MEYMANDI

  C. E. Bosworth

  vizier to the Ghaznavid sultans Mawdud b. Masʿud and ʿAbd-al-Rašid b. Maḥmud, remaining in official service under the latter’s successor Farroḵzād b. Masʿud.

• FOLKLORE STUDIES i. OF PERSIA

  Ulrich Marzolph

• ḤAYDAR KHAN ʿAMU-OḠLI

  Alireza Sheikholeslami

  (1880-1921), revolutionary activist who used terror to radicalize Persian politics in the early 20th century. Forced to leave Persia in 1911, he was sent back by the Bolsheviks to settle the conflict between the Jangalis and the Communist Party of Persia in Gilān. It is almost certain that he was killed by a group of Jangalis soon afterwards.

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• KADPHISES, KUJULA

  Osmund Bopearachchi

  (1st cent. CE), first Kuṣān king, founder of the Kuṣāna dynasty in Central Asia and India.

• ʿALĪ B. ḤASAN

  cross-reference

  See ʿALĪTIGIN.

• AYYUBIDS

  R. S. Humphreys

  (Ar. Banū Ayyūb), a Kurdish family who first became prominent as members of the Zangid military establishment in Syria in the mid-sixth/twelfth century.

• BRYDGES, HARFORD JONES

  John Perry

  , Sir (1764-1847), English diplomat and author, ambassador to the court of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah Qājār from 1807 to 1811.

• DĒN YAŠT

  Jean Kellens

  a relatively short text, consisting for the most part of repetitive or formulaic sentences.

• SIĀH-QALAM

  Bernard O'Kane

  “black pen” (1) the genre of paintings or drawings done in pen and ink; (2) the painters of such drawings. While medieval Iranian artists were more renowned for their painting than their drawing skills, the  planning of any painting involved laying down a preliminary drawing in red or black ink, which would later be painted over.

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• GOLŠAN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  cultural magazine published in the early days of 1917 in Tehran by Sayyed Reżā Yazdi “Amir Reżwāni” (d. 1936), first twice a week and from its sixth year three times a week.

• IRĀN-E JAVĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  weekly paper published in Tehran from 5 Esfand 1305 to 28 Bahman 1306 Š. (25 February 1926-17 February 1927) as the organ of an association with the same name (Anjomān-e Irān-e javān, q.v.).

• ABŪ SAʿĪD ABI’L-ḴAYR

  G. Böwering

  famous Iranian mystic, born 1 Moḥarram 357/7 December 967 at Mēhana, a small town in Khorasan, about fifty miles west of Saraḵs, and died there 4 Šaʿbān 440/12 January 1049.

• ARDAŠĪR III

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  Sasanian king (r. September, 628-29 April, 629). His father Šērōyē (Kawād II) murdered most of the Sasanian princes and died after only a brief reign.

• BARĪD

  C. E. Bosworth

  the official postal and intelligence service of the early Islamic caliphate and its successor states. The service operated by means of couriers mounted on mules or horses or camels or traveling on foot.

• CORVIDAE

  Cross-Reference

  See CROW.

• EḠLAMEŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See SAYF-AL-DĪN ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN EḠLAMEŠ.

• DARARIĀN, Vigen

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi

  (1929-2003) renowned pop singer and performer on the guitar.

• FOUNDATIONS

  Cross-reference

  See under individual entries, such as BONYĀD-E FARHANG-E ĪRĀN; BONYĀD-E ŠAHĪD; BONYĀD-E ŠĀH-NĀMA-YE FERDOWSĪ.

• HEDĀYAT AL-MOTAʿALLEMIN FI’L-ṬEBB

  Jalal Matini

  the complete title of the oldest extant treatise on medicine written in Persia, which is also commonly referred to simply as Ketāb-e Hedāyat.

• ABAR NAHARA

  Cross-Reference

  Aramaic name for the lands to the west of the Euphrates—i.e., Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine (Parpola, p. 116; Zadok, p. 129; see ASSYRIA ii). These regions apparently passed from Neo-Babylonian to Persian control in 539 B.C.E. when Cyrus the Great conquered Mesopotamia. See EBER-NĀRĪ.

• ʿALĪ-AṢḠAR KHAN AMĪN-AL-SOLṬĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ATĀBAK-E AʿẒAM.

• AŽDAHĀ

  P. O. Skjærvø, Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh, J. R. Russell

  “dragon,” various kinds of snake-like, mostly gigantic, monsters living in the air, on earth, or in the sea (also designated by other terms) sometimes connected with natural phenomena, especially rain and eclipses.

• BŪSALĪK

  Hormoz Farhat

  one of the maqāms of the Perso-Arabian musical system mentioned in medieval treatises on music.

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• DEYLAMĪ, ABUʾL-ḤASAN ʿALĪ

  Gerhard BÖWERING

  b. Moḥammad (fl. 10th century), an obscure yet important author on the early Persian Sufism prevalent in Fārs.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS ix. Persian Language Teaching in Modern China

  EIr

• KOBRAWIYA i. THE EPONYM

  Hamid Algar

  Abu’l-Jannāb Aḥmad b.ʿOmar Najm-al-Din Kobrā, eponym of the Kobrawiya, was born in Ḵᵛārazm in 1145 or possibly a decade later.

• ḠŌRBAND

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  or ḠURBAND; a major valley of Kōhestān/Kuhestān and a sub-province (woloswāli) of Parvān province in the southern foothills of the Hindu Kush massif, located approximately 50 miles north of Kabul.

• IRAQ ix. IRANIAN COMMUNITY IN IRAQ

  cross-reference

  See DIASPORA vi.

• ABU YAʿQUB HAMADĀNI

  H. Algar

  Important figure in the history of Iranian and Central Asian Sufism, largely neglected by both Iranian and Western scholarship (440-535/1048-49 to 1140).

• ARḠŪN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-QĀSEM SOLṬĀN.

• BARUCH

  Sh. Shaked

  scribe and disciple of the prophet Jeremiah, at the time of the first Jewish exile to Babylonia (586 B.C.).  Baruch was identified with Zoroaster by some Syriac authors, followed by some Arab historians.

• CRUSADES

  Peter Jackson

  in relation to Persia; the term “crusade” refers to a series of Christian holy wars fought in the Middle Ages against the Muslims in Syria and Palestine and subsequently elsewhere in the Near East and, by extension, to wars against other enemies, both within and outside Christendom, that were put on the same spiritual footing by the popes.

• FARAS-NĀMA

  Īraj Afšār

  Persian term for books and manuals dealing with horses and horsemanship. Topics treated in this literary genre include horse-breeding, grazing, dressage, veterinary advice, horseracing and betting, and the art of divination based on the mien and movements of horses.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ELĀHĪ-NĀMA

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAṬṬĀR.

• MALAKUT

  Saeed Honarmand

  the highly acclaimed and the only published novella by the noted modernist fiction writer Bahram Sadeqi.

• AVESTAN LANGUAGE iv. AVESTAN SYNTAX

  Jean Kellens

• FRAVARTISH

  Cross-Reference

  Median rebel against Darius I. See PHRAORTES.

• ḤELLI, NAJM-AL-DIN ABU’L-QĀSEM JAʿFAR

  Etan Kohlberg

  known as Moḥaqqeq or Moḥaqqeq-e awwal, a leading jurist of the Twelver Shiʿite school of Ḥella (b. ca. 1205-06, d. 1277).

• ʿABD-AL-ʿAẒĪM AL-ḤASANĪ

  W. Madelung

  Shiʿite ascetic and transmitter buried in the main sanctuary of Ray (9th century).

• ʿALĪ-QOLĪ KHAN WĀLEH

  W. Kirmani

  Persian poet at the Mughal court (1124-69/1712-56).

• ĀB

  Multiple Authors

  Persian word meaning “water.”

• ČAḠČARĀN

  Daniel Balland

  Principal town and administrative capital of the province of Ḡōr, in the mountains of central Afghanistan.

