Search Results

• HAŠTPĀY

  Antonio Panaino

  name of a game from the Sasanian era which has not been precisely identified.

• KAʿBA-YE ZARDOŠT

  Gerd Gropp

  “Kaʿba of Zoroaster,” an ancient building at Naqš-e Rostam near Persepolis.

• ALEXANDER, PRINCE

  G. Bournoutian

  (known in Persian as ESKANDAR MĪRZĀ), pro-Persian member of the royal family of Georgia (b. 1770, d. after 1830).

• ĀYANDAGĀN

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton and P. Mohajer

  a daily morning newspaper that first appeared in Tehran on 16 December, 1967.

• BRAZIER

  Asadullah Souren Melikian-Chirvani, Jaʿfar Šahrī

  two distinct types of utensil traditionally used in Iran. One type is a closed container on legs, a kind of stove that holds slowly burning coals for heating.

• DELDĀR-ʿALĪ

  Juan R. I. Cole

  b. Moḥammad-Moʿīn NAṢĪRĀBĀDĪ, Sayyed Ḡofrān-maʾāb (b. Naṣīrābād near Lucknow, 1753, d. Lucknow ca. 1820), Shiʿite cleric of northern India who helped to establish the Shiʿite form of Friday prayers and propagated the rationalist Oṣūlī school of jurisprudence in the Avadh region.

• FĀL-NĀMA

  Īraj Afšār

  a book of presages and omens. The narrower and more common use of the term, equivalent to “bibliomancy,” is confined to texts used as material for divination by the reader directly or through a fortune-teller.

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• KALĀNTAR

  Willem Floor

  “chief, leader,” from the late 15th century onwards, particularly the local official (mayor) in charge of the administration of a town.

• GOLESTĀN PALACE LIBRARY

  Cross-Reference

  See BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES; ROYAL LIBRARY.

• ABU’L-QĀSEM KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ

  D. MacEoin

  Fourth head of the Kermānī branch of the Šayḵī school of Shiʿism (19th-20th centuries).

• ARBELA

  J. F. Hansman

  capital of an ancient northern Mesopotamian province located between the two Zab rivers.  

• BARBIER DE MEYNARD, CHARLES ADRIEN CASIMIR

  Ch. Pellat

  French orientalist (1826-1908). Among his works, the Tableau littéraire du Khorassan and Dictionnaire géographique attest the excellence of his Persian scholarship.

• ENGLISH ii. Persian Influences in English and American Literature

  John D. Yohannan

  Although academic Persian studies may be said to have begun in England in the early 17th century, it was not until the late 18th century that the Persian poets began to be read in English translations. This was due to the linguistic and literary skills of Sir William Jones and to the fact that Persian was the official language at the Indian courts.

• COOPERATIVES

  Amir I. Ajami

  (šerkat-e taʿāwonī), economic organizations owned jointly by and operated for the benefit of groups of individuals. Such cooperatives were first introduced and recognized in Persia under the Commercial code (Qānūn-e tejārat) of 1303 Š./1924, which provided for both production (tawlīd) and consumer (maṣraf) cooperatives.

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• FOREIGN EXCHANGE

  Cross-reference

  See ECONOMY.

• HAZĀRA i. Historical geography of Hazārajāt

  Arash Khazeni

  Hazārajāt, the homeland of the Hazāras, lies in the central highlands of Afghanistan, among the Kuh-e Bābā mountains and the western extremities of the Hindu Kush. Its boundaries have historically been inexact and shifting, and in some respects Hazārajāt denotes an ethnic and religious zone rather than a geographical one–that of Afghanistan’s Turko-Mongol Shiʿites.

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• ʿALĪ B. MOḤAMMAD B. ʿALĪ

  cross-reference

  ASTARĀBĀDĪ. See ŠARĪF JORJĀNĪ.

• ĀZĀḎBEH B. BĀNEGĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a dehqān (landowner) of Hamadān, marzbān (governor) in the former Lakhmid capital of Ḥīra in central Iraq during the years preceding the Arab conquest of that province.

• ARCHITECTURE iv. Central Asian

  G. A. Pugachenkova

  Architecture in Central Asia dates back to the late Neolithic period (6th-5th millennia B.C.).

• BŪF-E KŪR

  Michael C. Hillmann

  (The blind owl), the chef d’œuvre of Ṣādeq Hedāyat (1903-51) and one of the first major modernist Persian novels. 

• DERAFŠ-E KĀVĪĀN

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the legendary royal standard of the Sasanian kings.

• BAZAR i. General

  Michael E. Bonine

  The Iranian bāzār is a unified, self-contained building complex of shops, passageways, and caravanserais, interspersed with squares, religious buildings, bathhouses, and other public institutions.

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• GŌMAL

  Shah Mahmoud Hanifi

  or Gōmāl:  a sub-province (woloswāli) and village in Paktiā province, eastern Afghanistan; a river originating in the Ḡazni province and flowing southeast through the Wazirestān tribal agency and  the North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan; and a passage linking the eastern foothills of the Solaymān mountain range with the Indus plains.

• IRANIAN STUDIES

  Cross-Reference

  See under the names of individual countries and universities.

• ABŪ ŠOJĀʿ FANĀ ḴOSROW

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAŻOD-AL-DAWLA.

• ARDESTĀNI

  P. Lecoq

  the dialect spoken in the small town of Ardestān.

• BARMĀYA

  Dj. Khaleghi Motlagh

  in the traditional history, the name of a cow associated with Ferēdūn and eventually killed by Żaḥḥāk.

• PÎREMÊRD

  Keith Hitchins

  (1867-1950), pen-name of Tawfiq, son of Maḥmud, son of Ḥamza (in Kurdish: Tewfîq kurî MehmûdʿAḡa kurî Hemze ʿAḡa), Kurdish writer, journalist, and public intellectual.

• COW

  Cross-Reference

  See CATTLE.

• EḤYĀ-YEʿOLŪM-AL-DĪN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠAZĀLĪ ii.

• HEDGEHOG

  Steven C. Anderson

  (ḵār-pošt, juja-tiḡi, čula), member of the Erinaceinae sub-family of the Erinaceidae family of insectivores; animals the size of a small rabbit. The various species of hedgehogs are found in deciduous woodlands, cultivated fields, and desert regions. They are primarily nocturnal. Hedgehogs are omnivorous, but they prefer animal food.

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• ʿABBĀS (I)

  R. M. Savory

  Shah Abbas, Safavid king of Iran (996-1038/1588-1629). Styled "Shah ʿAbbās the Great," he was the third son and successor of Solṭān Moḥammad Shah.

• ALI KOSH

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪKOŠ.

• ĀZĪN JOŠNAS

  A. Tafażżolī

  (ĀḎĪN JOŠNAS), a military commander of the Sasanian Hormazd IV (r. 579-90), killed in Hamadān on his way to fight the rebellious general Bahrām Čōbin.

• AVICENNA ix. Music

  O. Wright

• BŪZJĀNĪ, ABU’L-WAFĀʾ

  Cross-reference

  See ABU’L-WAFĀʾ BŪZJĀNĪ.

• DEŽ-E RŪYĪN

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  or Rūyīn-dež, lit. "brazen fortress"; castle belonging to the Turanian king Arjāsb and conquered by Esfandīār, son of the Kayanid king Goštāsb.

• QAŠQĀʾI TRIBAL CONFEDERACY ii. LANGUAGE

  Michael Knüppel

  Qašqāʾi is a language of southwestern or Oghuz branch of Turkic languages, spoken in the Iranian provinces of Hamadan and Fārs, especially in the region to the north of Shiraz.

• GORGĀN iv. Archeology

  Muhammad Yusof Kiani

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• ISAIAH, BOOK OF

  Shaul Shaked

  one of the books of the Hebrew Bible, traditionally arranged among those of the latter Prophets.

• ABYĀNA

  E. Yarshater

  Village in the Barz-rud subdistrict (dehestan) in Naṭanz county (šahrestān).

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• ARISTAGORAS

  P. Tozzi

  tyrant of Miletus (late 6th-early 5th centuries B.C.).

• BASILIUS OF CAESAREA

  J. P. Asmussen

  or Basilius the Great (ca. A.D. 330-79), bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia from 370, after Eusebius, who wrote regarding the Magi.

• KAMĀL-AL-DIN EṢFAHĀNI

  David Durand-Guédy

  poet from Isfahan, noted for his mastery of the panegyric.

• CUMONT, FRANZ VALÉRY MARIE

  Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin

  classical philologist and historian of religions, whose research resulted in a substantial contribution to the understanding of Mithraism and other oriental reli­gions in the Roman empire.

• ELEPHANT i. IN THE NEAR EAST

  François De Blois

   i. IN THE NEAR EAST

• BANDARI

  Mikhail Pelevin

  the dialect spoken by the native population of Bandar ʿAbbās, administrative center of the Hormozgān province, and of its environs.

• FREEMASONRY i. INTRODUCTION

  Hasan Azinfar, M.-T. Eskandari, and Edward Joseph

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• HEMP

  cross-reference

  See BANG.

• ʿABD-AL-BĀQĪ TABRĪZĪ

  ʿAbd-al-ʿAlī Kārang

  religious scholar and notable of Azerbaijan (d. 1039/1629-30).

• ʿALĪŠĀH BOḴĀRĪ

  D. Pingree

  7th/13th century astronomer.

• BĀBĀ JĀN ḴORĀSĀNI

  Priscilla Soucek

  16th-century calligrapher, poet, and craftsman.

• BALUCHISTAN v. Baluch Carpets

  S. Azadi

  A distinct group of carpets, woven by Baluch tribes in the northeastern Iranian province of Khorasan and the Sīstān area, is known as Baluch carpets. These were not made in Makrān, where the main body of the Baluch tribes live.

• ČAHĀRBĀḠ

  David Stronach

  lit. “four gardens,” a rectangular garden divided by paths or waterways into four symmetrical sections.

• DĪN MOḤAMMAD KHAN

  EIr

  b. Olūs Khan, the Uzbek prince who, with his brother ʿAlī Solṭān, joined Shah Ṭahmāsb’s camp in 943/1536-37 during the latter’s campaign in Khorasan against ʿObayd-Allāh Khan, the Uzbek ruler of Bukhara.

• KHARIJITES IN PERSIA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  sect of early Islam which arose out of the conflict between ʿAli b. Abi Ṭāleb (r. 656-61) and Moʿāwiya b. Abi Sufyān (r. 661-80).

• GOWHAR ḴĀTUN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a Saljuq princess who became the second wife of the Ghaznavid Sultan Masʿud III (r. 1099-1115).

• ĀDAR

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀDUR.

• ARSEN, KOCOYTỊ

  F. Thordarson

  Ossetic author (1872-1944).

• BAYĀT-E KORD

  M. Caton

  or KORD-e BAYĀT, a part of the modal system (dastgāh) of Šūr in Persian music.

• KARAKI

  Rula Jurdi Abisaab

  Nur-al-Din Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAli b. Ḥosayn b. ʿAbd-al-ʿĀli, known as Moḥaqqeq al-Ṯāni or Moḥaqqeq ʿAli (1464-1533), a major Imamite jurist.

• DABESTĀN-E MAḎĀHEB

  Fatḥ-Allāh Mojtabāʾī

  (school of religious doctrines), an important text of the Āḏar Kayvānī pseudo-Zoroastrian sect, written between 1645 and 1658.

• EMĀM-E ḠĀʾEB

  Cross-Reference

  "The Hidden Imam." See ḠAYBA and ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM.

• KOH-I-NOOR

  Iradj Amini

  (Kuh-e Nur; lit. “Mountain of Light”), the most celebrated diamond in the world, with rich legendary and historical associations.

• GABR

  Mansour Shaki

  a New Persian term used from the earliest period as a technical term synonymous with mōḡ (magus). With the dwindling of the Zoroastrian community,  the term came to have a pejorative implication.

• HERMITAGE MUSEUM i. COLLECTION OF THE PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  B. I. Marshak and A. B. Nikitin

  Among the most ancient objects of Iranian art in the Hermitage collection are 55 Elamite painted vessels of the late 4th-3rd millennium BCE.

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• ʿABD-AL-KARĪM ḴᵛĀRAZMĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Poet and calligrapher in western Iran (15th century).

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• AMAL AL-ĀMEL

  J. van Ess

  biographical dictionary of Shiʿite (Etnāʿašarī) scholars originating from the Jabal ʿĀmel in south Lebanon, composed by Moḥammad b. Ḥasan b. ʿAlī Mašḡarī, known as Ḥorr-e ʿĀmelī (1033-1104/1624-1693).

• BABYLON

  G. Cardascia

  :  under the Achaemenids. The economic and cultural history of Babylon under Persian rule matched the vicissitudes of its political life.

• DĪVDĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See BANŪ SĀJ.

• SASANIAN WALL PAINTING

  An De Waele

  Murals found on sites within the territory of the Sasanian empire (224- 650 CE) are considered Sasanian. While their main function is decorative, their secondary function can be derived from location, theme, and dimension, and is important because it reflects a world-view. Wall paintings were excavated at only seven sites in Iran, Iraq, and Syria.

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• Great Britain x. Iranian Studies in Britain, the Islamic Period

  Charles Melville

• ISMAʿILISM xvii. THE IMAMATE IN ISMAʿILISM

  Azim Nanji

  in common with all major Shiʿite groups, the Ismaʿilis believe that the Imamate is a divinely sanctioned and guided institution.

• ĀDURBĀD Ī MAHRSPANDĀN

  A. Tafażżolī

  (“Ādurbād, son of Mahrspand”), Zoroastrian mobad of mobads (mowbedān mowbed) or high priest in the reign of the Sasanian king Šāpūr II (309-79 CE). 

• ARTAMANIA

  M. Mayrhofer

  prince of Zi-ri-ba-ša-ni, who wrote a letter of devotion to the pharaoh of Egypt.

• BĀZDĀRĪ

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  (or bāzyārī, lit. “bāz keeping,” obs.), falconry, as a practical art and as a sport.

• AMĀNI

  Fabrizio Speziale

  pen name of Amān-Allāh Khan, Ḵān-e Zamān, an Indo-Muslim physician and author of works on medicine (d. 1637).

• DAFTAR-ḴĀNA-YE HOMĀYŪN

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  royal sec­retariat; a Safavid administrative unit headed by the daftardār, or chief secretary.

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM

  Elton L. Daniel

  a reference work of fundamental importance on topics dealing, according to its self-description, with “the geography, ethnography and biography of the Muhammadan peoples.”

• NOWBAḴTI, ḤASAN

  David Pingree

  b. Musā Abu Moḥammad, 4th/10th century theologian and philosopher in Baghdad, d. between 300/912-3 and 310/922-3.

• HILL, GEORGE FRANCIS

  Carmen Arnold-Biucchi

  noted numismatist, epigraphist, and Director of the British Museum (1867-1948).

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• ʿABD-AL-RAḤĪM ḴᵛĀRAZMĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Calligrapher and poet active in western Iran during the second half of the 9th/15th century.

• DOLICHĒ

  Erich Kettenhofen

  city in the Roman province of Syria conquered together with the surrounding area by Šāpūr I  during his second campaign against Rome in 252 or 253.

• ZOROASTER vi. AS PERCEIVED BY LATER ZOROASTRIANS

  Jenny Rose

  This entry treats the development of the concept and image of Zoroaster among the Zoroastrians of Persia and India after the Islamic conquest (10th century onwards).

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• GRYUNBERG TSVETINOVICH, ALEKSANDR LEONOVICH

  Vladmir Kushev

  (b. St. Petersburg, 1930; d. St. Petersburg, 1995), Russian linguist who specialized in Iranian languages.

• JABA

  Peter Jackson

  (Jebe), 13th-century Mongol general of the Besüt (Bisut) tribe under Čengiz Khan. His original name was Jirḡoʾadai,

• AFŠĀN

  P. P. Soucek

  (“sprinkling”), the decoration of paper with flecks of gold and silver, sometimes called zarafšān “gold sprinkling.”

• ʿARŪSĪ

  A. Betteridge

  the secular wedding celebration which follows the wedding contract ceremony (ʿaqd).

• FARĀHRŪD

  Daniel Balland

  river in southwestern Afghanistan, rising at about 3,300 meters above sea level in the Band-e Bayān, and, after a course of 712 km in a south-western direction, ending in the Hāmūn-e Ṣāberī (Sīstān) at an altitude of 475 m.