• DICKSON, MARTIN BERNARD

  Kathryn Babayan

  (b. Brooklyn, 22 March 1924, d. Princeton, 14 May 1991), Iranist and Central Asianist specialized in Safavid history.

• CLASS SYSTEM v. Classes in the Qajar Period

  Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi

• BOROUGH, Christopher

  Parvin Loloi

  (fl. 1579-1587), English merchant and linguist who traveled to Russia and Persia as an interpreter with the sixth voyage by the Muscovy Company to establish trade with these countries.

• GOŠNASP ASPĀD

  Cross-Reference

  Sasanian military commander. See ḴOSROW II.

• ARRAJĀN

  H. Gaube

  medieval city and province in southwestern Iran between Ḵūzestān and Fārs.

• BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN

  W. Sundermann

  (1792-1860), German theologian and scholar of Manicheism. Most important was Baur’s view of Manicheism, as a religion born at the watershed of the ancient and Christian worlds.

• FARHANG-E ZABĀN-E TĀJĪKĪ

  Habib Borjian

  (Farhangi zaboni tojikī, Tajik Language Dictionary), a descriptive dictionary of classical Persian in two volumes (1,900 pages).

• ʿEMĀD-al-DAWLA, Mīrzā MOḤAMMAD-ṬĀHER

  Kathryn Babayan

  WAḤĪD QAZVĪNĪ (ca. 1615-1701), poet and Safavid court historiographer for nearly three decades (1645-74).

• KĀŠEFI

  Osman G. Özgüdenlı

  (d. 15th century), author of the epic poem Ḡazā-nāma-ye Rum on the lives of the Ottoman sultans Morād II (r. 1421-44 and 1446-51) and Moḥammad II (r. 1444-46 and 1451-81).

• HA-GE’ULLAH

  Amnon Netzer

  Judeo-Persian weekly newspaper published in Tehran between 1920 and 1923.

• GABBA

  Jean-Pierre Digard and Carol Bier

  a hand-woven pile rug of coarse quality and medium size (90 × 150 cm or larger) characterized by an abstract design that relies upon open fields of color and a playfulness with geometry. This kind of rug is common among the tribes of the Zagros (Kurdish, Lori-speaking ethnic groups, Qašqāʾīs).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HERBELOT de MOLAINVILLE, BARTHÉLEMY D’

  Moti Gharib Shojania

  (1625-95), one of the first orientalists to produce a systematic survey and alphabetized account of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish literature with dictionaries for each language.

• ʿABD-AL-JABBĀR ASTARĀBĀDĪ

  D. Duda

  calligrapher of the taʿlīq script and bookpainter. 

• ALTHEN, JEAN-BAPTISTE JOANNIS

  S. Schuster-Walser

  (1121-88/1709-74),  who introduced the cultivation of madder into southern France.

• BĀBIRUŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See BABYLON.

• ČĀL TARḴĀN

  Jens Kröger

  (Čāl Tarḵān-ʿEšqābād), a site about 20 km southeast of Ray with remains from the late Sasanian and early Islamic periods.

• DĪRAKVAND

  Pierre Oberling

  Lor tribe belonging to the Bālā Garīva group and inhabiting a mountainous area between Ḵorramābād and Dezfūl in the Pīš-Kūh region of Lorestān.

• COMMUNISM i. In Persia to 1941

  Cosroe Chaqueri

• PORTUGAL i. RELATIONS WITH PERSIA IN THE EARLY MODERN AGE (1500-1750)

  Joao Teles e Cunha

  Portuguese-Persian relations had some importance for both countries during the early Modern Age, coinciding with the rise and fall of the Safavids.

• GRAY, BASIL

  John Michael Rogers

  (1904-1989), art historian and the keeper of Oriental antiquities at the British Museum (1946-69).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ADRAPANA

  C. J. Brunner

  the third station from the western border of “Upper Media” recorded by Isidore of Charax in the 1st century CE.

• FARMĀNFARMĀ, ḤOSAYN-ʿALĪ MĪRZĀ

  Gavin R. G. Hambly

  (1789-1835), the fifth son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah, long-time governor of Fārs, and briefly the self-styled king of Persia.

• ĒMĒD Ī AŠAWAHIŠTĀN

  Mansour Shaki

  (Exposition [of Zoroastrian doctrines] by Ēmēd, son of Ašawahišt), a major 10th-century Pahlavi work comprising forty-four questions (pursišn).

• MĀ WARĀʾ AL-NAHR

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  the classical designation for Transoxania or Transoxiana. It was defined by the early Arabic historians and geographers as the lands under Muslim control lying to the north of the middle and upper Oxus or Āmu Daryā.

• Meʿyār-e Jamāli wa meftāḥ-e Abu Esḥāqi

  Solomon Bayevsky

  (‘Jamāl’s touchstone and Abu Esḥāq’s key’), a dictionary of the Persian language (comp. ca. 745/1344).

• GĀVĀN GĪLĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See MAḤMŪD GĪLĀNĪ.

• HERZEGOVINA

  cross-reference

  See BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA.

• ʿABD-AL-QĀDER JĪLĀNĪ

  B. Lawrence

  noted Hanbalite preacher, Sufi shaikh and the eponymous founder of the Qāderī order.

• ĀMED

  Cross-Reference

  See AMIDA.

• BADAḴŠĪ, MOLLĀ SHAH

  H. Algar

  (also known as Shah Moḥammad; 1584-1661), a mystic and writer of the Qāderī order, given both to the rigorous practice of asceticism and to the ecstatic proclamation of theopathic sentiment.

• CAMPBELL, JOHN

  Kamran Ekbal

  (1799-1870), British envoy to Persia, 1830-35.

• DOGONBADAN

  Cross-Reference

  See GAČSARĀN.

• COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY vii. In Shaikhism

  Denis M. MacEoin

• TOBACCO

  Willem Floor

  Modes of use, cultivation, and cultural connotations of Tobacco in Iran. Persian sources imply that the use of tobacco was already known in Persia before its introduction into Europe in the 1550s.

• GREECE x. GREEK MEDICINE IN PERSIA

  Gül Russell

• AFRAHĀṬ

  J. P. Asmussen

  name attested in Syriac (ʾfrhṭ) of a number of Iranian Christian churchmen.

• ARTEMITA IN APOLLONIATIS

  M. L. Chaumont

  city of the Parthian period in eastern Iraq.

• BEDLĪS

  Robert Dankoff

  (Turk. Bitlis, Arm. Bałēš, Ar. Badlīs), town and province of Turkey, of Kurdish population, situated twenty km southwest of Lake Van, commanding the passes between the Armenian highlands and the Mesopotamian lowlands.

• DĀʿĪ ELAʾL-ḤAQQ, ABŪ ʿABD ALLĀH MOḤAMMAD

  Wilfred Madelung

  b. Zayd b. Moḥammad b. Esmāʿīl b. Ḥasan b. ʿAlī b. Abī Ṭāleb (d. 287/900), brother and successor of Ḥasan b. Zayd, founder of Zaydī rule in Rūyān and Ṭabarestān.

• FĀRŪQĪ, MOLLĀ MAḤMŪD

  Cross-reference

  See Supplement.

• ENŠĀʾ

  Jürgen Paul

  lit. "composition"; the process of creating or composing something as well as the result of this process and the rules of the art; it denotes a genre of prose literature, copies, drafts, or specimens of official and private correspondence.

• KHOTAN

  Multiple Authors

  town (lat 37°06′ N, long 79°56′ E) and major oasis of the southern Tarim Basin in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China.

• OZAI-DURRANI, ATAULLAH K.

  EIr

  Afghan inventor and developer of fast-cooking rice, marketed under the name “Minute Rice.”

• ḠĀLEB DADA, MOḤAMMAD ASʿAD

  Tahsın Yazici

  also known as Mehmed Esad Galib Dede, Shaikh Ḡāleb, or Şeyh Galib (b. Istanbul, 1757; d. Galata, 1799) poet in Turkish and Persian.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY ix. PAHLAVI PERIOD (1)

  Abbas Amanat

  Historiography of this period will be treated in two separate entries: (1) General survey of historical writings; and (2) Specific topics concerning historical works.

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ

  D. Duda

  Name of two artists of the Safavid period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AMĪN LAŠKAR, MĪRZĀ QAHRAMĀN

  A. Amanat

  (1244-1310/1828-92), a middle rank Qajar official during the rule of Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah.

• BADR JĀJARMĪ

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  a 13th-century poet popular in his own time for his rhetorical skills.

• CARIA

  Michael Weiskopf

  in the area of southwestern Turkey, under Achaemenid rule first as a part of the satrapy of Sparda (Lydia; 540s-390s B.C.), then as a separate satrapy (390s-30s B.C.) under the Hecatomnid family, whose prominence and self-promotion created a number of mostly Greek epigraphic documents detailing the development of 4th-century Caria.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DORRĀNĪ

  Daniel Balland

  probably the most numerous Pashtun tribal confederation, from which all Afghan dynasties since 1747 have come. The Dorrānī confederation is a political grouping of ten Pashtun tribes of various sizes, which are further organized in two leagues of five tribes each.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EMĀMZĀDA i. Function and devotional practice

  Hamid Algar

• PAUL THE PERSIAN

  Byard Bennett

  writer at the time of the Nestorian Patriarch Ezekiel (567-580 C.E.), well versed in ecclesiastical and philosophical matters.

• ḠUR

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a region of central Afghanistan, essentially the modern administrative province (welāyat) of Ḡōrāt.

• JAʿFARQOLI KHAN BAḴTIĀRI

  cross-reference

  See BAḴTIĀRI (1).

• AFŻAL KHAN ḴAṬAK

  J. Enevoldsen

  (b. 1075/1664-65), chief of the Ḵaṭak tribe, Pashto poet, and author ofTārīḵ-emoraṣṣaʿ.

• AṦA VAHIŠTA

  cross-reference

  See ARDWAHIŠT.

• BEHRŪZ DONBOLĪ

  cross-reference

  , AMĪR. See DONBOLĪ, AMĪR BEHRŪZ.

• FAUNA i. FAUNA OF PERSIA

  Steven Anderson

  The Persian fauna is known in piecemeal fashion from studies of various groups of animals, but there has so far been no coordinated effort to record the entire range systematically, as there has been for the Persian flora and for the fauna of the former Soviet Union, former British India, and the Arabian peninsula.

• EQTEṢĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See ECONOMY.

• MANDANE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  name of a daughter of the Median king Astyages.

• CAUCASUS, iii. ACHAEMENID RULE IN

  Bruno Jacobs

  Achaemenid rule in the Caucasus region was established, at the latest, in the course of the Scythian campaign of Darius I in 513-12 BCE.

• GANJ-E ŠĀYAGĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement

• HOMOSEXUALITY iii. IN PERSIAN LITERATURE

  EIr

  a sharp contrast exists between the treatment of homosexuality in Islamic law and its reflection in Persian literature, particularly poetry (the chief vehicle of Persian literary expression).

• ABDĀL, QARA ŠEMSĪ

  T. Yazici

  (1244-1303/1828-86), a Turkish poet who also wrote poetry in Persian.

• AMĪR SAYYED ʿALĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ AL-AʿLĀ.

• BAḠDĀDĪ, ʿABD-AL-QĀHER

  J. van Ess

  B. ṬĀHER ŠĀFEʿĪ TAMĪMĪ (ca. 961-1038), mathematician, Shafeʿite jurist, and Asḥʿarite theologian.

• CASSANDANE

  Muhammad Dandamayev

  wife of Cyrus II, an Achaemenian, sister of Otanes and daughter of Pharnaspes.

• DRUSTBED

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  chief physician in the Sasanian period.

• FACULTIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEHRAN v. Faculty of Medicine

  YŪNOS KARĀMATĪ and EIr

  (Dāneškada-ye pezeškī), the pioneering academic institution of modern medicine in Persia, one of the six main faculties of the new University of Tehran in 1934. It was the successor to the Dār al-fonūn Department of Medicine, established in 1851, which had become the School of Medicine (Madrasa-ye ṭebb) in 1919.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ANJOMAN-E VELĀYATI

  ʿAli Reżā Abtaḥi

  (Provincial Council) of Isfahan, set up subsequent to the establishment of the Parliament (majles) to secure the aims of the Constitutional Revolution.

• ḤABLARUD

  M. H. Ganji

  river in Damāvand and Garmsār districts of Semnān province in northern Persia.

• JALĀL-AL-DIN ABU’L-QĀSEM TABRIZI

  Farhan Nizami

  (d. 1244-45), a prominent Sufi of the Sohravardiya Order.

• AḤMAD B. ʿABDALLĀH

  H. Halm

  (3rd/9th century), son of the supposed founder of Ismaʿili doctrine and grandfather of the first Fatimid caliph, Mahdī.

• ASB-SAVĀRĪ

  J.-P. Digard

  "horse-riding." The Iranian lands, in the course of their long history, have been the source of major advances in the techniques of equitation.

• BEŠĀRAT

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (Glad tidings), a weekly Persian journal of news and political comment, Mašhad, 1907.

• DAQĀYEQĪ MARVAZĪ, ŠAMS-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  b. ʿAlī, the supposed author of a version of the Baḵtīār­nāma, who lived from the late 12th to the 13th century.

• FELT

  Daniel Balland and Jean-Pierre Digard

  (namad), material produced by process of felting, the entanglement of animal fiber in all directions, done to form a soft and homogeneous mass. The technique was originally devised in nomadic communities of Central Asia (Pazyryk, 5th to 3rd centuries BCE).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ERZENJĀN

  Cross-Reference

  a town in northeastern Anatolia. See ARZENJĀN.

• GERMANY

  Multiple Authors

  i. German-Persian diplomatic relations, ii. Archeological excavations and studies, iii. Iranian studies in German: Pre-Islamic period, iv. Iranian studies in German: Islamic period, v. German travelers and explorers in Persia, vi. Collections and study of Persian art in Germany, vii. Persia in German literature, viii. German cultural influence in Persia, ix. Germans in Persia, x. The Persian community in Germany.

• TIGRIS RIVER

  Daniel T. Potts

  major river arising in the Taurus mountains of eastern Turkey, fed mainly by snow melt, which flows about 2,032 km through eastern Turkey and Iraq to the Persian Gulf.

• GAVOR QALʿA

  Cross-Reference

  See GYAUR KALA.

• ḤOSĀM-AL-DIN ČALABI

  Mohammad Estelami

  , ḤASAN B. MOḤAMMAD b. Ḥasan, Ebn Aḵi Tork (d. 1284), leading disciple and first successor of Jalāl-al-Din Rumi.

• ʿABDALLĀH KHAN UZBEK

  M. H. Siddiqi

  Mughal noble and general and also briefly an autonomous ruler (10th/16th century).

• ĀMŪ DARYĀ

  B. Spuler

  river about 2,500 km long, regarded in ancient times as the boundary between Iran and Tūrān.

• BAHĀR, MOḤAMMAD-TAQĪ

  M. B. Loraine, J. Matīnī

  poet, scholar, journalist, politician, and historian (1886-1951). i. Life and work. ii. Bahār as a poet.

• ČEHRANEMĀ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (lit. “mirror”), the name of an illustrated Persian newspaper and periodical published in Egypt (1322-1338 Š./1904-59, with interruptions).

• DŪRAOŠA

  Jean Kellens

  Avestan word, attested once in the Older Avesta, in the Younger Avesta the preferred and exclusive epithet of haoma, the ritual liquid.