• BEGTOḠDÏ

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Turkish slave com­mander of the Ghaznavid sultans Maḥmūd and Masʿūd (d. 1040).

• FAZEL, JAVAD

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  (1914-1961), noted serial writer, and a pioneering figure in simplifying and popularizing religious texts.

• ḎAKAʾ-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See FORŪḠĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ʿALĪ; FORŪḠĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN.

• EPIDEMICS

  Cross-Reference

  See PLAGUES.

• RUDĀBA

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  princess of Kabul, wife of Zāl, and mother of Rostam in the Šāh-nāma.
  

• GAMBRON

  Cross-Reference

  See BANDAR-e ʿABBĀS(Ī).

• ḤODUD AL-ʿĀLAM

  C. EDMOND Bosworth

  a concise but very important Persian geography of the then known world, Islamic and non-Islamic, begun in 982-83 by an unknown author from the province of Guzgān (in northern Afghanistan).

• ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ

  D. MacEoin

  fifth head of the Kermānī branch of the Šayḵī school of Shiʿism.

• AMĪNĪ, SHAIKH ʿABD-AL-ḤOSAYN

  H. Algar

  also known as ʿAllāma-ye Amīnī (1320-90/1902-70), Shiʿite scholar and author of the encyclopedic al-Ḡadīr fi’l-ketāb wa’l-sonna wa’l-adab.

• BĀḠ-E BĀLĀ

  cross-reference

  See BĀḠ iv.

• CINEMA ii. Feature Films

  Jamsheed Akrami

• ČĀROḠ

  Cross-Reference

  or čāroq, etc. See CLOTHING xx, xxv, xxviii.

• DOTĀR

  Jean During

  long-necked lute of the tanbūr family, usually with two strings (do tār). The principal feature is the pear-shaped sound box attached to a neck that is longer than the box and faced with a wooden soundboard. Dotārs can be classified in several different types.

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• KÖROĞLU i. LITERARY TRADITION

  Hasan Javadi

  early-17th-century folk hero and poet, whose stories are mainly known among the Turkic peoples but have also passed into other folk literatures and circulate in Azerbaijan and Khorasan. Bards usually perform the Köroǧlu/Goroḡli epic to the accompaniment of a string instrument, such as the sāz, the dambura, or the dutār.

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• GUŠYĀR GILĀNI, ABU’L-ḤASAN B. LABBĀN

  David Pingree

  Arabicized Kušyār; an astronomer and mathematician from Gilān, whence his nesba Jili/Gilāni (fl. late 10th-early 11th cent.).

• JAHĀNGIR KHAN ŠIRĀZI

  cross-reference

  See ṢUR-E ESRĀFIL.

• AGATHIAS

  M.-L. Chaumont

  Byzantine historian, b. 536 or 537 in Myrina, a small village in Asia Minor, d. about 580.

• ĀṢAF-AL-DAWLA, ALLĀHYĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• FARHANG-E HAYĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See HAYĪM, SOLAYMĀN.

• BELGRĀMĪ, ʿABD-AL-JALĪL

  cross-reference

  See ʿABD-AL­-JALĪL BELGRĀMĪ.

• KĀR-NĀMAG Ī ARDAŠĪR Ī PĀBAGĀN

  C. G. CERETI

  short prose work written in Middle Persian. It narrates the Sasanian king Ardašīr I’s life story—his rise to the throne, battle against the Parthian king Ardawān, and conquest of the empire. 

• DĀNEŠ, TAQĪ

  Īraj Afšār

  (b. Tabrīz, 1861, d. Tehran 24 February 1948), poet and govern­ment official.

• ĒRĀN-XWARRAH-YAZDGERD

  Rika Gyselen

  lit. "Ērān, glory of Yazdegerd"; Sasanian province probably created by Yazdegerd II (438-457).

• MAḤMUD MIRZĀ

  Dominic Parviz Brookshaw

  (b. 1799, d. between 1854 and 1858), fifteenth son of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah Qajar (r. 1797-1834), calligrapher, poet, and anthologist.

• GAOTƎMA

  Bernfried Schlerath

  an Avestan proper name only attested in Yt. 13.16: “An eloquent man will be born, who makes his words heard in verbal contests, ... victorious over the defeated Gaotəma.”

• ʿABDALLĀH B. ʿĀMER

  J. Lassner

  Arab general and governor active in Iran, b. in Mecca in 4/626.

• ʿAMMĀRA

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAMĀRA.

• BAHĀʾ-ALLĀH

  Juan Cole

  (1817-92), MĪRZĀ ḤOSAYN-ʿALĪ NŪRĪ,  founder of the Bahai religion or Bahaism. 

• CATTLE

  Jean-Pierre Digard, Mary Boyce

  the word “cattle” has no precise equivalent in Iranian languages, in which bovines are commonly designated by the words for “cow,” “bull,” and “calf."

• ḎU’L-NŪN MEṢRĪ, ABU’L-FAYŻ ṮAWBĀN

  Gerhard Böwering

  b. Ebrāhīm (b. Aḵmīm in Upper Egypt, ca. 791, d. Jīza [Giza], between 859 and 862), early Sufi master.

• ḴᵛĀJAVAND

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe in the Caspian province of Māzandarān. According to L. S. Fortescue, the tribe “was originally brought from Garrūs and Kurdistān by Nādir Shāh.”

• JĀLINUS

  Hormoz Ebrahimnejad

  (Galen), the Arabic form of Greek Galenos, the name of the illustrious 2nd-century authority on medicine of ancient Greece.

• AḤMAD B. QODĀM

  C. E. Bosworth

  a military adventurer who temporarily held power in Sīstān during the confused years following the collapse of the first Saffarid amirate and the military empire of ʿAmr b. Layṯ in 287/900.

• ASFĀR B. ŠĪRŪYA

  C. E. Bosworth

  a military leader from Lāhīǰān in Gīlān.

• FARMĀN

  Bert G. Fragner

  “decree, command, order, judgement.” The term often denotes a royal or governmental decree, that is a public and legislative document promulgated in the name of the ruler or another person  holding elements of sovereignty.

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• BESṬĀMĪ, ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN

  Hamid Algar

  b. Moḥammad b. ʿAlī [Basṭāmī], al-Ḥanafī, al-Ḥorūfī (d.1454), Ottoman polymath of Khorasanian ancestry.

• Isfahan Mode

  Cross-Reference

  a dastgāh (q.v.) in Persian music. See BAYĀT-E EṢFAHĀN.

• DĀRĀ

  Michael Weiskopf

  the name of a Parthian city and of a Byzan­tine garrison town of the Sasanian period.

• EʿTEDĀLĪ, ḤEZB-E

  Cross-Reference

  See EJTEMĀʿĪYŪN.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS xiii. Eastern Iranian Migrations to China

  Étienne de la Vaissière

• GAZ (1)

  B. Grami, M. R. Ghanoonparvar

  common term in Persian for several species of the genera Tamarix (desert trees) and Astragalus (spiny shrubs of gavan); also the name of a confection made with the sweet exudate (gaz-angobīn) produced on Astragalus.

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• ḤOSAYN KARBALĀʾI

  Leonard Lewisohn

  TABRIZI BĀBĀ-FARAJI, popularly known as Ebn Karbalāʾi, a major Persian historian of Sufis and Sufism of 16th-century Persia and a poet (d. 1589).

• ʿABDĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ

  M. Dabīrsīāqī and B. Fragner

  (1513-80), poet.

• ANABASIS

  R. Schmitt

   title of ancient campaign accounts stylistically influenced by the so-called Periplus books.

• CORRESPONDENCE iv. On the subcontinent of India

  Momin Mohiuddin

• CENSUS

  Firuz Tawfiq, Daniel Balland

  (Pers. sar-šomārī). No census for the purpose of ascertaining the population and acquiring statistical data was taken in Persia until the present century.

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• DŪST-MOḤAMMAD MOṢAWWER

  Chahryar Adle

  (d. ca. 1560), master painter, known in the Indo-Persian world and even among the Ottomans as a painter (moṣawwer), paper cutter (qāṭeʿ), calligraphic tracer/outliner (moḥarrer), and perhaps binder (saḥḥāf) and gilder (moḏahheb).

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• OUSELEY, William

  Peter Avery and EIr

  (1767-1842), officer and orientalist.

• HAFTĀNBŌXT

  Mansour Shaki

  traditional reading of the name of a legendary warlord in southern Persia, mentioned in the Kār-nāmag ī Ardašīr ī Pābagān (The exploits of Ardašīr son of Pābag).

• JAMʿIYAT-E MOʾTALEFA-YE ESLĀMI

  Ali Rahnema

  (Society of Islamic Coalition), a religious-political organization founded in 1963 to propagate Ayatollah Khomeini’s vision of an Islamic-Iranian state and society and to mobilize the population to implement that vision. This society was initially

• AḤMADZĪ

  C. M. Kieffer

  “descendants of Aḥmad” (sing. Aḥmadzay), a Paṧtō clan and tribal name.

• ASOŁIK

  M. van Esbroech

   “the singer,” the usual name of Stephen of Tarōn.

• FARŠĒDVARD

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  a Kayanian prince in the Iranian legendary history, son of Goštāsp and brother of Esfandīār.

• BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES

  Multiple Authors

  i. In the West. ii. In Iran. This series of articles covers the catalogues of manuscripts and bibliographies of printed works on Iran compiled by scholars in Iran, Europe (including Russia) and North America.

• DĀŠ ĀKOL

  SOHILA SAREMI

  a story in the first collection of short stories by Sadeq Hedayat.

• DARGAZĪNĪ

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  nesba (attributive name) for Dargazīn (or Darjazīn, q.v.), borne by several viziers of the Great Saljuqs in the 12th century.

• ESKĀFĪ, ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD

  Josef van Ess

  b. ʿAbd-Allāh, Muʿtazilite theologian of the 9th century (d. 854).

• QODSI MAŠHADI

  Paul Losensky

  , ḤĀJI MOḤAMMAD JĀN (b. Mashad, ca. 1582; d. Lahore, 1646), Persian poet of the first half of the 17th century.

• GĒL

  Cross-Reference

  tribes in the Arsacid and Sasanian periods. See GĪLĀN.

• HUMATA HŪXTA HUVARŠTA

  Mary Boyce

  three Avestan words which encapsulate the ethical goals of Zoroastrianism. In form verbal adjectives,  they were substantivized to mean “good thought, good word, good act.”

• ABRĪŠAM

  W. Eilers, M. Bazin and C. Bromberger, D. Thompson

  "Silk," originally from China, has been known in Iran since ancient times.

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• ANDḴŪY

  D. N. Wilber

  a commercial town in northwestern Afghanistan.

• BAHRĀM PAŽDŪ

  Ž. Āmūzgār

  Zoroastrian poet of the 13th century. His only surviving poem celebrates spring, Nowrūz and those who had propagated the Zoroastrian religion.

• ELAM i. The history of Elam

  F. Vallat

  During the several millennia of its history the limits of Elam varied, not only from period to period, but also with the point of view of the person describing it. It seems that Mesopotamians in the late 3rd millennium B.C.E. considered Elam to encompass the entire Persian plateau, which extends from Mesopotamia to the Kavīr-e Namak and Dašt-e Lūt and from the Caspian to the Persian Gulf.

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• CHARCOAL

  Willem Floor

  car­bonized wood and other vegetal material, an important household and industrial fuel in Persia and Afghanistan.

• EBN ʿARABŠĀH, ŠEHĀB-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ʿABBĀS AḤMAD

  John E. Woods

  b. Moḥammad … Ḥanafī ʿAjamī (b. Damascus, 1389, d. Cairo, 1450), literary scholar and biographer of Tamerlane (Tīmūr).

• CALMEYER, Peter

  W. Kleiss and A. Shapur Shahbazi

  German archaeologist and Iranologist (b. 5 September 1930 in Halle, d. 22 November 1995 in Berlin).

• HAJJI BABA OF ISPAHAN

  Abbas Amanat

  hero of The Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan by James Justinian Morier (3 vols., London, 1824), the most popular Oriental novel in the English language and a highly influential stereotype of the so-called “Persian national character” in modern times. 

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• JARQUYA ii. The Dialect

  Habib Borjian

  The dialect of Jarquya, together with those of Rudašt and Kuhpāya to its north, belongs to the Isfahani (Provincial) subgroup of the Central Dialects.

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• ʿAJEZ, NARAYAN KAUL

  A. Mattoo

  Kashmiri Brahman of the 17th-18th centuries, a poet and compiler of Moḵtaṣar-e tārīḵ-e Kašmīr (1710-11).

• AŠŠURBANIPAL

  J. A. Delaunay

  king of Assyria 666-25 BCE.

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• FATḤ-ALLĀH ŠĪRĀZĪ, SAYYED MĪR

  Sharif Husain Qasemi

  a famous sixteenth century Sufi, an official in Mughal India, and one of the most learned men of his time.

• BIOGRAPHIES

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ASHRAF, GHODSIEH

  Mahnaze A. da Silveira

  a Bahaʾi philanthropist, and promulgator and engineer of numerous educational and health projects, mainly for women and children.

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• DARVĪŠ ʿALĪ, AMĪR NEẒĀM-AL-DĪN KüKäLTĀŠ KETĀBDĀR

  M. E. Subtelny

  Timurid amir under Solṭān-Ḥosayn Bāyqarā (1469-1506) and younger brother of ʿAlī-Šīr Navāʾ.

• ESMĀʿĪL KHAN QAŠQĀʾĪ, ṢAWLAT-AL-DAWLA, SARDĀR-E ʿAŠĀYER

  See ṢAWLAT-AL-DAWLA.

• ʿID-E ḠADIR

  cross-reference

  See ḠADĪR ḴOMM.

• ABŪ BAKR B. ABĪ ṢĀLEḤ

  C. E. Bosworth

  vizier of the Ghaznavids in the 5th/11th century.

• ANJOMAN-E ĀṮĀR-E MELLĪ

  ʿĪ. Ṣadīq

  (AAM), The National Monuments Council of Iran, established in 1301 Š./1922 to promote interest in and to preserve Iran’s cultural heritage.  

• ŠĀBUHRAGĀN

  Christiane Reck

  (Šāpurāḵān, Šāburāḵān, Šāburḵān), one of the books written by Mani (216-274/7 CE), founder of the Manichean religion, in which he summarized his teaching systematically.

• FĀRĀBĪ iv. Fārābī and Greek Philosophy

  Dimitri Gutas

• CHODŹKO, ALEKSANDER BOREJKO

  Jean Calmard

  (b. 30 August 1804, in Krzywicze, Poland [now in the Lithuanian S.S.R.], d. Noisy-le-Sec, near Paris, 19 December 1891), Polish poet and diplomat, the first European scholar to work on Persian folklore.

• EBN AL-FOWAṬĪ, KAMĀL-AL-DĪN ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ

  Charles Melville

  b. Aḥmad, librarian and historian (b. 1244; d. Baghdad, 1323).

• SUSA iv. THE SASANIAN PERIOD

  G. Gropp

  The satrap of Susa (Šuš) had been loyal to the Parthian king Artabanus V, and the city was forcibly conquered by Ardašir (qq.v.) in 224 after his victory over King Šād-Šāpur of Isfahan.

• HAMADĀNI, BADIʿ-AL-ZAMĀN

  cross-reference

  See BADIʿ-AL-ZAMĀN HAMADĀNI.

• JEM SOLṬĀN

  Osman G. Özgüdenli

  (or Šāhzāda Jem, 1459-1495), Ottoman prince and poet.

• AḴSĪKATĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See AṮĪR AḴSĪKATĪ.

• ʿĀŠŪRĀʾ

  M. Ayoub

  tenth day of Moḥarram, the first month of the Islamic calendar; for Sunnis it is a day on which fasting is recommended, and for Shiʿites a day of mourning for the martyrdom of Imam Ḥosayn.

• FEDĀʾĪ

  Farhad Daftary

  or fedāwī; devotee, a person who offers his life for others or in the service of a particular cause.

• BOHLŪL

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  a weekly comic illustrated paper, published in Tehran from 1911.

• STARK, FREYA Madeline

  Malise Ruthven

  British travel-writer.  Her 1934 book The Valley of the Assassins and Other Persian Travels belongs to the canon of English travel literature.