• CARPETS x. Afsharid and Zand Periods

  Layla S. Diba

  Although it is probable that magnificent silk-and-brocade rugs in the style of the Safavid court manufactories were no longer produced in significant quantities, it seems reasonable to assume that production of less luxurious wool rugs continued in many traditional centers, even though on a smaller scale and mainly for domestic consumption.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MOḤAMMAD SHAH QĀJĀR

  Jean Calmard

  (1808-1848), the third ruler of the Qajar dynasty after his grandfather Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah (q.v.).

• ḤĀFEẒ EṢFAHĀNI

  Parviz Mohebbi

  , Mawlānā Moḥammad, known as Moḵtareʿ (inventor), 15th-16th century engineer, summoned by the Timurid court of Sultan Ḥosayn Bāyqarā to construct a clock after a European model.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĀMĀSP-NĀMA

  Cross-Reference

  See AYĀDGĀR I JĀMĀSPIG.

• AḤMAD ŠĪRĀZĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  Ghaznavid official and vizier, d. ca. 434/1043.

• ĀŠKBŌS

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  a Turanian hero from Kašān or Košān in the story of “Kāmūs-e Kašānī,” in the Šāh-nāma.

• BHAVĀṄGA

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  the name assigned by H. W. Bailey to ten fragmentary Khotanese folios, a transcription of which he published.

• DARBĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀR; COURTS AND COURTIERS.

• FESTIVALS ix. Assyrian

  WILLIAM PIROYAN and EDEN NABY

  The adoption of Christianity by the Assyrians in the latter part of the 1st century led to the harmonization of older community celebrations and commemorations with Christian doctrine as well as the introduction of specifically Christian religious holidays.

• ESFEZĀRĪ, ABŪ ḤĀTEM

  Cross-Reference

  5th/12th-century astronomer. See ASFEZĀRĪ, ABŪ ḤĀTEM.

• KHORASANI

  Cross-Reference

  See AḴŪND MOLLĀ MOḤAMMAD-KĀẒEM ḴORĀSĀNĪ.

• LURISTAN BRONZES ii. CHRONOLOGY

  Bruno Overlaet

  OF LURISTAN AS REPRESENTED IN COLLECTIONS A few stray Luristan bronzes were acquired by European museums as early as the second half of the 19th century. At that time, however, their origin was unknown.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GAZMA

  Cross-Reference

  See CITIES.

• HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, ALBERT

  John D. Gurney

  , Sir, engineer and employee of the Persian government for over thirty years in the later 19th and early 20th centuries (1846-1916). For both the Persian government and the expatriate community, his importance reached far beyond any official position he held. Unlike many of the foreign advisers employed by successive Persian governments, he was both loyal and knowledgeable.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABĪVARDĪ, ḤOSĀM-AL-DĪN

  L. A. Giffen

  jurisconsult, mathematician and logician (d. 1413).

• ʿANDALIB, NĀṢER MOḤAMMAD

  A. Schimmel

  Sufi writer (b. in Delhi 1105/1693-94, d. 1172/1759).

• BAHRA

  P. Clawson and W. Floor

  a term meaning “share,” “gain,” or “profit,” used within the economic context of Islamic Iran to mean “return on investment or production.”

• CHAGHATAYID DYNASTY

  Peter Jackson

  name given to the descendants of Čengīz Khan’s second son Čaḡatai, who reigned in Transoxania until ca. 771/1370 and in parts of Turkestan down to the 11th/17th century.

• EBLĪS

  Hamid Algar

  a Koranic designation for the devil in Persian Sufi Tradition, derived ultimately from the Greek diabolos.

• MONGOLS ii. Mongolian Loanwords in Persian

  Michael Knüppel

• ḴĀLEDI, Mehdi

  E. Naḵjavāni

  Persian violinist and songwriter (1919-1990). As a violinist, Ḵāledi was known for his command of traditional Persian music.

• ḤĀJI FIRUZ

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  the most famous among the traditional folk entertainers, who appears in the Persian streets in the days preceding Nowruz. The Ḥāji Firuz entertains passers-by by singing traditional songs and dancing and playing his tambourine for a few coins. He rarely knocks on a door, but begins his performance as soon as the door is opened.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀĪNA-YE ḠAYBNOMĀ

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  “The Revealing Mirror,” a fortnightly illustrated magazine which began publication in Tehran on 22 Jomādā I 1325/3 July 1907, edited by Sayyed ʿAbd-al-Raḥīm Kāšānī.

• ĀŠRAF GĪLĀNĪ

  M. Rahman

  (1870-1934), poet and leading journalist of the Constitutional era.

• BIHAR

  Syed Hasan Askari

  (Behār), a state in northeastern India, bounded by Nepal in the north, West Bengal in the east, Orissa in the south, and Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh in the west. This article treats the influence of Persian language and culture in Bihar.

• DARRŪS

  Sayyed ʿAlī Āl-e Dāwūd, JOHN CURTIS

  district in northern Tehran east of Qol-hak and south of Qayṭarīya, all former suburbs of the city; it is located about 8 km from the center of the modern city.

• FIRE TEMPLES

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀTAŠKADA.

• EŠM b. ŠEḠĀY

  Cross-Reference

  See CENTRAL ASIA.

• KALIMI

  Amnon Netzer

  the word used to refer to the Jews of Iran in modern Persian usage.

• ABARSHAHR

  Cross-Reference

  Name of Nishapur province in western Khorasan. See ABARŠAHR.

• HYDROLOGY

  Xavier de Planhol

  i. Iranian plateau. ii. Southwestern Persia. iii. Afghanistan. From a hydrological perspective, southwestern Persia must be considered as part of the Persian Gulf drainage region. Extending over an area of more than 350,000 km², its main drainage area covers the central and southwestern Zagros mountain areas with their extremely complex geomorphology.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ ʿALĪ DĀMḠĀNĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  vizier of the Samanids in the last years of their power.

• ANGŪR

  M. Bazin, X. de Planhol, W. L. Hanaway, Jr

  "grapes."   The grape-vine is probably the oldest and best known of the cultivated fruit plants grown in Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAKHSHIEV MISHI

  M. Zand

  (1910-1972), Judeo-Tat author.

• CHINGGIS KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ČENGĪZ KHAN.

• EBN DAYṢĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See BARDESANES.

• OKRA

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀMĪA.

• NAXARAR

  N. Garsoian

  term given to the para-feudal, social pattern that early Armenia apparently shared with Parthian Iran, although it was preserved into the Sasanian period and beyond.

• JAZI, ʿABBĀS

  Habib Borjian

  , DARVIŠ (1847-1905), poet in the dialect of Gaz (q.v.), an oasis north of Isfahan.

• AḴLĀQ

  F. Rahman

  “ethics” (plural form of ḵoloq “inborn character, moral character, moral virtue”).

• ĀŠTĪĀNĪ, ḤASAN

  H. Algar

  (d. 1319/1901), late 19-century moǰtahed who played an important role in the campaign against the tobacco concession of 1309/1891.

• BLACK SHEEP DYNASTY

  Forthcoming online.

• DAŠT-E NĀWOR

  Gérard Fussman

  lit. “plain of the lake”; a depression (average elev. 3,100 m) 60 x 15 km with a brackish lake in the center, located at 33° 41’ N and 67° 46’ E, about 60 km west of Ḡaznī.

• ESTAHBĀN

  Mīnū Yūsof-nežād

  town and district in Fārs, bordered in the north by the Baḵtagān lake, in the northeast and the east by Neyrīz/Nīrīz, in the south by Dārāb, in the southwest by Fasā, and in the west by Shiraz.

• SUSA ii. HISTORY DURING THE ELAMITE PERIOD

  François Vallat

  iThe Elamite period lasted from about 2400 BCE, when Susa was probably the domain of the kings of Awan, up to Cyrus the Great’s seizure of power in 539 BCE. This span of almost two thousand years has been divided into three clearly defined phases called paleo-, meso-, and neo-Elamite, each of which presents peculiarities of its own.