• DASTGERD

  Philippe Gignoux

  lit. “made by hand, handiwork”; a term originally designating a royal or seigneurial estate.

• ESTEḴĀRA

  Cross-Reference

  See DIVINATION.

• BALUCHISTAN iiia. Balochi Poetry

  Joseph Elfenbein

  The clearest way to describe Baluchi poetry is by dividing it into 4 periods: (1) classical, from ca. 1550-1700; (2) post-classical, from 1700-1800; (3) 19th century to early 20th century; (4) modern, after ca. 1930.

• GHURIDS

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  or Āl-e Šansab; a medieval Islamic dynasty of the eastern Iranian lands.

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• INCEST AND INBREEDING

  Geert Jan Van Gelder

  Incest and inbreeding are two different but related aspects of marriage and human reproduction.

• ABU’L-FATḤ EṢFAHĀNĪ

  D. Pingree

  An early 6th/12th century astronomer.

• ANTIOCH (1)

  M. L. Chaumont

  town in northern Syria founded in 300 B.C. by Seleucus I Nicator. It was the capital of the Seleucids and became one of the main centers of caravan traffic.

• BALḴ

  X. de Planhol, C. E. Bosworth, V. Fourniau, D. Balland, F. Grenet

  city and province in northern Afghanistan. i. Geography. ii. From the Arab conquest to the Mongols. iii. From the Mongols to modern times. iv. Modern town. v. Modern province. vi. Monuments.

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• CINNAMUS

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  putative rival of Artabanus II (12-38) as king of the Arsacids.

• EBN MOSTAWFĪ, ABU’L-BARAKĀT ŠARAF-AL-DĪN MOBĀRAK

  Ihsan Abbas

  b. Aḥmad b. Mobārak Erbelī (1168-1239), historian of Erbel.

• MINING IN IRAN i. MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES

  Mansur Qorbani and Anoshirvan Kani

  The ancient and pre-modern period is evidenced by abandoned mines,  which can be grouped into three categories based on the materials extracted: (1) mines of metallic ores: iron, copper, gold, lead, zinc, and silver; (2) non-metallic mines and quarries of china clay (used in ceramic and tile making), gel-e saršuy (a variety of bentonite used as soap), and bentonite and serpentine (used in clayware); (3) mines of precious and semi-precious stones.

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• HANG-E AFRĀSIĀB

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  in the national epic, the cave in which Afrāsiāb, the fugitive king of Turān, spent his last days.

• JONAYD

  Kathryn Babayan

  B. EBRĀHIM, a patrilineal descendant of Shaikh Ṣafi-al-Din (d. 1334), the founder of the Ṣafaviya order in Ardabil. Jonayd played the central role in expanding the membership of the order.

• ĀL-E KAṮĪR

  J. Qāʾem-Maqāmī

  an Arab tribe of Ḵūzestān composed of two subtribes, Bayt Saʿd and Bayt Karīm and inhabiting two sectors of Šūš and Dezfūl.

• ʿAṬR

  F. Aubaile-Sallenave

  “perfume” (Arabic ʿeṭr, plur. ʿoṭūr; in Persian also ʿaṭrīyāt, perfumes), a Semitic term also attested in Syriac and Amharic.

• FERRIER, JOSEPHE-PIERRE

  Gavin R. G. Hambly

  19th-century French traveler and intrepid explorer in Afghanistan.

• BONGĀH-E TARJOMA WA NAŠR-E KETĀB

  Edward Joseph

  “The [Royal] Institute for Translation and Publication,” founded 1953, since 1986 called the Scientific and Cultural Publication Company (Šerkat-e Entešārāt-e ʿElmī wa Farhangī).

• IRANIAN IDENTITY

  Multiple Authors

  collective feeling by Iranian peoples of belonging to the historic lands of Iran. This sense of identity, defined both historically and territorially, evolved from a common historical experience and cultural tradition.

• DAWĀMĪ, ʿABD-ALLĀH

  DĀRYŪŠ ṢAFVAT

  (b. Ṭā near Tafreš, 1891; d. Tehran, 10 January 1981), a master of classical Persian vocal music with a perfect command of the radīf (repertoire), as well as a gifted player of the Persian drum (tonbak) and a virtuoso of rhythmic (żarbī) pieces and songs (taṣnīf).

• EVANGELION

  Cross-Reference

  See ANGALYŪN; MĀNĪ; MANICHEISM.

• KHORASAN i. ETHNIC GROUPS

  Pierre Oberling

  The population of Khorasan is extremely varied, consisting principally of Persians, Arabs, Turks, Kurds, Mongols, Baluch, and smaller groups of Jews, Gypsies, and Lors.

• GILANENTZ CHRONICLE

  Ina Baghdiantz McCabe

  a compendium of reports collated as a journal by Petros di Sarkis Gilanentz (Gilanencʿ), which constitutes an important source for the history of events in Transcaucasia and Persia during the period March 1722 to August 1723, notably the Afghan invasion and siege of Isfahan.

• INDIGO

  Carol Bier

  (Pers. nil), the common name of a broad genus, Indigofera, with numerous species. Many tribal groups in Persia have relied on the use of indigo to achieve a stable blue color for the wool of carpets and kilims.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN ARDALĀN

  Ḥ. Maḥbūbī Ardakānī

  (b. 1279/1862-63), government official under the late Qajars.

• AQA

  D. O. Morgan

  Mongolian title, essentially meaning “elder brother” and by extension “senior member of the family.”

• BAND-E AMĪR (2)

  X. De Planhol

  the chain of natural lakes 90 km west of Bāmīān in Afghanistan (lat 30°12’ N, long 66°30’ E).

• JAMALZADEH, MOHAMMAD-ALI ii. Literature

  Hassan Kamshad and Nahid Mozaffari

• CLIME

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  (kešvar), ancient division of the earth’s surface.

• EBN YAMĪN, AMĪR FAḴR-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak

  b. Amir Yamīn-al-Dīn Ṭoḡrāʾī, a poet of the 14th century.

• DASTUR AL-MOLUK

  M. Ismail Marcinkowski

  a manual of administration in Persian from the end of the Safavid period.

• HĀRUN B. ALTUNTAŠ

  C. E. Bosworth

  son of a Turkish slave commander of Maḥmud of Ghazna who served as governor in Kᵛārazm 1032-35, first for the Ghaznavids, and then as an independent ruler.

• JUB-E GOWHAR

  Bruno Overlaet

  an archeological site in the Eyvān plain, Ilām province (Poštkuh, Lorestān). A total of sixty-six tombs of a partially plundered graveyard were excavated in 1977 by the Belgian Archeological Mission in Iran, directed by Louis Vanden Berghe.

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• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN MONAJJEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪŠĀH BOḴĀRĪ.

• AVICENNA

  Multiple Authors

  celebrated philosopher and physician philosopher (d. 1037).

• FIGURES OF SPEECH

  Cross-reference

  See BADIʿ (1).

• BORŪJERDĪ, ḤOSAYN

  Hamid Algar

  b. Moḥammad-Reżā Ḥosaynī, Shiʿite scholar of the Qajar period (d. ca. 1860); his main work was  a collection of chronograms on the deaths of famous transmitters of ḥadīṯ.

• KASRAVI, AḤMAD v. AS SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORMER

  Mohammad Amini

  Kasravi founded the “Society of Free Men” (Bāhamād-e āzādegān), announced his call for pākdini (pure faith)—born out of his sense of prophetic mission—and became the most outspoken intellectual against religious superstition and illusion. 

• DE BRUIN, CORNELIS

  Willem Floor

  or de Bruyn, also known as Corneille Le Brun or Le Bruyn (b. The Hague 1652, d. Utrecht 1726 or 1727), Dutch painter and author of two accounts of his travels in Persia and other eastern lands.

• ʿEZZAT PĀŠĀ, MOḤAMMAD

  Tahsın Yazici

  (1843-1914), author of a Persian-Turkish dictionary and translator of Persian literary works.

• MUSIC HISTORY i. Pre-Islamic Iran

  Bo Lawergren

  The documentation is largely archeological with a sprinkling of textual sources, and some evidence is here assembled to outline Iran’s pre-Islamic music history.

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• ḠOJDOVĀNI

  Cross-Reference

   See ʿABD-AL-ḴĀLEQ ḠOJDOVĀNI.

• IQĀN

  cross-reference

  See KETĀB-E IQĀN.

• ABŪ MANṢŪR ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  a dehqān (landowner) of Ṭūs, official under the Samanids, and patron of a lost prose Šāh-nāma (Šāh-nāma-ye Abū Manṣūrī).

• ARAB-SASANIAN COINS

  M. Bates

  Arab-Sasanian is a term applied to several different coinages of early Islamic Iran which were issued under Arab authority using the design and inscriptions of the preceding Sasanian coinage.

• BANŪ MONAJJEM

  D. Pingree

  a family of intellectuals, closely connected to the caliphs of the 9th-10th centuries and claiming descent from an ancient Iranian lineage.

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• FLANDIN, Eugène Napoléon Jean-Baptiste

  Cross-Reference

  (1809-1889), French orientalist, painter, archeologist, and politician, famous for the illustrated account of his travels in Persia. See FLANDIN AND COSTE.

• COLOGNE MANI CODEX

  Werner Sundermann

  or Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis, a lump of parchment fragments the size of a matchbox, containing a portion of the life and teachings of Mani, discovered in 1969 at an indeterminate spot in the area of Asyūṭ (ancient Lycopolis) in upper Egypt, the smallest ancient codex known to date.

• EBRĀHĪM ṬEHRĀNĪ

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  also known as Mīrzā ʿAmū, a 19th century calligrapher specializing in the nastaʿlīq script.

• STEIN, (Marc) Aurel

  Susan Whitfield

  , Sir, Hungarian–British archeologist and explorer (b. Pest, Hungary, 26 November 1862; d. Kabul, 28 October 1943).

• ḤASANVAND

  Pierre Oberling

  a Lor tribe of the Piškuh region in Lorestān. In the 1870s it numbered some 2,500 families distributed among 16 tiras.

• JUNGE, PETER JULIUS

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  German ancient historian and Iranologist (1913-1943).

• ALBUQUERQUE, ALFONSO DE

  J. Aubin

  (ca. 1460-1515), admiral in the Indian Ocean (1504, 1506-08), second governor of Portuguese India (1509-15), a great conqueror, and the real founder of the Portuguese empire in the Orient.

• AYĀDGĀR Ī WUZURGMIHR

  S. Shaked

  a popular-religious andarz composition in Pahlavi, attributed to one of the best-known sages of the Sasanian period, Wuzurgmihr (Bozorgmehr) ī Buxtagān, who was active at the court of Ḵosrow I Anōšīravān (531-79 A.D.).

• ĀB iii. The hydrology and water resources of the Iranian plateau

  P. Beaumont

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BOZPAYIT

  James R. Russell

  Middle Persian name, attested only in Armenian, of a Zoroastrian school or body of religious teaching in the Sasanian period.

• DEJLA

  Cross-Reference

  See ARVAND-RŪD; TIGRIS.

• FALAKĪ ŠARVĀNĪ, Abu’l-Neẓām Moḥammad

  François de Blois

  or ŠERVĀNĪ, a Persian poet of the first half of the 12th century.

• TAʿLIM O TARBIAT

  Nassereddin Parvin

  monthly periodical published by the Ministry of Culture (April 1925-March 1927, April 1934-July 1938). 

• GOLDEN HORDE

  Peter Jackson

  name given to the Mongol Khanate ruled by the descendants of Joči (Juji; d. 1226-27), the eldest son of Čengiz (Genghis) Khan.

• ABU’L-QĀSEM HĀRŪN

  K. A. Luther

  Vizier of Atabeg Ozbek b. Moḥammad b. Eldagōz, ruler of Azerbaijan, 607-22/1210-25.

• ARBĀB ROSTAM GĪV

  Cross-Reference

  See GĪV.

• BARAŠNOM

  M. Boyce

  the chief Zoroastrian purification rite, consisting of a triple cleansing, with gōmēz (cow’s urine), dust, and water, followed by nine nights’ seclusion.

• ENGLISH v. Translation Of English Literature into Persian

  Karīm Emāmi

• CONVERSION

  Multiple Authors

  the act of adopting another religion.

• FOQQĀʿ

  Sayyed Mohammad Dabirsiaghi

  an effervescent drink preserved in heavy and usually rounded clay vessels.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤAYYA ʿALĀ ḴAYR AL-ʿAMAL

  Meir M. Bar-Asher

  a religious formula, meaning “Come to the best of actions,” included in the call to prayer (aḏān) by all three major branches of Shiʿism, Twelvers, Zaydis and Ismaʿilis.

• AB-ANBĀR

  R. Holod, M. Sotūda

  "Water reservoir,” a term commonly used throughout Iran as a designation for roofed underground water cisterns.

• ʿALĪ B. ʿĪSĀ B. MĀHĀN

  Ch. Pellat

  (d. 812), officer in the service of the ʿAbbasids.

• ĀZĀD BELGRĀMĪ

  M. Siddiqi

  Major Indo-Muslim poet, biographer, and composer of chronograms, also known as Ḥassān-al-Hend (fl. 1116-1200/1704-86).

• ARCHEOLOGY vi. Islamic Iran

  R. Hillenbrand

  From the outset Islamic archeology in Iran was overshadowed by the numerous and splendid sites of earlier periods, and archeological investigation of Islamic sites began appreciably later in the Iranian world than in western Islam and in the Indian subcontinent.

• BŪDANA

  cross-reference

  See BELDERČĪN.

• DENŠAPUH

  James Russell

  short form of Vehdenšapuh; Sasanian hambārakapet (quartermaster) involved in the campaign of Yazdagerd II (438-57) to force Christian Armenians to abjure their faith and return to Zoroastrianism; a gem bearing his name is preserved in the British Museum in London.

• DUMÉZIL, Georges

  Bruce Lincoln

   (1898-1986), French comparatist philologist and religious studies scholar. Among the most significant later modifications in Dumézil's views was his decision to abandon the claim that Indo-European society was originally divided into three functional groupings, whose defining characteristics were then inscribed in myth, ritual, and the structure of the pantheon. Rather, he came to regard the tripartite system as an “ideology,” a collective ideal.

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• GOLŠANI, MOḤYI MOḤAMMAD

  Tahsin Yazici

  b. Fatḥ-Allāh b. Abi Ṭāleb (1528/29-1606/7), scholar and author in Persian and Turkish and inventor of an artificial language.

• IRANIAN IDENTITY i. PERSPECTIVES

  Ahmad Ashraf

  Perspectives on Iranian identity have been influenced by competing views on the origins of nations.

• ABŪ ṢĀLEḤ MANṢŪR (I) NŪḤ

  C. E. Bosworth

  (350-66/961-76), Samanid ruler in Transoxania and Khorasan and successor of his brother ʿAbd-al-Malek after the latter’s death in Šawwāl, 350/November, 961.

• ARDAŠĪR-ḴORRA

  C. E. Bosworth

  one of the five administrative divisions (kūra) of Fārs, in Sasanian and early Islamic times.

• BARLAAM AND IOSAPH

  J. P. Asmussen

  Persian Belawhar o Būdāsaf, a Greek Christian or Christianized novel of Buddhist origins. All the manuscripts are later than 1500. Being extremely popular it received various accretions and was often translated.

• FICTION

  Multiple Authors

  i. Traditional Forms. ii. Modern Fiction. ii(a). Historical Background. ii(b). The Novel. ii(c). The Short Story. ii(d). The Post-Revolutionary Short Story. ii(e). Post-Revolutionary Fiction Abroad. ii(f). By Persians in Non-Persian Languages. ii(g). In Afghanistan. ii(h). In Tajikistan.

• COUP D’ETAT OF 1299/1921

  Niloofar Shambayati

  the military coup that eventually led to the founding of the Pahlavi dynasty.

• EḤSĀN-AL-ʿOLŪM

  Cross-Reference

  See FARĀBĪ.

• ABRAHAM OF CRETE

  George A. Bournoutian

  (Kretatsʾi; b. Kandia, Crete, ?- d. Ejmiatsin, 18 April 1737), a leader of the Armenian Church and the author of a chronicle about Nāder Shah Afšār.