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• GERMANY ix. Germans in Persia

  Oliver Bast

  The Germans in Persia who have risen to a certain prominence fall mainly into one or more of the following categories: a) travelers and explorers (see above); b) experts in the service of the Persian government; c) agents and soldiers; d) members of German institutions in Persia.

• IL-KHANIDS

  Multiple Authors

  the Mongol dynasty in Persia and the surrounding countries, from about 1260 until about 1335. The dynasty was founded by Holāgu/Hülegü Khan, the grandson of Čengiz Khan.

• ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM

  C. E. Bosworth

  governor of Ḡazna in eastern Afghanistan on behalf of the Samanids (352/963-355/966).

• ANQARAVĪ, ROSŪḴ-AL-DĪN

  H. Algar

  (also known as Rosūḵī Dede; d. 1041/1631), a shaikh in the Mawlawī order and author of the most important traditional commentary on theMaṯnawī of Jalāl-al-dīn Rūmī.

• BĀLANG

  W. Eilers

  citron, the fruit of a species of citrus tree (Citrus medica cedrata). This article discusses the history of the word.

• ČĪDAG ANDARZ Ī PŌRYŌTKĒŠĀN

  Mansour Shaki

  (Selected precepts of the ancient sages), a post-Sasanian compendium of apothegms intended to instruct every Zoroastrian male, upon his attaining the age of fifteen years, in fundamental religious and ethical principles, as well as in the daily duties incumbent upon him.

• EBN MĀKŪLA

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E MĀKŪLĀ.

• FARR(AH) ii. ICONOGRAPHY OF FARR(AH)/XᵛARƎNAH

  Abolala Soudavar

  In terms of iconographic representation, there is perhaps no more dominant a theme than farr in pre-Islamic imagery. Farr not only portended auspiciousness, but was also perceived as a necessary source of power, and ultimately a source of authority. 

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• INDO-SCYTHIAN DYNASTY

  R. C. Senior

  from Maues, the first (Indo-)Scythian king of India (ca. 120-85 BCE) to the mid-1st century CE. When precisely and under what circumstances Maues arrived in India is uncertain, but the expulsion of the Scythian (Saka/Sai) peoples from Central Asia is referred to in the Han Shu, where the cause given is their confrontation with the Ta Yüeh-chih, themselves undergoing an enforced migration.

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• HĀMUN, DARYĀČA-YE

  Eckart Ehlers, Gherardo Gnoli

  (or simply Hāmun), lit. “lake of the plain, lowland,” a lake covering the deepest part of the Sistān depression and the Sistān watershed.

• JIROFT iii. GENERAL SURVEY OF EXCAVATIONS

  Oscar White Muscarella

  All the artifacts known to date that are accorded the Jiroft label have not been excavated; they have in fact been plundered.

• ĀL-E BORHĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  the name of a family of spiritual and civic leaders in Bokhara during the 6th/12th and early 7th/13th centuries.

• ĀTAŠ, Ḵᵛāja ʿAlī Ḥaydar

  M. Baqir

  late 18th to early 19th-century Indo-Muslim poet in Persian and Urdu.

• BOLBOL, AŠRAF DAYRĪ

  Giri L. Tikku

  Persian poet of Kashmir (1682-1775-6).

• DAVALLU

  Cross-Reference

  See QAJAR TRIBES.

• ARCHITECTURE vi. Safavid to Qajar Periods

  R. Hillenbrand

  Iranian architecture from the 16th to the 19th centuries is, not surprisingly, dominated by the Safavids. Though no accurate checklist has been drawn up, it is clear that within the present political borders of Iran several hundred buildings datable between 907/1502 and 1138/1725 survive.

• EULAEUS RIVER

  Cross-Reference

  See KARḴA.

• TANNING, RUBBER, AND FOOTWEAR INDUSTRIES

  Willem Floor

  Tanning was an economic activity traditionally practiced all over Iran, not only in the large towns, but also (for local consumption) in small towns and large villages, and it was practiced on a small scale by the nomads. Hamadan in particular was famed for its manufacture of leather due to the abundant supply of water.

• GĪLĀN NEWSPAPERS

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of four newspapers published in Rašt.

• ABŪ ḤĀMED TORKA

  Fazlur Rahman

  scholar and author of the late 7th/13th and early 8th/14th centuries, the first in a line of prominent men of the Torka-ye Eṣfahānī family.

• APASIACAE

  R. Schmitt

  name of a nomadic tribe belonging to the Scythian Massagetae, not attested in Iranian sources.

• BĀMŠĀD newspaper

  N. Parvīn

  a Persian newspaper and a news and public affairs magazine published in Tehran, 1956-68.

• CLEANSING

  Multiple Authors

• EBN ŠĀHAWAYH

  Wilferd Madelung

  a leader and envoy of the Carmatians.

• DIATESSERON

  Cross-reference

  Persian translation of the four Gospels, based on a Syriac original. See BIBLE vii. Persian Translations.

• STOREY, Charles Ambrose

  Yuri Bregel

  British orientalist, author of the bio-bibliographical survey of Persian literature (1888-1968).

• ḪARḪAR

  Inna Medvedskaya

  a land and a city at the western border of Media. It was taken several times by the Assyrian kings Shalmanaser III (r. 860-825 BCE) and Adad-nerari III (r. 812-782).

• JOVAYNI FAMILY

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  a family of men of the pen and statesmen of the 13th and 14th centuries in Iran. Men of this family held high positions in the government under the Saljuq, Ḵᵛārazmšāh, and Il-khanid dynasties.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA SEMNĀNĪ

  J. van Ess

  (1261-1336), famous mystic of the Il-khanid period, opponent of the growing influence of Ebn ʿArabī in Iran.

• AUTOPHRADATES

  M. A. Dandamayev

  name of several Achaemenid officials, especially the satrap of Lydia under the  Artaxerxes II, from 391 B.C. until the late 350s.

• BORHĀN-E QĀṬEʿ

  Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī

  (Conclusive proof), the title of a Persian dictionary compiled in India in the 11th/17th century by Moḥammad-Ḥosayn b. Ḵalaf Tabrīzī, who used the pen-name Borhān.

• DAY

  W. W. Malandra

  (Av. daδuuah-, Pahl. day “creator”), an epithet of Ahura Mazdā that became the name of the tenth month, as well as of the eighth, fifteenth, and twenty-third days in each month of the Zoroastrian calendar.

• AVICENNA xi. Persian Works

  M. Achena

• EZĪRĀN

  Sheila S. Blair

  a village 32 km southeast of Isfahan on the south bank of the river Zāyandarūd. 

• ABU'L-KHAYRIDS

  Yuri Bregel

  name used for the dynasty that ruled the khanate of Bukhara in 906-1007/1500-99. Until recently, this dynasty was incorrectly called in Western literature “Shaybanids” (or “Shibanids”).

• GOBINEAU, Joseph Arthur de

  Jean Calmard

  (1816-1882), French man of letters, artist, polemist, Orientalist, and diplomat, whose influential socio-historical and racial theories were expounded in his writings, and particularly in his Essai sur l’inégalité desraces humaines.

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• INSECTIVORES

  Steven C. Anderson

  members of the mammalian order, small animals with several conservative anatomical characteristics. They retain five digits on all limbs and walk or run with soles and heels on the ground (plantigrade). Three families are represented in Persia and Afghanistan: hedgehogs, family Erinaceidae; moles, family Talpidae; and shrews, family Soricidae.

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• ABŪ JAʿFAR ḴĀZEN

  D. Pingree

  astronomer (ca. 287/900-probably 360/970).

• ʿĀQEL, MIRZA MOḤAMMAD

  M. Baqir

   Kashmiri poet and courtier who flourished in the first half of the 12th/18th century.

• BANĪ ṬOROF

  J. Perry

  (Banu Turuf), a large Shiʿite Arab tribe of Howayza (Ḥawīza) district in Ḵūzestān, mostly sedentary, centered north of Howayza between Sūsangerd and Bostān (Besaytīn).

• COFFEEHOUSE PAINTING

  Cross-Reference

  See PAINTING.