• FRAHANG Ī PAHLAWĪG

  D. N. MacKenzie

  lit. “a Pahlavi dictionary,” is rather a description than the title of an anonymous glossary of some five hundred mostly Aramaic heterograms (ideograms), in the form used by Zoroastrians in writing Middle Persian (Book Pahlavi), each explained by a “phonetic” writing of the corresponding Persian word.

• ABARSĀM

  E. Yarshater

  (APURSĀM in Middle Persian), a dignitary and high-ranking officeholder of the court of the Sasanian king Ardašīr I (A.D. 226-42).

• ʿALĪ HERAVĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  also known as MĪR ʿALĪ KĀTEB ḤOSAYNĪ, a calligrapher active in Herat, Mašhad, and Bukhara from the late 9/15th century to 951/1544-45.

• AZHAR-E ḴAR

  L. P. Smirnova

  “Azhar the ass,” nickname of AZHAR B. YAḤYĀ B. ZOHAYR B. FARQAD, third cousin, and military commander of the Saffarid amirs Yaʿqūb and ʿAmr b. Layṯ.

• AVICENNA iv. Metaphysics

  M. E. Marmura

• BŪSTĀNĪ, MĪRZĀ MOḤAMMAD

  Yuri Bregel

  ʿABD-AL-ʿAẒĪM SĀMĪ, poet and historian of Bukhara (b. ca. 1840, d. after 1914).

• DEŽ

  Nasseraddin Parvin

  a weekly of news and politics associated with the Tudeh Party that began publication on 27 May 1943 in Tehran and continued with some interruptions until June 1953.

• LEYLI O MAJNUN

  A. A. Seyed-Gohrab

  narrative poem of approximately 4,600 lines composed in 584/1188 by the famous poet Neẓāmi of Ganja.

• GORDUENE

  Cross-Reference

  See KORDUK.

• IRON AGE

  Oscar White Muscarella

  In Iran the term Iron Age is employed to identify a cultural change that occurred centuries earlier than the time accorded its use elsewhere in the Near East, and not to acknowledge the introduction of a new metal technology.

• ABŪ ZAYD KĀŠĀNĪ

  O. Watson

  a potter who signed a ceramic bowl in the enameled (mīnāʾī) technique dated 4 Moḥarram 582/26 March 1186.

• ARIARAMNEIA

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  a city in Cappadocia mentioned in an inscription.

• BASAWAL

  Sh. Kuwayama

  the site of a Buddhist cave temple complex in eastern Afghanistan. The caves, 150 in all, are partly hewn out in two rows and arranged in seven groups, which presumably corre­spond to the seven monastic institutions of Buddhist times.

• ḴĀKSĀR

  Zahra Taheri

  a strictly popular order of Persian dervishes, favored by artisans and shopkeepers.

• ČŪB ḴAṬṬ

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yusofi

  a stick 20-30 cm long formerly used by neighborhood shopkeepers, especially butchers and bakers, to keep accounts.

• ELBURZ COLLEGE

  Cross-Reference

  See ALBORZ COLLEGE.

• BABYLONIAN CHRONICLES

  M. Dandamayev

  as sources for Iranian history. In a number of cases Babylonian chronicles provide valuable information about the political history of Iran. They began with the reign of Nabu-nāṣir (747-734 BCE) and continued as far as the reign of Seleucus II (245-226 BCE).

• FRAWARDĪN YAŠT

  Mary Boyce

  the thirteenth of the Zoroastrian yašt hymns, devoted to the fravašis.

• HELMET

  B. A. Litvinsky, M. V. Gorelik

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. In Pre-Islamic Iran. ii. In the Islamic period.

• ʿABD-AL-ʿAZĪZ QARA ČELEBIZĀDA

  T. Yazici

  Ottoman historian and translator (1591-1658).

• BĀBĀ AFŻAL-AL-DĪN

  William Chittick

  poet and author of philosophical works in Persian (d. ca. 1213-14).

• BAHAISM xii. Bahai Literature

  D. M. MacEoin

  This article is concerned primarily with poetry and belles lettres rather than apologetic, didactic, historiographical, liturgical, or scriptural materials.

• ČAHĀR DOWLĪ

  Pierre Oberling

  (Davālī), or ČĀR DOWLĪ, a tribe of western Iran.

• DIEZ, ERNST

  Jens Kröger

  (b. 27 January 1878, d. 8 July 1961), Austrian historian of Iranian and Islamic art.

• BUKHARA i. In Pre-Islamic Times

  Richard N. Frye

  The site or town of Bukhara was one of many settlements in the large oasis formed by the mouths of the Zarafshan (Zarafšān) river in ancient Sogdiana.

• GOUVEA, ANTONIO DE

  Rudi Matthee

  (b. Beja, Portugal, 1575; d. Manzanares, Spain, 1628), Augustinian missionary and Portuguese envoy who visited Persia three times between 1602 and 1613 and who wrote on Persia.

• ADAB AL-ṢAḠĪR

  I. Abbas

  an Arabic book of wisdom aud advice, based on Middle Persian works.

• ARŠĀMA

  E. Bresciani

  name of several Achaemenid notables.

• BAYĀN (2)

  D. M. MacEoin

  term applied to the writings of the Bāb in general and to two late works in particular, the Bayān-e fārsī and al-Bayān al-ʿarabī.

• WHEAT

  Cross-Reference

  See GANDOM.

• ʿEMĀD ḤASANĪ, MĪR, ʿEMĀD-AL-MOLK

  Kambiz Eslami

  b. Ebrāhīm (ca. 1554-1615), celebrated calligrapher. His rendition of nastaʿlīq, with smooth lines, many curves, very occasional diacritical marks, symmetry of letters and words, and usually excellent choice of decorations surrounding the words, had widespread appeal during his lifetime and after his death.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KĀŠI, ḠIĀṮ-AL-DIN

  George Saliba

  ḠIĀṮ-AL-DIN JAMŠID B. MASʿUD B. MOḤAMMAD (ca. 1386-1429), mathematician, astronomer, and scientific instrument-maker of the highest rank.

• GARŠĀSP

  Cross-Reference

  See KARŠĀSP.

• HERMENEUTICS

  B. Todd Lawson

  of pre-modern Islamic and Shiʿite exegesis, the principles and methods, or philosophy, of scriptural interpretation, as distinct from the act of interpretation.

• ʿABD-AL-KARĪM ʿALAVĪ

  N. H. Zaidi

  Early 19th century Indo-Persian historian (d. ca. 1851).

• ALVĪRĪ

  E. Yarshater

  a dialect spoken in the village of Alvīr and belonging to the Central group of Iranian dialects.

• BĀBOR, ẒAHĪR-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  F. Lehmann

  (1483-1530), Timurid prince, military genius, and literary craftsman, founder of the Mughal Empire in India.

• BUKHARA vii. Bukharan Jews

  Michael Zand

  “Bukharan Jews” is the common appellation for the Jews of Central Asia whose native language is the Jewish dialect of Tajik.

• CALIPHS AND THE CALIPHATE

  Hamid Algar

  as viewed by the Shiʿites of Persia.

• DĪVĀN

  François de Blois

  archive, register, chancery, government office; also, collected works, especially of a poet.

• ŠAFAQ

  Nasserddin Parvin

  a newspaper published in Tabriz, 3 October 1910 to 18 December 1911. It was an organ of the Democrat Party (Ḥezb-e demokrāt), with a strong nationalist orientation.

• ĀDUR BURZĒN-MIHR

  M. Boyce

  an Ātaš Bahrām, i.e., a Zoroastrian sacred fire of the highest grade. 

• ARTABAZANES

  C. J. Brunner

  autonomous ruler of Armenia who submitted to the Seleucid king Antiochus III in 220 B.C., when the latter invaded his country.

• BĀZA-ḴŪR

  D. Huff

  (Baz-e Hur), a village and site of some important Sasanian structures on the road from Mašhad to Torbat-e Ḥaydarīya.

• MO’AYYERI, Mohammad Hasan

  Kāmyār ʿĀbedi

  (1909-1968), prominent poet and lyricist, better known as Rahi.

• DADYSETH ATAS BAHRAM

  Mary Boyce and Firoze M. Kotwal

  the oldest Ātaš Bahrām of Bombay, consecrated and installed according to Kadmi rites in the district of Fanaswadi on the day of Sarōš, month of Farvardīn 1153 A.Y./29 September 1783.

• ENAMEL

  EIr, Layla S. Diba

  a heat-fused glass paste colored by metal oxides and used to decorate metal surfaces. Enamel was associated with lapidary, glassworking, and goldmithing crafts and was probably used primarily in place of precious stones before the 17th century.

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• NASAFI, ʿAZIZ

  Hermann Landolt

   b. Moḥammad, 7th/13th-century mystical thinker and scholar from Nasaf (Naḵšab) in Transoxania (present Qarshi or Karshi in Uzbekistan), author of many works in Persian.

• GAČSĀRĀN

  Eckart Ehlers

  town and oilfield in the province of Ḵūzestān, southwestern Persia.

• ḤESBA

  cross-reference

  See MOḤTASEB.

• ʿABD-AL-RĀFEʿ HERAVĪ

  Żīā-al-dīn Sajjādī

  poet, grammarian, and physician, first attached to the court of Ḵosrow Malek (555-82/1160-76), the last Ghaznavid sultan.

• ʿAMĪD, ABŪ ʿABDALLĀH

  C. E. Bosworth

  known as Kolah (said to be an opprobrious term), secretary and official in northern Persia and Transoxania during the 4th/10th century.

• BAḎḎ

  Ḡ. -Ḥ. Yūsofī

  or BAḎḎAYN (perhaps two places), a mountainous region (kūra) in Azerbaijan, site of the castle  headquarters of Bābak Ḵorramī during his revolt against the ʿAbbasid caliphate (816-37).

• CHILDREN iii. Legal Rights of Children in the Sasanian Period

  Mansour Shaki

• ČANGRANGHĀČA-NĀMA

  Žāla Āmūzgār

  a narrative work in Persian verse by Zartošt or Zarātošt, son of Bahrām-e Paždū, a poet of the 7th/13th century.

• ZĀR

  Maria Sabaye Moghaddam

  harmful wind (bād) associated with spirit possession beliefs in southern coastal regions of Iran. People believe in the existence of winds that can be either vicious or peaceful, believer (Muslim) or non-believer (infidel).

• GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (b. Hannoversch-Münden, 1775; d. Hannover, 1853), German philologist and scholar of oriental studies.

• Italy xiv. CURRENT CENTERS OF IRANIAN STUDIES IN ITALY

  Carlo G. Cereti

  Studies on subjects related to the Iranian cultural world can boast an ancient tradition in Italy, but not as an independent field of study at academic level. Things have considerably changed in recent times.

• ĀFRĪD

  J. P. Asmussen

  5th-century Christian bishop of Sagastān.

• ARTOXARES

  M. Dandamayev

  a Paphlagonian eunuch at the court of Artaxerxes I and satrap of Armenia.

• FARAḤĀBĀD

  Wolfram Kleiss

  The city of that name on the coast of the Caspian Sea in Māzandarān, at the terminus of the so-called “royal road” from Isfahan, was part of a Safavid building program that also included Ašraf/Behšahr, the ʿAbbāsābād dam, the Qara Tappa palace, and other projects.

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• BEET

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  Beta vulgaris L., PERS. čoḡondar. The present distinction of beet varieties into vegetable (or red) beet, sugar beet, and fodder beet was unknown to the early Islamic botanists-pharmacologists.

• WOMEN ii. In Shiʿism

  Moojan Momen

  In theory, Shiʿism has a more favorable attitude towards women than Sunni Islam. These favorable differences are largely annulled, however, by some specific Shiʿite practices as well as the social realities of women’s lives in Shiʿite communities. 

• DĀITYĀ, VAŊHVĪ

  Gherardo Gnoli

  the name of a river connected with the religious law, frequently identified in scholarly literature with the Oxus or with rivers of the northeastern region.

• ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

  Eskandar Firouz, Daniel Balland

  efforts to protect natural resources, wildlife, and ecosystems and to control pollution. In Persia conservation consciousness began, as it so often does, with concern for wildlife.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠALYĀN

  Shahnaz Razpush and EIr

  or QALYĀN (nargileh); a water pipe chiefly used in the Middle East and Central Asia for smoking tobacco. It is composed of several parts: the bādgīr (chimney); sar-e ḡālyān or sarpūš (the top bowl; sar-ḵāna in Afghanistan); tana (the body); mīlāb (the immersion pipe); ney-e pīč (hose); and kūza (the reservoir of water).

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• HNČʿAK

  Aram Arkun

  colloquial term for members of the Social Democratic Hnčʿakean Party [SDHP], founded in Switzerland by Russian Armenians in 1887, with  branches in Persia, the Russian empire, the Ottoman empire, and elsewhere.

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ LĀHĪJĪ

  W. Madelung

  Theologian and philosopher (and poet under the pen name FAYYĀŻ, 11th/17th century).

• AMĪN-AL-ŻARB, ḤĀJJ MOḤAMMAD-ḤASAN

  A. Enayat

  (AMĪN-AL-ŻARB), custodian of the state mint under Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah, regarded as the most successful Iranian entrepreneur of his time (1253-1316/1837-98).

• BADUSPANIDS

  W. Madelung

  a dynasty ruling Rūyān and Rostamdār from the late 11th to the 16th century with the title of ostandār and later of king.

• CHRISTIANITY v. Christ in Manicheism

  Werner Sundermann

• ČARḴĪ, Mawlānā Yaʿqūb

  Hamid Algar

  an early shaikh of the Naqšbandī order and author of several works in Persian (d. 851/1447).

• DORRI EFENDI

  Cross-Reference

  See DÜRRI EFENDI.

• VAZIRI, ʿAli-Naqi

  Hormoz Farhat

  (b. Tehran, 1887; d., Tehran, 9 September 1979), composer, virtuoso tār player, musical theorist, and educator.

• ḠURIĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See FUŠANJ.

• JĀḠORI

  A. Monsutti

  a term of uncertain etymological origin for both a tribal section of the Hazāras and a district (woluswāli) of Ḡazni province in Afghanistan.

• ĀḠĀJĪ

  ʿA. Zaryāb

  title of a court official in the administrations of the Ghaznavids and Saljuqs.

• ASADĀBĀDĪ, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN

  Cross-Reference

  See AFḠĀNĪ, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN.

• FARHANG

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the title of five newspapers and magazines printed in Persia and Europe.

• BEKTĀŠ, ḤĀJĪ

  Hamid Algar

  , ḤĀJĪ (d. 1270-71?), Khorasanian Sufi and eponym of the Bektāšī order, once widespread in Anatolia and the Balkans, with offshoots in Egypt, Iraq, and Western Iran.

• SOLṬĀN WALAD

  Cross-Reference

  13th-14th-century Sufi shaikh and poet, son and eventual successor of Mawlānā Jalāl-al-Din Rumi(Mawlawi). See BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN SOLṬĀN WALAD.

• DANDĀNQĀN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a small town of medieval Khorasan, in the Qara Qum, or sandy desert, between Marv and Saraḵs, 10 farsaḵs from the former, on which it was administratively dependent.

• ĒRĀN-ŠĀD-KAWĀD

  Rika Gyselen

  name of a Sasanian town occurring in post-Sasanian sources only.

• KHALCHAYAN

  Lolita Nehru

  in Surxondaryo prov., southern Uzbekistan, site of a settlement and palace of the nomad Yuezhi, with paintings and sculptures of the mid-1st century BCE. The Yuezhi, and perhaps other nomad groups, overthrew the Hellenistic Greek dynasty which had ruled there since the mid-3rd century as successor to the post-Achaemenid governments of Alexander and the Seleucids.

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• GANJ-ʿALĪ KHAN

  Mohammad-Ebrahim Bastani Parizi

  a military leader and governor of Kermān, Sīstān, and Qandahār under Shah ʿAbbās I (996-1038/1588-1629). 

• ḤOQUQ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the name of various 20th-century periodicals in Iran and Afghanistan.

• ʿABDALLĀH, QAVĀM-AL-DĪN

  T. Kuroyanagi

  14th century theologian and faqīh of Shiraz (d. 772/1370).

• AMITĀYUS

  R. E. Emmerick

  Sanskrit name of one of the transcendental Buddhas, the so-called Dhyāni-Buddhas, of later Buddhism. 

• BAGHDAD PACT

  J. A. Kechichian

  popular name for the 1955 pro-Western defense alliance between Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, and the United Kingdom.