• EBRĀHĪM KHAN QĀJĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See ẒAHIR-AL-DAWLA, EBRĀHIM KHAN.

• KĀMI MEHMED-I KARAMĀNI

  Osman G. Özgüdenlī

  Ottoman scholar, judge, poet, and translator.

• OXUS TRUMPET

  Bo Lawergren

  an artifact mostly found in the border area between northern Afghanistan and southern parts of the former USSR.

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• ḤASAN GĀNGU

  M. Shokoohy

  , ʿALĀ ʿ-AL-DIN ḤASAN BAHMANŠĀH (r. 1347-57), a Khorasani adventurer at the court of Delhi.

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS iii. SASANIAN LEGAL SYSTEM

  Maria Macuch

  A great number of treatises on jurisprudence must have existed in the Sasanian age, called dādestān-nāmag “Lawbooks,” but only one text from this period has survived.

• ĀLĀT

  F. M. Kotwal and J. W. Boyd

  “utensils,” for Parsis the “sacred apparatus” employed in Zoroastrian rituals. 

• AWTĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See ABDĀL; AWLĪĀʾ.

• BOYŪTĀT-E SALṬANATĪ

  Birgitt Hoffmann

  (lit. royal houses), in the Safavid period (1501-1732) departments and production workshops within the royal household serving primarily the needs of the court.

• DEHESTĀNĪ , AʿAZZ-AL-MOLKNEẒĀM-AL-DĪN ABU’L-MAḤĀSEN ʿABD-AL-JALĪL

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. ʿAlī, twice vizier to the Saljuq sultan Barkīāroq (1094-1105).

• BAZAR iii. Socioeconomic and Political Role

  Ahmad Ashraf

  The bāzār in the Islamic city has been (1) a central marketplace and craft center located in the old quarters of the town; (2) a primary arena, along with the mosque, of extrafamilial sociability; and (3) a sociocultural milieu of a traditional urban life-style.

• FAḴR-AL-ZAMĀNĪ QAZVĪNĪ, ʿABD-AL-NABĪ

  Cross-reference

  See ʿABD-AL-NABĪ QAZVĪNĪ.

• ḴALIFA SOLṬĀN

  Rudi Matthee

  (1592/93-1654), grand vizier under Shah ʿAbbās I (r. 1588-1629) and then again under Shah ʿAbbās II (r. 1642-66).

• ḠOLĀMĀN-E ḴAṢṢA-YE ŠARIFA

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABBĀS I; BARDA and BARDADĀRĪ v.

• ABŪ NAṢR MANṢŪR

  D. Pingree

  mathematician and astronomer, born probably in Gīlān about 349/960.

• ARARAT

  X. de Planhol

  extinct volcano in the northeastern extremity of Turkey close to the Iran-Soviet frontiers.  

• BARAḠĀNĪ, MOḤAMMAD-TAQĪ

  D. M. MacEoin

  QAZVĪNĪ, ŠAHĪD-E ṮĀLEṮ, MOLLĀ, an important Shiʿite ʿālem of Qazvīn (d. 1847).

• CONSTELLATIONS

  D. N. MacKenzie

  Nowhere in the Gathas of Zoroaster or the Old Persian inscriptions of the Achaemenids are even individual stars mentioned. The first and only two constellations to be named in Old Iranian sources are Ursa Major and the Pleiades, in the Younger Avesta. The next possible mentions of constellations are of two kinds, both dating from late Middle Persian times but only actually attested in works or manuscripts from the Islamic period.

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• ECONOMY xii. IN TAJIKISTAN

  Habib Borjian

  During the seventy years of centralized Soviet administration, the economy of Tajikistan was modernized and integrated into the Soviet economy. As a participant in the general dynamics of Soviet economic development, the Tajik Soviet Republic exhibited comparatively remarkable growth in the agricultural and industrial sectors

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• YUSOF O ZOLAYḴĀ

  Cross-Reference

  A love story with religious overtones, the romance of Yusof and Zolayḵā has always been among the very favorite themes of Persian poets who, with direct or oblique references to its various episodes, created a desired imagery, expanded on a particular point in the poem, conveyed a poetic meassage or reinforced it. See JOSEPH i. IN PERSIAN LITERATURE.

• FLÜGEL, GUSTAV LEBERECHT

  Gerd Gropp

  (b. 18 February 1802, Bautzen; d. 5 July 1870, Dresden), German orientalist.

• ḤAYĀT-DĀWUDI

  Pierre Oberling

  a sedentary Lor tribe dwelling in the dehestān of Ḥayāt-dāwūd, stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Māhur-e Mīlāti mountains, northwest of Bušehr.

• KADAGISTĀN

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  an eastern province of the Sasanian empire. The clearest evidence for the existence of such a province is provided by a bulla bearing the impression of a seal.

• ʿALĪ B. ASAD

  ʿA. Ḥabībī

  (second half of the 11th cent.), the amir of Badaḵšān to whom Nāṣer(-e) Ḵosrow dedicated his Jāmeʿ al-ḥekmatayn

• AYVĀN-E KESRĀ

  E. J. Keall

  (or ṬĀQ-E KESRĀ) the Palace of Ḵosrow at Ctesiphon, the most famous of all Sasanian monuments and a landmark in the history of architecture, now only an imposing brick ruin.

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• BROCKELMANN, CARL

  Rudolph Sellheim

  German orientalist (1868-1956).During a long and serene life as a scholar Brock­elmann produced a wealth of fundamental publications. His monumental output represents the unity of Oriental studies in his time.

• DEMOGRAPHY

  Bernard Hourcade, Daniel Balland

  Since World War II Persia, formerly a rural and tribal country dominated by elderly notables and with low population growth, has come to have a majority of young urban dwellers, mostly literate and multiplying rapidly. In 1979, the proportions of urban dwellers and individuals classified as literate both passed the threshold of 50 percent.

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• FĀRĀBĪ

  Multiple Authors

  Muslim philosopher of the 10th century.

• MAḤALLĀTI, Moḥammad

  Javad Golmohammadi

  a master calligrapher of the Timurid period, known only through three surviving works on wood and stone (a cetanoph, a door, and a stone plaque), which reflect the stylistic influence of the Timurid prince and master calligrapher Ḡiāṯ-al-Din Bāysonqor (d. 1493).

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• GOLPĀYAGĀNI, MOḤAMMAD-REŻĀ

  Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi

  , Ayatollah Sayyed  (1899-1993), a chief figure in the contemporary Shiʿite clerical hierarchy (marjaʿiyat-e taqlid), who took a moderate stand in the opposition to what was considered the state’s disregard for Islamic principles in the name of modernization.

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• IRAN LEAGUE

  Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa

  organization established in 1922 by prominent Parsis with the aim of reviving and strengthening cultural and other ties between the Parsis of India and Iran.

• ABŪ SAHL KŪHĪ

  D. Pingree

  (also QŪHĪ), mathematician and astronomer.

• ARDAKĀNĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  D. MacEoin

  known as Ḥāǰǰī Amīn and Amīn-e Elāhī, one of the four Ayādī-e Amr Allāh appointed by Bahāʾallāh as leaders of the Bahaʾi movement in Iran.

• BĀRFORŪŠĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ʿALĪ

  D. M. MacEoin

  , MOLLĀ, important figure in early Babism (1823-49).

• CORPUS INSCRIPTIONUM IRANICARUM

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  (C.I.I.), an association devoted to the col­lection and publication of Iranian inscriptions and documents.

• EDUCATION xxvii. IN AFGHANISTAN

  M. Mobin Shorish

  By the end of the 19th century, mosque schools (maktabs) and madrasas had lost their vitality, rigor, and scope. As modern Afghanistan emerged, internecine struggles among the ruling Abdālī  and subsequently among the Moḥammadzai clan ensured that no trace of regular and systematic education remained in the country.

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• ŠAHNĀZI, ʿAli Akbar

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi

  (1897-1984) master musician, renowned teacher, and composer of Persian classical music.