• CASTRATION

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  (of men; ḵaṣī kardan, ḵāya kešīdan, ḵᵛāja kardan), discussion of castration in Islamic medical literature, on its legal status, and on its historical attestation in Islamic Persia.

• ḎU’L-FAQĀR KHAN AFŠĀR

  J. R. PERRY

  governor (ḥākem) of Ḵamsa province (ca. 1763-80) under the Zand dynasty.

• FARHANG-E WAFĀʾI

  Solomon Bayevsky

  or Resāla-ye Wafāʾi; a Persian lexicon of some 2,425 mainly literary terms, compiled by Ḥosayn Wafāʾi in 1527 and dedicated to the Safavid Shah Ṭahmāsb I.

• HADIŠ (1)

  cross-reference

  See PALACE i. ACHAEMENID.

• JALĀYER, ESMĀʿIL KHAN

  Manouchehr Broomand

  a prominent painter of the Qajar era, during the reign of Nāṣer-al-Din Shah (r. 1848-96). He was  noted for his work in the genres of irāni-sāzi (Iranian subjects, relatively unaffected by European influences) and ṭabiʿat-sāzi (fauna and flora in a European naturalistic mode).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḤMAD B. JAʿFAR

  D. M. Dunlop

  poet, man of letters, musician, wit, and bon vivant at the court of several ʿAbbasid caliphs, hence sometimes called al-Nadīm.

• ʿĀŠEQ HAWĀSĪ

  C. F. Albright

  “melody of the ʿāšeq,” term referring to (1) a type of poem often sung by ʿāšeqs in Iranian Azerbaijan and (2) the typical manner of singing the poem and the manner of accompanying it on the musical instrument.

• FARĪDAN

  Mīnū Yūsofnežād

  a county (šahrestān) located at the foot of the Zagros mountains in the western part of Isfahan province, bordered on the north by Ḵᵛānsār, on the northwest by Alīgūdarz (in Lorestān province), on the west by the county of Farīdūn-æahr, on the east by Najafābād, and on the south by Šahr-e Kord and Fārsān.

• BESṬĀM (1)

  Wilhelm Eilers

  (or Bestām), an Iranian man’s name; as a result of its past popularity, it is a fairly common component of place names.

• KĀSEMI, NOṢRAT-ALLĀH

  Mostafa Alamouti and EIr.

  (1908-1996), physician, poet, writer, orator, and politician.

• DAR-E MEHR

  Mary Boyce

  a Zoroastrian term first recorded in the Persian Rivāyats and Parsi Gujarati writings.

• ESCHATOLOGY

  Multiple Authors

  the branch of theology concerned with final things, i.e., the advent of the savior to defeat evil and the end of the world.

• ŻIĀʾ-AL-SALṬANA

  Dominic Parviz Brookshaw

  , Šāh Begom (1799-1873), seventh daughter of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah Qajar (r. 1797-1834), private secretary to him, calligrapher and poet.

• ḠĀYER KHAN

  Peter Jackson

  b. Tekeš (d. 1220), Turkish general of the Ḵᵛārazmšāh ʿAlāʾ-al-Dīn Moḥammad.

• ḤOSAYN B. ʿALI ii. IN POPULAR SHIʿISM

  Jean Calmard

  Legendary accounts about Ḥosayn and his martyrdom were from the outset influenced by his status as a Shiʿite Imam.

• ʿABDALLĀH ŠĪRĀZĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Painter and illuminator of the late 10th/16th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAHĀRVAND

  P. Oberling

  a Lur tribe now living mostly in the dehestāns (districts) of Kargāh and Bālā Garīva, south and southwest of Ḵorramābād.  

• CONVERSION iii. To Imami Shiʿism in India

  Juan Cole

• ČEMĪKENT

  Cross-Reference

  See ASFĪJĀB.

• DUSHANBE

  Muriel Atkin

  capital and most populous city of Tajikistan.

• NAẒIRI NIŠĀPURI

  Paul Losensky

  Indo-Persian poet of the late 16th and early 17th centuries (b. Nishapur, ca. 1560; d. Ahmadnagar, between 1612 and 1614).

• HAFT ḴOSRAVĀNI

  Ameneh Youssefzadeh

  the seven musical systems or modes attributed to Bārbad, the famous court musician of the Sasanian king Ḵosrow II Parvēz (r. 590-628).

• JĀMEʿ AL-TAWĀRIḴ

  Charles Melville

  (The Compendium of chronicles), historical work composed i1300-10 by Ḵᵛāja Rašid-al-Din Fażl-Allāh Ṭabib Hamadāni, vizier to the Mongol Il-khans Ḡāzān and Öljeitü.

• AHMADABAD

  L. A. Desai

  Major city of Gujarat state in western India and a former center of Persian culture.

• ĀSNATAR

  W. W. Malandra

  one of the eight Zoroastrian priests (ratu) necessary for the performance of the yasna ritual.

• BĪĀR

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (from Ar. plur. of beʾr “well, spring”), a small settlement of medieval Islamic times on the northern fringe or the Dašt-e Kavīr, modern Bīārjomand.

• KHAKSAR, Mansur

  Khosrow Davami

  poet, writer, editor and political activist. Khaksar completed his primary and secondary education in Abadan, and had two eminent Persian poets, Maḥmud Mošref Tehrāni and Ḥassan Pastā, as his teachers in the last two years of high school. In 1959, his first poem was published in Omid-e Irān, a noted weekly journal published by Moḥammad Āṣemi in Tehran.

• DARD, ḴᵛĀJA MĪR

  Annemarie Schimmel

  (b. Delhi, 13 September 1721; d. 11 January 1785), poet and author of prose works on mystical theology.

• ESḤĀQ TORK

  ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Zarrīnkūb

  propagandist sent by Abū Moslem Ḵorāsānī (governor of Khorasan and leading figure in the ʿAbbasid revolution) to the Turkish people of Transoxania.

• PARMENIO

  Ernst Badian

  (b. ca. 400 BCE, d. 330 BCE); probably from mountainous Upper Macedonia, he became Philip II’s most successful general.

• EDUCATION xxiii. MILITARY EDUCATION

  Cross-reference

  See MILITARY EDUCATION.

• HŪITI

  cross-reference

  See AVESTAN PEOPLE.

• ABNĀʾ

  C. E. Bosworth

  "sons," term for the offspring of Persian soldiers and officials in the Yemen and of Arab mothers.

• ANDARZ

  S. Shaked, Z. Safa

  “precept, instruction, advice”: the literary genre in pre-Islamic and New Persian literatures.

• CHAMBERLAIN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤĀJEB.

• EBN ABĪ ṬĀHER ṬAYFŪR, ABU’L-FAŻL AḤMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (819-93), littérateur (adīb) and historian of Baghdad, of a Khorasani family.

• TOḤFAT AL-AḤBĀB

  Solomon Bayevsky

  (Gift for friends), a Persian dictionary of the early Safavid period, compiled by Ḥāfeẓ Solṭān-ʿAli Owbahi Heravi in 936/1529-30.

• HAJIABAD i. INSCRIPTIONS

  Philippe Gignoux

  The Hajiabad Inscriptions were discovered by Robert Ker Porter at Ḥājiābād in 1818 in a grotto a few kilometers north of Persepolis.

• JAPAN xiii. TRANSLATIONS OF JAPANESE WORKS INTO PERSIAN

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  Introduction of Japan to Persian readers began when Japanese military victories over China (1894-95) and, especially, Russia (1904-05) excited the interest of Iranians.

• ʿAJĀʾEB AL-DONYĀ

  L. P. Smirnova

  (“Wonders of the world” or “Wonderful things”), title of a Persian geography.

• ĀSRĒŠTĀR

  P. O. Skjærvø

  in Middle Persian Manichean texts a kind of demons, often associated with the mazans.

• FĀṬEMĪ, ḤOSAYN

  Fakhreddin Azimi

  (1917-54), journalist, a leader of the National Front, and the minister of foreign affairs under Moḥammad Moṣaddeq.

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• BĪMA

  Willem Floor

  (bīme; Hindi bīmā), insurance. “Insurance” activities are re­ferred to for the first time in 1891, by Eʿtemād-­al-Salṭana in his diary entry of 13 Decem­ber.

• CHORASMIA iii. The Chorasmian Language

  D. N. MacKenzie

• DARVĪŠ

  Mansour Shaki, Hamid Algar

  a poor, indigent, ascetic, and abstemious person or recluse.

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. Seboktegīn

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Ghaznavid prince and briefly amir in Ḡazna in 997-98.

• Kesāʾi Marvazi

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (also vocalized Kasāʾi), 10th-century Persian poet.

• ZARATHUSTRA

  Cross-Reference

  the name generally known in the West for the prophet of ancient Iran, whose transformation of his inherited religion inaugurated a movement that eventually became the dominant religion in Iran up until the triumph of Islam. See ZOROASTER.

• HYSTASPES

  Cross Reference

  father of Darius I. See GOŠTĀSP.

• ABŪ ʿAMR AL-MĀZOLĪ

  J. van Ess

  Karrāmī theologian, fl. mid-4th/mid-10th century.

• ANĪS AL-ʿOŠŠĀQ

  G. M. Wickens

  a small handbook of the imagery traditionally used in Persian love poetry, by Ḥasan b. Moḥammad Šaraf-al-din Rāmi (sometimes Zāmi), d. 795/1393.

• EXCAVATIONS iv. In Chinese Turkestan

  B. A. LitvinskiĬ

  Chinese Turkestan refers to Xinjiang (Sinkiang), the Uighur Autonomous Region of the People’s Republic of China. Other names have often been applied to this part of Central Asia: Serindia (English and French); Ost-Turkestan, Chinesische Ost-Turkestan, Mittelasien (German); Vostochnyĭ Turkestan (Russian). Some of these terms are purely geographical (Mittelasien), some historical (Serindia), and others ethno-cultural (Turkestan).

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• CHOAMANI

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  name of an eastern Iranian tribe (perhaps located in western Bactria), mentioned only by Pomponius Mela in an enumeration of the inhabitants of the interior lands.

• EBN FAHD ḤELLĪ, ABU’L-ʿABBĀS JAMĀL-AL-DĪN AḤMAD

  Marco Salami

  b. Šams-al-Dīn Moḥammad (1355-1437), Imami scholar and jurist.

• CAT II. PERSIAN CAT

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  In western Europe and in North America, what are called “Persian cats” are a breed of longhaired domestic cats with a massive body, measuring 40 to 50 cm in length, and up to 30 cm in the height of their withers. According to the standards, these cats must present a strong bone structure, important muscular masses, and short, straight paws.

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• JEH

  Albert de Jong

  name of a female demon in a small number of Zoroastrian Middle Persian texts. The name of Jeh is commonly, but with little justification, translated as “whore.”

• AḴNŪḴ

  J. P. Asmussen

  Enoch, in Manichean texts. According to the Cologne Mani Codex, the outstanding Greek Mani-vita, the prophet grew up in a Judeo-Christian environment, in the sect founded by Elkhasai in Eastern Syria about 100 CE.

• ASTROLABE

  Cross-Reference

  See ASṬORLĀB.

• FAŻL-ALLĀH ḤORŪFĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ASTARĀBĀDĪ, FAŻLALLĀH.

• BOČĀQČĪ

  Pierre Oberling

  a Turkic tribe of Sīrjān in Kermān province.

• RATHINES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  a general of Pharnabazos, the satrap of the Daskylitis (see DASCYLIUM) under Dareios II and Artaxerxes II (see DARIUS iv and ARTAXERXES II).

• DASTĀN (1)

  Cross-Reference

  See ZĀL.

• ESTEʿĀRA

  Julie S. Meisami

  lit. "to borrow"; the general term for metaphor.

• WAṢF

  A. A. Seyed-Gohrab

  a literary term meaning “description;” but it can carry several other connotations, including “quality,” “attribute,” “characterization,” “distinguishing mark,” and “adjective.”

• GƎUŠ TAŠAN

  William W. Malandra

  (the fashioner of the Cow), a divine craftsman who figures prominently in the Gathas of Zoroaster but falls into obscurity in the Younger Avesta, being there associated with the fourteenth day of the month, known in Middle Persian simply as Gōš.

• ILLUMINATIONISM

  Hossein Ziai

  or Illuminationist philosophy, first introduced in the 12th century as a complete, reconstructed system distinct both from the Peripatetic philosophy  of Avicenna and from theological philosophy.

• ABU’L-FARAJ ʿEBRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  (b. Malaṭīa, 1225; d. Marāḡa, 1286), Syriac historian and polymath, also known as Bar Hebraeus. See EBN AL-ʿEBRĪ, ABU’L-FARAJ.

• ANSHAN

  J. Hansman

  (or ANZAN), the name of an important Elamite region in western Fārs and of its chief city.

• BĀLAVĪ

  cross-reference

  See BĀLAWĪ FAMILY.

• BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI iii. In the Islamic period up to the Mongol invasion

  C. E. Bosworth

  Early Islamic society was essentially a slave-holding one, and it seems likely that Iranian society of the time exhibited two of the types of slavery known elsewhere in the pre-modern Old World—agricultural/industrial slavery and domestic slavery.

• CIMMERIANS

  Sergei R. Tokhtas’ev

  a nomadic people, most likely of Iranian origin, who flourished in the 8th-7th centuries B.C.

• EBN MOBĀRAK

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDALLAH B. MOBĀRAK.

• ḴORRAMIS IN BYZANTIUM

  Evangelos Venetis

  Iranians who fought the ʿAbbasid caliph Moʿtaṣem be’llāh (r. 833-41) and enrolled in the Byzantine army of the iconoclast emperor Theophilos I (r. 829-42).

• ḤAMZA -NĀMA

  William L. Hanaway, Jr., Frances W. Pritchett

  a popular prose romance transmitted orally and written down at a time unknown.

• JOČI

  Michal Biran

  (in Persian and Turkic also Tuši, Duši, ca. 1184-1227), the eldest son of Čengiz Khan (d. 1227) and the ancestor of the khans of the Golden Horde, the westernmost Mongolian khanate.

• ĀL-E FAŻLŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See ATĀBAKĀN-E LORESTĀN.

• AṮĪR AḴSĪKATĪ

  Z. Safa

  Poet of the 6th/12th century with a distinctive style.

• FEREŠTA,TĀRĪḴ-E

  Gavin R. G. Hambly

  popular title of Golšan-e ebrāhīmī, a general history of Muslim India by Moḥammad-Qāsem Hendušāh Astarābādī (b. Astarābād ca. 1570), the celebrated historian of the Deccan known by the pen name (taḵalloṣ) of Ferešta.

• BOMBAY PARSI PANCHAYAT

  John R. Hinnells

  the largest Zoroastrian institution in modern history, originally founded in the 17th century in order to maintain Zoroastrian family and social values at a time of dramatic change, when Parsis were migrating from rural Gujarat to cosmopolitan Bombay.

• BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES ii. In Iran (continued)

  Aḥmad Monzawī and ʿAlī Naqī Monzawī

• DAVĀZDAH EMĀMĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See SHIʿITE DOCTRINE; IRAN ix. Relgions in Iran (2) Islam in Iran.

• EUTHYDEMUS

  A. D. H. Bivar

  name of two Greek kings of Bactria: (1) Euthydemus I (ca. 230-200 B.C.E.), considered the real founder of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and (2) Euthydemus II (ca. 190-185 B.C.E.), presumably the second son of Euthydemus I, or less probably eldest son of Demetrius I.

• KAJAKAY DAM

  Siddieq Noorzoy

  dam built on the Helmand River as a part of the multi-faceted projects aimed at the development of the Helmand Valley.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN ESFARĀʾĪNĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  first vizier for the Ghaznavid sultan Maḥmūd (r. 388-421/998-1030). 

• APOSTOLIC CANONS

  N. Sims-Williams

  fragmentary Christian Sogdian text.

• BANĀKATĪ, Abū Solaymān

  P. Jackson

  Dāwūd b. Abi’l-Fażl Moḥammad (d. 1329-30), poet and historian.

• NOWRUZ i. In the Pre-Islamic Period

  Mary Boyce

• CLEMENT of Alexandria

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  (Titus Flavius Clemens, probably b. Athens ca. 150 C.E., d. Cappadocia ca. 215), Greek convert to Christianity who became the leading theologian of his time, a polemicist particularly noted for his attempts to reconcile Greco-Roman thought with Christian teachings.