• FORUTĀN, YŪSOF

  Jean During

  a twentieth century master of Persian music.

• HEALTH IN PERSIA iii. QAJAR PERIOD

  Amir Arsalan Afkhami

  Under the Qajars a centralized public health policy was introduced for the first time in Persia.

• ĀBĀN YAŠT

  Mary Boyce

  Middle Persian name of the fifth hymn among the Zoroastrian hymns to individual divinities. It is the third longest, with 131 verses.

• ʿALĪ AL-AʿLĀ

  H. Algar

  (d. 822/1419), also known as Amīr Sayyed ʿAlī, principal successor of Fażlallāh Astarābādī, founder of the Ḥorūfī sect.

• ĀẔARBĀYJĀN JOURNAL

  N. Parvīn

  (ĀḎARBĀY[E]JĀN), the title of a satirical-political journal published at Tabrīz in 1907.

• BURIAL i. Pre-Historic Burial Sites

  Ezzatollah Negahban

  The earliest human skeletal remains found in Persia date from before the 8th millennium B.C. They have been excavated at several cave dwelling sites: Hotu Cave (Angel) and Belt Cave, both on the south­eastern shore of the Caspian Sea; Behistun (Bīsotūn) Cave near Kermānšāh; and Konjī and Arjana Caves in Luristan.

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• DEYLAM, JOHN OF

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  or Yoḥannān Daylomāyā (d. 738), Eastern Syrian saint and founder of monasteries in Fārs.

• KEŠ

  Pavel Lurje

  (Kešš, Kašš), an important ancient and medieval city, located in the upper Kaškā-daryā valley, now Shahrisabz, Uzbekistan.

• GŌR

  Cross-Reference

  the historical name for present-day Firuzābād in Fārs. See ARDAŠIR ḴORRA; FIRUZĀBĀD.

• ABU’L-WAFĀ BŪZJĀNI

  D. Pingree

  Mathematician and astronomer (10th-11th century).

• ARG-E KARĪM KHAN

  K. Afsar

  citadel built by the Zand ruler Karīm Khan (1163-93/1750-79).

• BARTHÉLEMY, ADRIEN

  F. Richard

  French orientalist (1859-1949). A devoted linguist, he published a study of the Pahlavi Gujastag Abāliš, before a career in diplomacy led him to a monumental dictionary of eastern Arabic dialects.

• CROW

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  a bird of the family Corvidae, represented in Persia and Afghanistan by six genera. Several of their features are more or less reflected in Persian literature and folklore. In poetry the blackness of  the feathers (par[r]-e zāḡ) has often been used in similes to emphasize the blackness or darkness of a lock of hair, a certain night, clouds, and the like.

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• FARĀMŪŠ-ḴĀNA

  Cross-Reference

  See FREEMASONRY.

• EḴTĪĀRĀT

  David Pingree

  lit. "choices, elections"; a term used in Islamic divination and astrology in at least four principle meanings.

• OḴOWWAT

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (Brotherhood), the name of four newspapers and one magazine published in Tabriz, Rašt, Shiraz, Kermānšāh, and Baghdad in the early 1900s.

• AṢAMM

  F. W. Zimmermann

  (d. 200/815-6 or 201/816-7), Muʿtazilite of Baṣra.

• FRAŠEGERD

  Cross-reference

  See FRAŠŌ.KƎRƎTI.

• HELL i. IN ZOROASTRIANISM

  Philippe Gignoux

  Hell is not explicitly mentioned in the Gathas. There are only allusions, where it is said that the soul and the daēnā of the wicked will be guests in the “house of falsehood.”

• ʿABBĀSĪ RABENJANĪ

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  10th century Samanid poet.

• ʿALĪ-QOLĪ KHAN

  A. Amanat

  (d. 1240/1824-25), the youngest of nine sons of Moḥammad Ḥasan Khan Qāǰār and half brother of Āḡā (more correctly Āqā) Moḥammad Khan.

• BAAT

  N. Sims-Williams, J. Russell

  Middle Iranian personal name, borrowed in Armenian. i. Baat in Iranian sources. ii. Armenian Bat. Baat is the name of a disciple of Mani mentioned several times in the Coptic “crucifixion narrative.”

• ČAḠANĪ, ṬĀHER

  Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī

  b. Abi’l-ʿAbbās Fażl b. Abī Bakr Moḥammad b. Abī Saʿd Moẓaffar b. Moḥtāj, prince and poet of the ancient Iranian Āl-e Moḥtāj, ruler of Čaḡānīān (Čaḡān Ḵodāt).

• DIASPORA

  Mary Boyce, Fariba Zarrinbaf-Shahr, H. Hakimian, Yitzhak Nakash, Pirouz Mojtahed-Zadeh, Mehdi Bozorgmehr, Grant Farr, Čangīz Pahlavān

  Iranian. i. In Pre-Islamic times. ii. Persians in India. iii. Persians in Southeast Asia. iv. Persians in Ottomon Turkey. v. Persians in the Caucasus and Central Asia in the late 19th and early 20th century. vi. Persians in Iraq. vii. Persians in Southern ports of the Persian Gulf. viii. In the Post-revolutionary period. ix. Afghan refugees in Pakistan. x. Afghan refugees in Persia.

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• CITIES v. Modern Urbanization and Modernization in Afghanistan

  Erwin Grötzbach

• WIKANDER, Oscar Stig

  Bo Utas; Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin

  (1908-1983), Iranist, comparatist, and historian of religions. Wikander was internationally active, and maintained lively contacts with leading scholars of religions.

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• GŌŠ YAŠT

  W. W. Malandra

  the title of the ninth Yašt of the Avesta, also known as Drwāsp Yašt, after the goddess Druuāspā (see DRVĀSPĀ) to whom, in fact, it is dedicated.

• ACTS OF ĀDUR-HORMIZD AND OF ANĀHĪD

  J. P. Asmussen

  Syriac martyrological texts.  

• ARMOR

  J. W. Allan

  The earliest armor fragments yet found in Iran come from the western part of the country and date from the late 2nd and early 1st millennium BCE.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BĀTMAN

  Yu. Bregel

  a measure of weight, the same as mann but more common in Central Asia, especially in modern times. There was a great variety of bātmans in different regions and for weighing different goods.

• CYRIACUS AND JULITTA, ACTS OF

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  Chris­tian martyrological text.

• FARHANG-E NEẒĀM

  Cross-reference

  See DĀʿĪ-AL-ESLĀM.

• ELTON, JOHN

  John Perry

  (?-1751), English merchant, seaman and shipbuilder for Nāder Shah Afšār.

• KAŠFI, MIR MOḤAMMAD ṢĀLEḤ ḤOSAYNI

  Sunil Sharma

  (d. 1651), calligrapher and poet in Mughal India. 

• FISCAL SYSTEM vi. ISLAMIC REPUBLIC

  Adnan Mazarei

  The receipt of large revenues from oil exports and their expenditure for developing various sectors of the economy, improving infrastructure, and providing social services have made the government’s fiscal policies a major determinant of the overall economic incentives, structure and level of economic activity.

• FŪŠANJ

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a town of medieval eastern Khorasan, situated just to the south of the Harīrūd River, and variously described in the sources as being between six and ten farsaḵs to the west-southwest of Herat.

• HERAT vi. THE HERAT QUESTION

  Abbas Amanat

  From the middle of the 18th century, following Nāder Shah’s assassination in 1747, Herat became the focus of a century-long power struggle and regional rivalry.

• ʿABD-AL-ḤAYY, ABŪ’L-ḤASANĀT

  F. Robinson

  (1264-1304/1848-86), Indian theologian from the distinguished Farangī Maḥall family.

• ALP ARSLĀN

  K. A. Luther

  Saljuq sultan from 455/1063 to 465/1072.