• EBN ṬĀWŪS, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN ABU’L- FAŻĀʾEL AḤMAD

  Wilferd Madelung

  b. Mūsā b. Jaʿfar b. Moḥammad Ḥasanī, 12th century Imami scholar.

• ʿĀLEMPUR, Moḥyi-al-Din

  Habib Borjian

  (Muhiddin Olimpur/Olimov), Tajik journalist, photographer, and intellectual figure who was instrumental in strengthening cultural ties among Persianate societies (1945-1995).

• HARP

  Bo Lawergren

  (čang), a string instrument which flourished in Persia in many forms from its introduction, about 3000 BCE, until the 17th century.

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• JOWŠAQĀN i. The District

  Habib Borjian

  Jowšaqān is located at 65 miles northwest of Isfahan, where the western foothills of the Karkas Mountain range break down into plain.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN ḴALJĪ

  N. H. Zaidi

  sultan of Delhi (r. 695-715/1296-1316). 

• ĀVĀZ

  G. Tsuge

  in modern Persian “song” (of any kind) or, more broadly, “music.”

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• FICTION, ii(h)

  Keith Hitchins

  ii(h). IN TAJIKISTAN. Tajik fiction in the 20th century has drawn from a variety of sources.

• BORJ

  Abbas Daneshvari, David Pingree

  in both Persian and Arabic with two principal meanings: 1. tower, castle, or fortress; dovecote; 2. a sign of the zodiac, and by extension a solar mansion, a month.

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• KASRAVI, AḤMAD

  Multiple Authors

  influential social thinker, prominent historian, a pioneer of Iran’s linguistic studies, well-known social and religious reformer with a sense of prophetic mission, and prolific author.

• DAYR

  QAMAR ĀRYĀN

  monastery; in early Islamic Arabic and Persian literature usually a building in which Christian monks (rāheb) lived and worshiped.

• ʿEZRĀ-NĀMA

  Amnon Netzer

  paraphrased versification of the Book of ʿEzrā containing midrashic and Iranian legends. 

• ČOḠĀ BONUT

  Abbas Alizadeh

  archeological site in lowland Susiana, in the present-day province of Ḵuzestān in southwestern Iran; to date, Čoḡā Bonut has provided evidence of the earliest stages of settled agricultural life in Ḵuzestān.

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• GODIN TEPE

  T. Cuyler Young, Jr.

  or GOWDIN TEPE; an archeological site in the central Zagros, which was occupied from ca. 5,000 to 500 B.C.E. located at 48° 4′ E and 34° 31′ N in the Kangāvar valley, approximately halfway between Hamadān and Kermānšāh.

• INTAPHERNES

  cross-reference

  See VINDAFARNĀ.

• ABU’L-ḴAYR B. AL-ḴAMMĀR

  W. Madelung

  Nestorian Christian physician, philosopher, theologian, and translator, b. Rabīʿ I, 331/November, 942 in Baghdad.

• ARA THE BEAUTIFUL

  J. R. Russell

  son of Aram, mythical king of Armenia.  

• BANŪ AMĀJŪR

  D. Pingree

  (or MĀJŪR), ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿABD-ALLĀH  and his son Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī, 10th-century astronomers.

• ḴAZINADĀR

  Willem Floor

  title of the royal treasurer since the early Islamic period.

• COINS AND COINAGE

  Stephen Album, Michael L. Bates, and Willem Floor

  During the reign of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah (1797-1834) the first steps toward a modern currency were taken. At the Tabrīz and Isfahan mints well-executed silver and gold coins were struck along with the normal, less carefully minted products, with full, even pressure and reeded edges similar to those found on contemporary British Indian coins. It is unclear whether these coins were intended only for presentation or as prototypes for a technically superior circulating coinage,

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• EBRĀHĪM ŠARQĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ŠARQĪ.

• RAJʿA

  Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi

  (lit.: “return”), theological term that has had many meanings according to the context in which it was professed. 

• ḤASAN-ʿALI MIRZĀ ŠOJĀʿ-AL-ṢALṬANA

  cross-reference

  See ŠOJĀʿ-AL-ṢALṬANA, ḤASAN-ʿALI MIRZĀ.

• JULFA ii. THE 18TH AND THE 19TH CENTURY

  Vazken S. Ghougassian

  The Afghan occupation of Isfahan between 1722 and 1729 struck a most devastating blow to the Armenians of New Julfa, although the city was spared total destruction and massive killings of its population. Nāder Shah Afšār (d. 1747) was even more brutal. Karim Khan Zand (d. 1779) treated the Armenian community fairly well and tried to encourage the return of expatriate Julfan merchants.

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• ʿALAWĪYAT AL-AʿSAR

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALAWAYH.

• ĀXWARRBED

  A. Tafażżolī

  Middle Iranian term for the “Stablemaster, Royal Equerry.”

• FISH i. FRESHWATER FISHES

  Brian W. Coad

  With about 1,800 km of coastline along the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, and about 990 km on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, plus some inland fresh waters, Persia has a great variety of aquatic fauna: mollusks, crustaceans, chelonians, mammals, and especially fishes.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BOZORG, MĪRZĀ

  cross-reference

  See QĀʾEMMAQĀM, MĪRZĀ BOZORG.

• DEHLORĀN

  Frank Hole

  (Deh Lorān), the name of a šahrestān (subprovince) in Īlām province in southwestern Persia, and of the main town.

• FĀL

  Cross-reference

  See DIVINATION.

• QĀNUNI, RAḤIM

  Houman Sarshar

  Širāzi (1871-1944), innovator, master of Persian classical music, and teacher.

• ḠOLĀT

  Heinz Halm

  lit. "exaggerators," sing. ḡāli; an Arabic term originally used by Twelver Shiʿite (eṯnā ʿašariya) heresiographers to designate those dissidents who exaggerate the status of the Imams in an undue manner by attributing to them divine qualities.

• BATTLE-AXES in Eastern Iran

  Boris A. Litvinsky

  Battle-axes made of bronze appeared in Eastern Iran during the Bronze Age. One such object comes from a burial at the Sapalli-tepa settlement in southern Uzbekistan.

• ABŪ ʿOṮMĀN RABĪʿA

  L. A. Giffen

  often called RABĪʿAT-AL-RAʾY, important lawyer of the ancient school of Medina and transmitter of Traditions from Companions of the Prophet, died 136/753. 

• ARAXA

  M. A. Dandamayev

  Old Persian form of the name of a leader of a Babylonian rebellion against Darius I.

• BĀRĀN

  D. Balland

  “rain.” The presence of the oblique Zagros and Hindu Kush ranges at the western and eastern extremes of Irano-Afghan territory introduces great contrasts between the relatively humid slopes exposed to the winds and the much more arid slopes of the sheltered sides.

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• DAVID, JACOB

  Eden Naby

  (1873-1967) Assyrian pastor and relief worker.

• CONTARINI, AMBROGIO

  Filippo Bertotti

  (1429-99), Venetian merchant and diplomat, author of a noteworthy report on Persia under the Āq Qoyunlū Uzun Ḥasan.

• EDUCATION

  Multiple Authors

  (Pers. āmūzeš o parvareš; earlier Ar. Per. taʿlīm o tarbīat) in Iranian-speaking areas.

• FOLKLORE STUDIES ii. OF AFGHANISTAN

  Margaret A. Mills and Abdul Ali Ahrary

• ḤAYDAR MIRZĀ ṢAFAVI

  Michel M. Mazzaoui

  Safavid prince who considered himself to be the chosen successor of his father, Shah Ṭahmāsb, but was killed immediately after the latter’s death on 14 May 1576.

• KAEMPFER, ENGELBERT

  Detlef Haberland

  German physician and traveler to Russia, the Orient, and the Far East (1651-1716).

• ʿALĪ B. ḤOSĀM-AL-DAWLA

  cross-reference

  ŠAHRĪĀR. See ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA ʿALĪ.

• ʿAYYŪQĪ

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  a poet of the fifth/eleventh century who versified the romance of Varqa o Golšāh.

• ARCHEOLOGY i. Pre-Median

  T. C. Young

  As early as the 17th century, a number of European travelers reported with surprise on the remarkable ancient monuments to be seen throughout the countryside. The first scientific and scholarly attempt to deal with one such monument, however, was Rawlinson’s recording of the Bīsotūn (Behistun) inscription (1836-41). While hardly a prehistoric project, that effort, which resulted in the decipherment of Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian cuneiform, led to a quickening of interest in ancient western Asia and in the history and prehistory of Iran.

• BŪ DOLAF

  cross-reference

  See ABŪ DOLAF.

• DĒNAG

  Philippe Gignoux

  name of several Sasanian queens; it was not feminine by derivation but was clearly reserved for feminine prosopography.

• TĀJ-al-SALṬANA

  Afsaneh Najmabadi

  (1884-1936), one of the best known daughters of the Qajar king Nāṣer-al-Din Shah (r. 1848-96), due to her memoirs (Ḵāterāt), written in 1914, which were first partially published in 1969 and whose authenticity has been disputed.

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• GOLŠĀN ALBUM

  Kambiz Eslami

  or Moraqqaʿ-e golšan; a sumptuous 17th-century album of paintings, drawings, calligraphy, and engravings by Mughal, Persian, Deccani, Turkish, and European artists in the Golestān Palace Library, Tehran.

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• IRĀN-E JAVĀN, ANJOMAN-E

  Jamšid Behnām

  (The society of young Iran), a society founded in January 1921 by a number of young intellectuals who had received their higher education in Europe.

• ABŪ SAʿĪD JANNĀBĪ

  W. Madelung

  founder of the Qarmaṭī state in Baḥrain (b. between 230/845, and 240/855, d. 300/913 or 301/913-14). 

• ARDAŠĪR

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  name of several figures in the Šāh-nāma.

• BARĪDŠĀHĪ DYNASTY

  R. M. Eaton

  Indo-Muslim kings of the Deccan plateau, ruled from 1491-92 to 1619 in one of the five successor states to the Bahmanid kingdom (1347-1538).

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• KALILA wa DEMNA i. Redactions and circulation

  Dagmar Riedel

  In Persian literature Kalila wa Demna has been known in different versions since the 6th century CE.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• COSMETICS

  This article is based on information provided by Žāla Mottaḥedīn and Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī.

  prepara­tions for personal beautification, in Persian tradition used mainly by women on special occasions.

• EGLANTINE

  Cross-Reference

  See NASTARAN.

• FOWAṬĪ, HEŠĀM

  Josef van Ess

  b. ʿAMR (d. Baghdad, ca. 845), Muʿtazilite theologian of Basran affiliation and student of Abu’l-Hoḏayl.

• HEDĀYAT, MOḴBER-AL-SALṬANA

  Manouchehr Kasheff, Amemeh Yousefzadeh

  , MEHDIQOLI, statesman, author, and musicologist (1864-1955).

• ABARKĀVĀN

  M. Kasheff

  Late Sasanian name of Qešm island in the Straits of Hormoz.

• ʿALĪ BESṬĀMĪ

  D. M. MacEoin

  early Bābī ʿālem and member of the ḥorūf al-ḥayy or sābeqūn, the first followers of the Bāb.

• AZDĀKARA

  M. Dandamayev

  (from Old Persian azdā- “announcement” and kara- “maker”), officials of the Achaemenid chancery, the heralds, who made known, for example, the government edicts, court sentences.

• ARMY iv. Afšar and Zand Periods

  J. R. Perry

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BŪŠĀSP

  Allan V. Williams

  demon of slothfulness and procrastination in Zoroastrianism.

• DEYLAMĪ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ḤASAN

  Etan Kohlberg

  b. Abi’l-Ḥasan (b.) Moḥammad b. ʿAlī b. ʿAbd-Allāh (or Moḥammad), Shiʿite author and traditionist.

• KOBRAWIYA ii. THE ORDER

  Hamid Algar

  The crystallization of a given line of Sufi tradition as an “order” should not be understood as imposing on all the spiritual descendants of the eponym a definitive and permanently binding choice of methods and emphases.

• ḠORBATI

  Cross-Reference

  See GYPSY.

• IRAQ x. SHIʿITES OF IRAQ

  Meir Litvak

  Iraq was the cradle of Shiʿism, where it evolved as a political and religious movement, yet, Shiʿites became a majority there only during the 19th century.

• ABŪ YAʿQŪB JORJĀNĪ

  J. van Ess

  disciple of Ebn Karrām (d. 255/869).  

• ARḠŪN ĀQĀ

  P. Jackson

  a Mongol administrator in Iran (d. 1275).

• BĀRŪT

  W. Floor

  “gunpowder.” Guns and cannon, and thus gunpowder, probably were first introduced in Iran during Uzun Ḥasan Āq Qoyunlū’s reign; in 1473 he asked Venice for “artillery, arquebuses, and gunners.”

• KAMĀL-AL-MOLK, MOḤAMMAD ḠAFFĀRI

  A. Ashraf with Layla Diba

  (ca. 1859–1940), widely acclaimed Iranian painter of the European academic style during the late Qajar and early Pahlavi periods. He descended from a family that had produced a number of artists since the Afsharid period, including his paternal great-grandfather, Mirzā Abu’l-Ḥasan Mostawfi, a court painter during the reign of Nāder Shah Afshar (r. 1736-47) and Karim Khan Zand (r. 1750-79).

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• CRYSTAL

  Layla S. Diba

  originally a type of fine glass developed in England in the 17th century and owing its special clarity and brilliance to the high refractive index of lead oxide in the metal; the term is often applied to fine glass in general.

• ELĀHĪ QOMŠA’Ī, MAHDĪ

  S. Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī

  b. Abu’l-Ḥasan (b. in Qomša, 1902; d. in Tehran, 1975), poet and professor of Islamic law and philosophy.

• AXSE

  M. L. Chaumont

  name of a Parthian hostage in Rome, inscribed in the dedication of an epitaph engraved on a marble plaque and discovered at the Forum Boarium in Rome (Priuli, 1977, pp. 331-34; 1979, p. 25, no. 78). ...

• FRAVAŠI

  Mary Boyce

  the Avestan word for a powerful supernatural being whose concept at an early stage in Zoroastrianism became blended with that of the urvan (the human soul).

• HELMAND RIVER

  M. Jamil Hanifi and EIr, Gherardo Gnoli, C. Edmund Bosworth, Arash Khazeni

  the border river of Afghanistan and Persia. It originates in the mountains in the Hazārajāt (q.v) and flows into the Sistān in southeastern Persia and finally drains into the Hāmun Lake.

• ʿABD-AL-ʿAZĪZ B. ʿABD-AL-VAHHĀB

  D. Duda

  Painter of the Safavid period (16th century).

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• ʿALĪ QŪŠJĪ

  F. Rahman, D. Pingree

  (QŪŠJŪ), theologian and scientist (d. 879/1474). 

• BĀB AL-BĀB

  cross-reference

  Shaikhi ʿālem who became the first convert to Babism, provincial Babi leader in Khorasan, and organizer of Babi resistance in Māzandarān (1814-49). See BOŠRŪʾĪ.

• ČAḠRĪ BEG DĀWŪD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Mīḵāʾīl b. Saljūq, Abū Solaymān, a member of the Saljuqs, the leading family of the Oghuz Turks, who with his brother Ṭoḡrel (Ṭoḡrïl) Beg founded the Great Saljuq dynasty in Persia in the 5th/11th century.

• DICTIONARIES

  ʿAlī Ašraf Ṣādeqī, John R. Perry, Ḥosayn Sāmeʿī

  i. Persian dictionaries. ii. Arabic-Persian dictionaries. iii. Bi/Multiligual dictionaries. iv. Specialized dictionaries. v. Slang dictionaries.

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• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS xv. THE LAST SASANIANS IN CHINA

  Matteo Compareti

  Information on those Sasanians who avoided the submission to the Arabs and lived in Central Asia or at the Tang court can be found in the works of Muslim authors and in Chinese sources.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOSPEL

  Cross-Reference

  See BIBLE.

• ADAB NEWSPAPER

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  title of several Persian periodicals.

• ARRĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a region of eastern Transcaucasia.

• BAVĀNĀTĪ

  Ī. Afšār

  , MĪRZĀ MOḤAMMAD-BĀQER, Persian man of letters, poet, instructor of Persian in London, and self-styled prophet (d. 1892-93).

• ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ FAQĪH KERMĀNĪ

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  mystic and poet of the 14th century who used ʿEmād or, more rarely, ʿEmād-e Faqīh, as a pen name.

• HAFT QOLZOM

  Ṣafurā Hušyār

  (lit., The seven seas), the title of a Persian dictionary compiled in India in 1813-18 by Abu’l-Moẓaffar Ḡāzi-al-Din Ḥaydar (d. 1827).

• GARRŪS

  Cross-Reference

  See under KURDISTAN, forthcoming online in 2012.

• HERBERT, THOMAS

  R. W. Ferrier

  , Sir (1606-1682), author of the first English account of Persia, having accompanied the royal embassy from King Charles I to the Safavid Shah ʿAbbās I in 1626-29.

• ʿABD-AL-JABBĀR AZDĪ

  D. M. Dunlop

  Governor of Khorasan, executed in 142/759.

• ALTIN TEPE

  V. M. Masson

  a settlement of the Neolithic period and Bronze Age in the south of Turkmenistan near the village of Miana.

• BABISM

  D. M. MacEoin

  a 19th-century messianic movement in Iran and Iraq under the overall charismatic leadership of Sayyed ʿAlī-Moḥammad Šīrāzī, the Bāb (1819-1850). Babism was the only significant millenarian movement in Shiʿite Islam during the 19th century.

• BUKHARA ii. From the Arab Invasions to the Mongols

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  The first appearance of Arab armies there is traditionally placed in Moʿāwīa’s caliphate when, according to Naršaḵī, ʿObayd-Allāh b. Zīād b. Abīhe crossed the Oxus and appeared at Bukhara (673-74).

• ČALABĪ, ʿĀREF

  Cross-Reference

  See ČELEBĪ, ʿĀREF.

• DĪRGHANAKHA-SŪTRA

  Yutaka Yoshida

  a Buddhist text in which the Buddha expounds the merits of observing the eight commandments to a parivrājaka named Dīrghanakha.

• QAJARS

  Shireen Mahdavi

  : THE QAJAR-PERIOD HOUSEHOLD Qajar society was pluralistic, in the sense that different groups of various social status existed in it.

• GRAY, LOUIS HERBERT

  William W. Malandra

  (b. Newark, New Jersey; 1875; d. New York, New York, 1955), orientalist and philologist, who was associated with Columbia University throughout most of his academic life.

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• ADRĀVVŪN

  M. F. Kanga

   Gujarati term for the Parsi betrothal ceremony (in Persian nāmzadī). 

• AMARANTH

  Cross-Reference

  See BOSTĀNAFRŪZ.

• BAYTUZ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a Turkish commander who controlled the town of Bost in southern Afghanistan during the middle years of the 10th century.

• QARAKHANIDS

  Cross-Reference

  see ILAK-KHANIDS.

• DADISOʿ QATRAYA

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  (late 7th century), Nestorian author of ascetic literature in Syriac.

• EMLĀ BOḴĀRĀʾĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Jirí Bečka

  b. ʿAlāʾ-al-Dīn (b. 1688, Sangārak, Afghanistan; d. 1749, Bukhara), Sufi poet of Arab descent.

• MOḤAMMAD b. ʿABD-ALLAH

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  , Abu’l -ʿAbbās (b. 824-25, d. 867), high official in Iraq and the central lands of the caliphate.

• GABRIEL, ALFONS

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• HERZFELD, ERNST v. HERZFELD AND THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT IRAN

  Josef Wiesehöfer

  Herzfeld’s classical education, giving him familiarity with Greek and Latin literature, and his training in Oriental philology as well as in archeology and architectural techniques proved of great benefit in his study of pre-Islamic Iranian history and culture.

• ʿABD-AL-QĀHER B. ṬĀHER

  Cross-Reference

  See BAḠDĀDĪ, ʿABD-AL-QĀHER.

• ʿĀMELĪ EṢFAHĀNĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  H. Corbin

  Shiʿite theologian and author (d. Najaf, 1138/1726). 

• BADAŠT

  M. Momen

  small village of about 1,000 inhabitants, site of a conference  convened on the instructions of the Bāb in 1848.

• CANDLESTICKS

  Linda Komaroff

  from the late 6th/12th through the early 10th/16th century one of the most common types of implement produced as a luxury metalware in Iran. Their form, decoration, and epigraphic program reflect contemporary trends in Iranian metalwork.

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• DOḴTARĀN-E ĪRĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  lit., “Daughters of Iran”; a monthly variety magazine for girls published in Shiraz from 23 July 1931 to November 1932.

• AFRAHĀṬ, YAʿQŪB

  J. P. Asmussen

  Persian bishop of the mid-4th century CE, author in Syriac.

• ARTĒŠTĀR

  W. Sundermann

  a learned calque on and translation of the Avestan raθaēštā.

• BEDLĪSĪ, ḤAKĪM-AL-DĪN EDRĪS

  Cornell H. Fleischer

  B. ḤOSĀM-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ, MAWLĀNĀ (d. 1520), scholar, his­torian, poet, and statesman under the Ottoman Sultan Salīm I (r. 1512-20).

• MAKRĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  (also Mokrān) the coastal region of Baluchistan, extending from the Somniani Bay to the northwest of Karachi in the east westwards to the fringes of the region of Bashkardia/Bāšgerd in the southern part of the Sistān and Balučestān province of modern Iran.

• DĀʿĪ JĀN NĀPELʾON

  Nasrin Rahimiyeh

  lit., “Uncle Napoleon”, a satirical novel written in 1348-49 Š./1969-70 by Īraj Pezeškzād, who was already known in Persia for writing such satirical novels.

• ENŠĀʾ-ALLĀH KHĀN, SAYYED

  M. Asif Naim Siddiqui

  (b. Moršedābād, 1756; d. Lucknow, 1818), Urdu-Persian poet and writer.

• ÖZGÄND

  Bertold Spuler

  in the Middle Ages, a thriving city on the eastern edge of the Ferghana basin, on one of the tributaries of the Jaxartes.

• GALEN

  Cross-Reference

   See JĀLINUS.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY x. ISLAMIC REPUBLIC.

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ AWRANGĀBĀDĪ

  Hameed ud-Din

  Mughal official and biographer, chiefly famous as the author of Maʾāṯer al-omarāʾ (18th century).

• AMĪN-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See PĀŠĀ KHAN.

• BADR KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See BEDIR KHAN.

• CHINESE TURKESTAN viii. Turkish-Iranian Language Contacts

  Gerhard Doerfer

• ČĀRĪKĀR

  Daniel Balland

  main town of Kōhdāman and the administrative capital of the Afghan province of Parwān, located about 63 km north of Kabul. Throughout history there has been an important urban center at the northern end of the long Kōhdāman depression.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DORRĀNĪ, AḤMAD SHAH

  Cross-Reference

  See AFGHANISTAN x.

• QAŠQĀʾI TRIBAL CONFEDERACY i. HISTORY

  Pierre Oberling

  Like most present-day tribal confederacies in Persia, the Il-e Qašqā ʾi is a conglomeration of clans of different ethnic origins, Lori, Kurdish, Arab and Turkic.

• GUR-E AMIR

  Cross-Reference

  See SAMARQAND.

• JAFR

  Gernot Windfuhr

  a term of uncertain etymology used to designate the major divinatory art in Islamic mysticism and gnosis—the art  of discovering the predestined fate of nations, dynasties, religions, and individuals by a variety of methods.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFZARĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABZARĪ, ḴᵛĀJA ʿAMĪD-AL-DĪN.

• ASAD B. SĀMĀNḴODĀ

  C. E. Bosworth

  ancestor of the Samanid dynasty.

• FARḠĀNĪ, EMĀM-AL-ḤARAMAYN SERĀJ-Al-DĪN ABU’L-MOḤAMMAD ʿALĪ

  Sayyāra Mahīnfar

  b. ʿOṯmān Ūšī or Ūsī (d. 1173), oṣūlī jurist (faqīh), traditionist, and author.

• BEHŠAHR

  Eckart Ehlers

  older Ašraf, a town situated at 36°41′55″ north latitude and 53°32′30″ east longitude in the eastern part of central Māzandarān.

• NEMRUD DAĞI

  Bruno Jacobs

  mountain (elev. 2,150 m) in the Anti-Taurus range, Adıyaman province, Turkey, and site of the tomb sanctuary of King Antiochus I of Commagene (ca. 69-36 BCE).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĀMḠĀNĪ, ABŪ ʿALĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ʿALĪ DĀMḠĀNĪ.

• ĒR, ĒR MAZDĒSN

  Gherardo Gnoli

  an ethnonym, like Old Persian ariya- and Avestan airya-, meaning “Aryan” or “Iranian.”

• ČĀKAR

  Etienne de la Vaissiere

  personal soldier-retainer of the nobility in pre-Islamic Central Asia.

• GANJA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (Ar. Janza), the Islamic name of a town in the early medieval Islamic province of Arrān (the classical Caucasian Albania, Armenian Alvankʿ).

• HOMOSEXUALITY iv. IN MODERN IRAN

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ABDĀL BEG

  E. Glassen

  one of the seven trusted Qezelbāš amirs (ahl-e eḵteṣāṣ) who, after the death of Solṭān ʿAlī (898/1493), accompanied the latter’s young brother and designated master of the Safavid order, Esmāʿīl, to Lāhīǰān, where he found refuge from the persecution of the Āq Qoyonlū rulers.

• AMĪR TŪMĀN

  J. Calmard

  (AMĪR-E TŪMĀN) commander of 10,000 men, a military rank originally used by the Il-khanids in the 7th/13th century.

• BĀḠ iv. In Afghanistan

  N. H. Dupree

• CASSIA

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  a genus of shrubs and trees of the family Leguminosae (or Caesalpiniaceae in some classifications).

• DRVĀSPĀ

  Jean Kellens

  or Drwāspā, Druuāspā, lit., “with solid horses”; Avestan goddess.

• ARCHEOLOGY viii. REPUBLIC OF AZERBAIJAN

  M. N. Pogrebova

  Archeological sites of northern Azerbaijan (the modern Republic of Azerbaijan) first came to public attention in the mid-19th century, when European travelers became aware that it abounded in ancient ruins.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤADĀʾEQ AL-SEḤR

  N. Y. Chalisova

  shortened title of the famous treatise Ḥadāʾeq al-seḥr fi daqāʾeq al-šeʿr (“Gardens of magic in the subtleties of poetry”) by Rašid(-e) Waṭwāt (d. 1182-83).

• JALĀL-AL-DIN TURĀNŠĀH

  cross-reference

  See MOZAFFARIDS.

• AḤMAD B. ASAD

  C. E. Bosworth

  (d. 250/864), early member of the Samanid family and governor of Farḡāna under the ʿAbbasids and Taherids.

• ĀŠEʿʿAT AL-LAMAʿĀT

  A. E. Khairallah

  (The rays of the flashes), a detailed commentary by Nūr-al-dīn ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān Jāmī (817/1414-898/1492).

• FARĪD-AL-DĪN, ABŪ’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ ŠARVĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See FAHHĀD.

• BESĀṬ

  Cross-Reference

  See CARPETS.

• KĀŠEF-AL-ḠEṬĀʾ, MOḤAMMAD ḤOSAYN

  Hamid Algar

  (1877-1954), descendant of the great Shiʿite jurist of the early Qajar period, Sheikh Jaʿfar Kāšef-al-Ḡeṭāʾ, prodigious and versatile author, teacher, and lecturer.

• DAQĪQĪ, ABŪ MANṢŪR AḤMAD

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

   b. Aḥmad, one of the famous poets of the last years of the Samanid (819-1005) dynasty.

• ERZURUM

  Eir

  a town in eastern Anatolia (39° 50´ N, 41° 20´ E). 

• TURKIC-IRANIAN CONTACTS i. LINGUISTIC CONTACTS

  John R. Perry

  Speakers of Iranian and Turkic languages have been in contact since pre-Islamic times, notably along the Inner Asian commercial corridors known collectively as the Silk Road.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GĀV-ZABĀN

  Hushang Aʿlam

  lit. ”ox-tongue” (in reference to the rough, tongue-shaped leaves of the plant); the popular designation for several medicinal species of the borage family (Boraginaceae).

• HŌŠANG

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  called Pēšdād, an early hero-king in Iranian tradition, father of the Iranians and founder of the Pēšdādian dynasty.

• ʿABDALLĀH MĀZANDARĀNĪ, SHAIKH

  H. Algar

  Theologian and supporter of the constitutional movement (1840-1912).

• ʿAMŪOḠLĪ, ḤAYDAR KAN

  Cross-reference

  (ʿAMOḠLĪ). See ḤAYDAR KHAN ʿAMŪOḠLĪ.

• BAHĀR-E KESRĀ

  M. G. Morony

  “The spring of Ḵosrow,” one of the names of a huge, late Sasanian royal carpet measuring 60 cubits (araš, ḏerāʿ) square (ca. 27 m x 27 m). It was divided among the conquering Muslims after Madāʾen was captured in 637.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION vii. The constitutional movement in literature

  Sorour Soroudi

• ČELEBĪ, ʿĀREF

  Tahsin Yazici

  (670-719/1272-1320), the son of Bahāʾ-al-Dīn Solṭān Walad (q.v.) and the grand­son of Mawlānā Jalāl-al-Dīn Moḥammad Rūmī.

• DŪRĀSRAW

  D. N. MacKenzie

  according to the Pahlavi tradition the name of two legendary personages in the history of Zoroastrianism.

• MOḤTAŠAM KĀŠĀNI

  Paul Losensky

  , Šams-al-šoʿarā Kamāl-al-Din, Persian poet of the Safavid period (b. Kashan, 1528-29, d. Kashan, 1588).

• HAFT

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  (seven), the heptad and its cultural significance in Persian history. The number has been explained as the symbolic expression of a distinct culture.

• JĀMEʿ-E ʿABBĀSI

  Sajjad Rizvi

  a Persian manual on foruʿ al-feqh (positive rules derived from the sources of legal knowledge) in Shiʿism.

• AḤMAD SOLṬĀN AFŠĀR

  R. M. Savory

  Qizilbāš amir in the Safavid service.  

• ASLAM, ABU’L-QĀSEM MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-Reference

   See ABU’L-QĀSEM MOḤAMMAD ASLAM.

• FARROḴZĀD

  Cross-Reference

  son of Ḵosrow II, ruled briefly in 630/631. See SASANIAN DYNASTY.

• BĪĀBĀN

  Brian Spooner

  name of the coastal plain that extends south from the mouth of the Mīnāb river for 88 miles to the cape Raʾs al-Kūh, which is 30 miles west of the Jask promontory.

• PĀDYĀB

  Ramiyar P. Karanjia

  a Pahlavi word meaning “ritually clean,”.

• DARBĀR -E AʿẒAM

  Guity Nashat

  lit., “the great court”; a council of ministers established in October 1872 as one of several experiments undertaken in the reign of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1848-96) to reorganize and rationalize the Persian administration on the model of Western cabinet government.

• ESFEZĀRĪ, MOʿĪN-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD ZAMČĪ

  MARIA E. Subtelny

  (ca. 1446-1510), calligrapher specializing in the taʿlīq script, minor poet (pen name Nāmī), and master of the epistolary art who flourished in Herat during the reign of the Timurid Solṭān-Ḥosayn Bāyqarā.

• MACHALSKI, FRANCISZEK

  Anna Krasnowolska

  (1904-1979), Polish Iranist. Some of his best papers are devoted to cultural and political life in Pahlavi Persia.

• ḠAZNĪ

  Xavier de Planhol, Roberta Giunta

  or Ḡazna, Ḡaznīn; province and city in southeastern Afghanistan, the latter situated 136 km south of Kabul at an altitude of about 2,200 meters. The earliest known monuments of Ḡaznī belong to the Ghaznavid period (366-583/977-1187), the best representative of which are the two minarets standing east of the citadel, close to two large mounds resembling mosques.

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• HOVEYDA, AMIR-ABBAS

  Abbas Milani

  (Amir ʿAbbās Hoveydā; 1919-1980), the longest serving prime minister in the modern history of Iran (1964-1975). His tenure  can be divided into two phases. In the 1960s, he was full of optimism and energy; in the 1970s he was characterized by cynicism, a clinging attachment to power and its perks, and an almost despondent air of resignation. What remained the same were his economic policies.