• BĀBĀN

  W. Behn

  (or Baban), Kurdish princely family in Solaymānīya, ruling an area in Iraqi Kurdistan and western Iran (17th—19th centuries) and actively involved in the Perso-Ottoman struggles.

• ČAK

  Willem Floor

  legal document, testament, money draft, check.

• DIODORUS SICULUS

  Ernst Badian

  Greek historian from Agyrium in Sicily, hence called Siculus (the Sicilian) who came to Rome in the middle of the first century B.C.E. and there wrote his Bibliotheca Historica, a universal history in forty books, from the origins to the age of Caesar.

• COMMERCE ii. In the Achaemenid period

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

• PADERY, ETIENNE

  Anne-Marie Touzard

  (b. 1674; fl 1714-1725), Ottoman Greek who served as a translator to the French embassy at Istanbul, and as a French consul at Shiraz.

• GRANT, Captain NATHANIEL PHILIP

  Denis Wright

  (b. New York, 1774; k. Ḵorramābād, 1810), a military officer of the East India Company.

• ISLAM IN IRAN xi. JIHAD IN ISLAM

  David Cook

  The term jihad (Ar. jehād “struggle, striving”) occurs (either in its root or derivatives) about forty times in the Qurʾān with the secondary, but dominant, meaning of “regulated warfare with divine sanction.”

• ADĪB ṬĀLAQĀNĪ

  M. Momen

  prominent Iranian Bahaʾi author of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 

• BAYRĀMŠĀH

  Ḡ.-Ḥ. Yūsofī

  (d. 1367-69), the beloved companion (nadīm) of Sultan Oways, second ruler (r. 1356 to 1374-75) of the Jalayerids.

• DADESTAN Ī MENOG Ī XRAD

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  (Judgments of the Spirit of Wisdom), a Zoroastrian Pahlavi book in sixty-three chapters (a preamble and sixty-two ques­tions and answers).

• GĀVĀHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See PLOW.

• ʿABD-AL-NABĪ

  K. A. Nizami

  Mughal traditionist, for a time much esteemed by the emperor Akbar (16th century).

• ĀMĀRGAR

  D. N. MacKenzie, M. L. Chaumont

  a Middle and New Persian word designating a person holding a particular administrative post.

• BĀD (2)

  L. Richter-Bernburg

  (“wind”) in Perso-Islamic medicine: 1. wind as a medically relevant environmental factor; 2. “airiness” as internal physiological and pathological agent.

• CAMBYSES

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  (OPers. Kambūǰiya-, Elamite Kanbuziya, Akkadian Kambuziya, Aram. Knbwzy), the name of two kings of the Achaemenid dynasty.

• DOCUMENTS

  Mansour Shaki, Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  i. In pre-Islamic period. ii. Babylonian and Egyptian documents in the Achaemenid period. iii. In the modern period.

• COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY ii. In Mithraism

  Roger Beck

  That Mithraism had an elaborate cosmology, central to its doctrines, is proven first by the structure of its cult shrines (mithraea), which took the form of caves (real or artificial) because, as Porphyry (6) stated, the cave is an “image of the cosmos.” For this reason mithraea were equipped with “symbols of the cosmic elements and climates set at appropriate intervals.”

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• TAJIK ii. TAJIK PERSIAN

  John Perry

  Tajiki Persian is the variety of New Persian used in Central Asia. From the 1920s it was officially fostered in the USSR as the national literary language of the Tajik SSR (since 1991, the Republic of Tajikistan). It is also spoken in parts of Uzbekistan, notably in the cities of Bukhara and Samarqand.

• ĀFĪ, ALLĀHYĀR KHAN

  Z. Ahmad

  Poet, son of Nawwāb Amīr-al-dawla, the founder of the state of Tonk (b. 1233/1817-18, d. 21 Ramażān 1278/22 March 1861).

• ARTAXERXES III

  R. Schmitt

  throne name of Ochus, Achaemenid king (r. 359-58 to 338-37 B.C.).

• BEAR

  Paul Joslin

  (Pers. ḵers, Av. arša-). Two varieties of bears are found on the Iranian plateau: the Eurasian brown bear and the Baluchistan black bear. The Eurasian brown bear is the most common of all bears. 

• DAHYU

  Gherardo Gnoli

  country (often with reference to the people inhabiting it).

• FĀRSĪMADĀN

  Pierre Oberling

  one of the most important tribes of the Qašqāʾī tribal confederacy.

• ENOCH, BOOKS OF

  J. C. Reeves

  attributed to the seventh antediluvian biblical patriarch Enoch (Genesis 5.21-24), which show Iranian influence.

• KASHMIR iv. Persian Elements in Kashmiri

  Omkar N. Koul

  This entry discusses the nature and extent of Persian influence on the Kashmiri language.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• OTRĀR

  C. E. Bosworth

  medieval town of Transoxania, in a rural district (rostāq) of the middle Jaxartes River (Syr Darya), apparently known in early Islamic times as Fārāb/Pārāb/Bārāb.

• GĀHĀNBĀR

  Mary Boyce

  Middle Persian name for the feasts held at the end of each of the six seasons of the Zoroastrian year.

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN ŠAYZARĪ

  H. H. Biesterfeldt

  Syrian author and contemporary of Saladin (d. 589/1193).

• AMĪN-E ELĀHĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ARDAKĀNĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN.

• BĀDPĀYĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ARTHROPODS.

• CARD GAMES

  Mahdi Roschanzamir

  (ganjafa-bāzī, waraq-bāzī), card games were invented in China in the 7th-8th centuries and via India were brought to Persia, whence they reached the Arab world and Europe.

• DOORS AND DOOR FRAMES

  Sheila Blair, Mortażā Momayyez

  in Persian architecture major foci of decoration, varying in size and elaboration with the function and importance of the building and the location of the entrance in relation to the total composition.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ELAM iii. Proto-Elamite

  R. K. ENGLUND

  "Proto-Elamite” is the term for a writing system in use in the Susiana plain and the Iranian highlands east of Mesopotamia between ca. 3050 and 2900 B.C.E., a period generally considered to correspond to the Jamdat Nasr/Uruk III through Early Dynastic I periods in Mesopotamia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• LAURENS, Jules Joseph Augustin

  Jacqueline Calmard-Compas

  (1825-1901), French artist in drawing, painting, and lithography who depicted Oriental and other subjects.

• GUMĒZIŠN

  D. N. Mackenzie

  a Middle Persian noun, spelled gwmycšn in Pahlavi and gwmyzyšn in Manichean script, meaning “mixing, mingling, mixture.”

• JAʿFAR KHAN AZ FARANG ĀMADEH

  cross-reference

  See MOQADDAM, ḤASAN. Forthcoming, online.

• AFŻAL-AL-DĪN KERMĀNĪ

  M. E. Bāstānī Pārīzī

  writer, poet, and physician of Kermān in the 6th and early 7th/12th and early 13th centuries.

• ĀRZŪ

  M. Siddiqi

  Major Indo-Muslim poet, lexicographer and litterateur (b. at Gwalior or Agra 1099/1687-88 or 1101/1689-90).

• BEHĪZAK

  cross-reference

  See CALENDARS.

• DAMĀVAND

  Bernard Hourcade, Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  mountain, town, and administrative district (šahrestān) in the central Alborz region.

• FATḤ

  EIr

  b. ḴĀQĀN (d. 861), famous bibliophile, author, courtier, and official in ʿAbbasid times.

• ʿEQD-AL-ʿOLĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See AFŻAL-AL-DIN KERMĀNI.

• EXEGESIS viii. Nishapuri School of Quranic Exegesis

  Walid A. Saleh

  A school of Quranic exegesis was established by three scholars from Nishapur in the 11th century which transformed the genre of tafsir and Quranic sciences and came to be known as the Nishapuri School.

• GANJ-E ARŠADĪ

  S. H. Askari

  An Indo-Persian collection of sayings (malfūẓāt) of the Češtī saint of Jaunpour Aršad Badr-al-Ḥaqq (1047-1113/1637-1701).