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• ABJAD

  G. Krotkoff

   “alphabet,” a word formed from the first four letters of the Semitic alphabet.

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• ANDĀMEŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See ANDĪMEŠK; DEZFŪL.

• BAHRAIN

  X. De Planhol, X. De Planhol, J. A. Kechichian

  Ar. Baḥrayn, lit. “two seas,” the name originally applied to the area of the northeastern Arabian peninsula now known as Ḥasā (Aḥsāʾ). i. Geography. ii. Shiʿite elements in Bahrain. iii. History of political relations with Iran.

• CHALAVID DYNASTY

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E AFRĀSĪĀB.

• EBN ʿABBĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See ṢĀḤEB B. ʿABBĀD.

• KORA-SONNI

  Pierre Oberling

  a tribe in western Persian Azerbaijan.

• ḤĀJI MIRZĀ ĀQĀSI

  Cross-Reference

  grand vizier of Moḥammad Shah Qāǰār (r. 1250-64/1834-48) between 1251-64/1835-48. See ĀQĀSI, ḤĀJI MIRZĀ.

• ĀĪNA-KĀRĪ

  E. G. Sims

  the practice of covering an architectural surface with a mosaic of mirror-glass.

• ĀŠRAF ḠILZAY

  D. Balland

  the Afghan chief who ruled as Shah over part of Iran from 1137/1725 to 1142/1729.

• FATĀWĪ-E ʿĀLAMGĪRĪ

  S. H. Qasemi

  abridged Persian translation by Qāżī Najm-al-Dīn Khan Kākorī of a six-volume Arabic work on Hanafite law (ed. Būlāq, 1859) considered the authoritative compendium of religious law, policy, and practice in India.

• BĪJĀPŪR

  Muhammad Baqir

  capital city and domain of the ʿĀdelšāhī dynasty (1489-1686), located on the western Deccan plateau. The ʿĀdelšāhīs established Shiʿism in Bījāpūr and actively encouraged the immigration of Persian writers and religious figures.

• KALEMĀT-E MAKNUNA

  Moojan Momen

• DĀRŪ

  Cross-Reference

   See DRUGS.

• ESMĀʿĪL

  Cross-Reference

  (ISHMAEL). See EBRĀHĪM.

• ḴALIQ LĀHURI

  Stefano Pello

   Indo-Persian poet of the 18th-century, probably a Sikh.

• MĀDAR-E SOLAYMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  "Solaymān's mother," local name of the tomb of Cyrus. See CYRUS v. The Tomb of Cyrus. 

• HYENA

  Steven C. Anderson

  Hyaena hyaena (Linnaeus, 1758), Pers. kaftār. The striped hyena is the only current Asian representative of the mammalian family Hyaenidae. Principal threats to hyena populations today are vehicular traffic (since they scavenge road kills at night), wanton shooting, and secondary poisoning. The hyena is a protected species in Iran.

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• ABŪ ʿALĪ DAQQĀQ

  J. Chabbi

  ascetic of Nīšāpūr (d. 405/1015).

• ANHALT CARPET

  M. H. Beattie

  a medallion rug possibly made in Tabrīz.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAḴŠĪ

  P. Jackson

  a Buddhist lama or scholar, in particular during Mongol hegemony in Iran; subsequently, by extension, any kind of scribe or secretary.

• EXEGESIS vi. In Aḵbārī and Post-Safavid Esoteric Shiʿism

  Todd Lawson

• CHINKARA

  Khushal Habibi

  or CHIKARA (Gazella bennetti, Indian gazelle), a small antelope of slender build; its tawny coat has poorly marked facial and body stripes.

• EBN DOROSTAWAYH, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALL

  Seeger A. Bonebakker

  b. Jaʿfar b. Dorostawayh b. Marzbān (b. Fasā, 871; d. Baghdad, May 958), grammarian and lexicographer of Persian origin.

• OIL INDUSTRY ii. IRAN’S OIL AND GAS RESOURCES

  A. Badakhshan and F. Najmabadi

  The Iranian oil industry is the oldest in the Middle East. Although the occurrence of numerous seeps in many parts of Iran had been known since the ancient times, the systematic exploration and drilling for oil began in the first years of the 20th century. In 1901 William Knox D’Arcy, who had made a fortune in the Australian gold rush during the 1880s, obtained an oil concession from the Iranian government.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAZIRI

  Joyce Blau

  , SHAIKH AḤMAD, or Malâ-ye Jizrî, early Kurdish poet.

• AḴLĀQ AL-AŠRĀF

  P. Sprachman

  (“The ethics of the aristocracy”), a satire composed in 740/1340-41, the most important work of ʿObayd Zākānī. 

• ĀŠTĪĀNĪ, MAHDĪ

  H. Algar

  known as Mīrzā Kūček (1306-1372/1888-89 to 1952-53), a scholar who excelled in both the traditional (manqūl) and rational (maʿqūl) sciences.

• FĀŻEL TŪNĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN

  Hūšang Etteḥād

  (b. Tūn, 1871; d. Tehran, 1960), scholar and teacher of Islamic philosophy.

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• BLEEDING

  Cross-Reference

  See BLOODLETTING.

• PHILATELY vi. POSTAL HISTORY

  Mano Amarloui

  The postal service is a government institution whose very nature entails facilitating communication among its citizens, and between its citizens and those living in other countries.

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• DAŠT-E QALʿA

  Henri-Paul Francfort

  lit., “plain of the fortress”; small bāzār village on an irrigation canal near the junction of the Kōkča and Āmū Darya rivers in the province of Badaḵšān, northeastern Afghanistan, the site of several earlier settlements.

• ESTAḴR NEWSPAPER

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a newspaper published in Shiraz from 1918-1932 and 1942-1962.

• TADAYYON, Sayyed Moḥammad Birjandi

  Hormoz Davarpanah

  (b. Birjand, 1881; d. United States, December 1951), early 20th-century educationist and politician.

• GERMANY x. The Persian community in Germany

  Asghar Schirazi

  Only a small number of Persians resided in Germany before World War I. They were for the most part students besides several merchants and a few political emigrants.

• IL-KHANIDS ii. Architecture

  Sheila S. Blair

  The architecture produced during the period of Il-khanid rule in Persia and Iraq is notable for its mammoth size, soaring height, sparkling color, and ingenious methods of covering space.

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• ABŪ ESḤĀQ ĪNJŪ

  J. W. Limbert

  (721-58/1321-59), ruler of Fārs, ʿErāq ʿAǰam (Isfahan), and parts of southern Iran, 743-55/1343-54.

• ANQUETIL-DUPERRON

  J. Duchesne-Guillemin

  (1731-1805), French orientalist, born in Paris on 7 December 1731. In June, 1759, he was able to send news to Paris that he had completed (in three months) a translation of that Vendidad.

• BALĀŠ

  M. L. Chaumont, K. Schippmann

  the name of a number of kings and several dignitaries and notables during the Parthian and Sasanian periods. The Parthian form of the name, the oldest, is Walagaš. In Middle Persian it is Wardāxš, in Pahlavi Walāxš.

• JAMŠID ii. In Persian Literature

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

• CIGARETTES

  Cross-Reference

  See DOḴĀNĪYĀT.

• EBN MARDAWAYH, AHMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Mūsā b. Mardawayh b. Fūrak Eṣfahānī (935-1019), scholar of Isfahan in the Buyid period, who wrote in the fields of tradition, tafsīr (Koranic exegsis), history, and geography.

• YAZIDIS ii. INITIATION IN YAZIDISM

  Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  Three different rites can mark the initiation of a Yazidi child as a member of the community.

• HĀMUN, DARYĀČA-YE i. GEOGRAPHY

  Eckart Ehlers

  The Sistān basin is the easternmost endorheic basin in Persia, draining a watershed 350,000 km2.

• JIROFT iv. ICONOGRAPHY OF CHLORITE ARTIFACTS

  Jean Perrot

  In the region of Jiroft, a large number of stone (chlorite) vases and objects, carrying human and animal motifs inlaid with semi-precious stones, have recently been discovered. Technical variations, notably in the inlaying method of colored stones, point to the existence of several workshops. Considering style, the aesthetic ratio of the whole is comparatively high.

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• ĀL-E BŪ KORD

  P. Oberling

  a tribe of Ḵūzestān, of uncertain origin.

• ĀTAŠ NIYĀYIŠN

  M. Boyce and F. M. Kotwal

  the fifth in a group of five Zoroastrian prayers, which is addressed to fire and its divinity.

• FLAGS

  Multiple Authors

  This article is meant to supplement earlier entries on Iranian vexillology (see ʿALAM VA ʿALĀMAT, BANNERS, and DERAFŠ).

• SWEDEN iv. Iranian Community

  Hassan Hosseini-Kaladjahi and Melissa Kelly

  formation of the Iranian community (immigration), demographic profile and geographic distribution, economic, social, cultural and political life, and finally, return to Iran or emigration to other countries.

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• DAVĀN

  Hamid Mahamedi

  village located 12 km northeast of Kāzerūn in Fārs; a distinctive dialect is spoken there. Arable land is very limited and located mostly in the foothills; dry farming is the prevailing form of agriculture. Products include barley, wheat, and fruits—grapes, figs, pomegranates, and pears.

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• EUNUCHS

  Monsutti

  castrated males who were in charge of the concubines of royal harems, served in the daily life of the court, and sometimes carried out administrative functions.

• ṬARZI, MAḤMUD

  May Schinasi

  (1865-1933), writer, journalist, politician, and a prominent figure in Afghanistan in the first quarter of the 20th century. As well as being hailed as the "father of journalism" and overseeing the entire production of  the bi-monthly Serāj al-aḵbār, for which he wrote most of the articles, Ṭarzi was also a translator from the Turkish language, an essayist, and a poet.

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• MIRATH-E MAKTUB

  Ali Mir-Ansari

  a research center in Tehran, focused on editing manuscripts (including those concerned with the history of science), cataloguing Persian and Arabic manuscripts in Iran and the wider Persianate cultural area, and studying related codicological issues.

• ABŪ ḤAMZA ḴORĀSĀNĪ

  B. Reinert

  (d. 290/903), Sufi born and active in Nīšāpūr.

• APHORISM

  P. Sprachman

  “short sentences drawn from long experience” to Cervantes, “the wisdom of many, the wit of one” to Lord Russell, the terms proverb, aphorism, maxim have evaded strict definition and demarcation.

• BAN-e SORMA

  L. Vanden Berghe

  a necropolis of the Early Bronze Age, excavated in 1967 by the Belgian Mission in Iran. By analogy with the funeral furnishings from the Old Elamite period at Susa IV, the  tombs must be situated in the Early Dynastic III period, about 2600-2400 B.C. Since written sources are lacking, it is difficult to determine which population occupied this necropolis.

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• CROWN iii. On monuments from the Islamic conquest to the Mongol invasion

  Elsie H. Peck

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CLEANSING i. In Zoroastrianism

  Mary Boyce

• EBN SAHLĀN SĀVAJĪ, Qāżī ZAYN-AL-DĪN ʿOMAR

  Hossein Ziai

  (b. Sāva, fl. early 12th century), Persian philosopher and logician.

• TAJIKISTAN v. DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS

  Habib Borjian

  The alphabet change to Roman and then to Cyrillic (1928 and 1940) coupled with vernacularization of Tajik Persian, called for independent lexicography in Tajikistan.

• HARI RUD

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• JOVAYNI, ʿALĀʾ-AL-DIN

  George Lane

  ʿAṬĀ-MALEK b. Moḥammad (1226-1283), governor of Iraq under the Il-khanids, author of Tāriḵ-e jahān-gošāy,  a major primary source for the history of Central Asia and the Mongol conquests.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  Ghurid malek and later sultan, reigned in Ḡūr from Fīrūzkūh as the last of his family there before the extinction of the dynasty by the Ḵᵛārazmšāhs, 599-602/1203-96 and 611-12/1214-15. 

• AVA

  C. E. Bosworth

  the basic modern form of the name of two small towns of northern Persia, normally written Āba in medieval Islamic sources.

• FICTION, ii(c)

  Jamāl Mīrṣādeqī

  ii(c). THE SHORT STORY. Historically, the modern Persian short story has undergone three stages of development: a formative period, a period of consolidation and growth, and a period of diversity.

• BORHĀN-AL-DĪN, ḴᵛĀJA ABŪ NAṢR FATḤ-ALLĀH

  F. R. C. Bagley

  a vizier (d. 1358) eulogized by Ḥāfeẓ in two ḡazals (nos. 374 and 478).

• W~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the W entries

• DĀYA

  Mahmoud Omidsalar and Theresa Omidsalar

  wet nurse.

• BALUCHISTAN i. Geography, History and Ethnography

  Brian Spooner

  Baluchistan appears to have been divided throughout history between Iranian (highland) and Indian (lowland) spheres of influence, and since 1870 it has been formally divided among Afghanistan, Iran, and India (later Pakistan). Parts 1-7.

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• AHL-E ḠARQ

  Nasrin Raḥimieh

  (The drowned, 1990), best-known novel of Moniru Ravanipur.

• GÖBL, ROBERT

  Michael Alram

  (b. Vienna, 1919; d. 1997), Austrian numismatist.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INSECTS

  Steven C. Anderson

  The insects of Persia and Afghanistan belong to the Palearctic fauna, although in the eastern and southeastern parts of the region there are representatives of the Oriental fauna characteristic of the Indian subcontinent.

• ABU’L-JĀRŪD HAMDĀNĪ

  W. Madelung

  Kufan Shiʿite scholar and leader of the early Zaydite group named after him, the Jārūdīya.

• ʿĀQEL KHAN RĀZĪ

  S. Maqbul Ahmad

  Indo-Muslim man of letters, historian, and mystic (d. 1108/1696).

• BĀNK-E MARKAZĪ-E ĪRĀN

  M. Yeganeh

  (Central Bank of Iran), a bank established under the Iranian Banking and Monetary Act of 28 May 1960 to undertake the central banking activities in the country. The functions and powers of Bānk-e Markazī were revised following the Islamic Revolution of February, 1979, which led to the nationalization of private banking.

• ČOḠĀ MĪŠ

  Helene J. Kantor

  (Chogha Mish), the largest prehistoric and protohistoric site (ca. 17 ha) in the area below the Zagros foothills between Dezfūl and Šūštar.

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• EBRĀHĪM LODĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See LODĪ DYNASTY.

• PAHLAVI PAPYRI

  Dieter Weber

  documents written exclusively in Egypt during the Persian (Sasanian) occupation under Ḵosrow II between 619 and 629 CE.

• ḤASAN-E ḠAZNAVI

  Julie Scott Meisami

  , SAYYED EMĀM AŠRAF ḤASAN B. MOḤAMMAD ḤOSAYNI, poet chiefly associated with the court of the Ghaznavid ruler Bahrāmšāh (d. ca. 1161).

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS iv. JUDICIAL SYSTEM FROM THE ADVENT OF ISLAM THROUGH THE 19TH CENTURY

  Willem Floor

  From the beginning of Islamic rule in Persia, a secular and a religious judiciary co-existed: the ʿorfi court applying the common law, the tribunal of religious judge (qāẓi) applying the sacred law (šariʿa).

• ʿALAWAYH

  D. M. Dunlop

  AL-AʿSAR (“the Left-handed”), a noted singer at the ʿAbbasid court under Hārūn al-Rašīd and his successors, ca. 184-230/800-54.

• ĀXŠTI

  B. Schlerath

  (Avestan) “Peace, contract of peace.”

• FISCAL SYSTEM i. ACHAEMENID, ii. SASANIAN

  Mohammad A. Dandamayev, Rika Gyselen

  There probably was no clear distinction between state and royal incomes in the Achaemenid empire. All state receipts were considered royal property, as was the income from the king’s estates. Beginning from ca. 519 B.C.E., when Darius I established a new tax system, the peoples subject to the Persians paid 7,740 Babylonian talents of silver (i.e., 232,200 kg) a year.

• BOZ

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  the domestic goat. The earliest evidence for domestication of the goat has been found in Iran (ca. 10,000 B.C.), as have the largest number of prehistoric sites (ca. 7000 B.C.) showing traces of the systematic breeding of this animal.

• KASHMIR v. PERSIAN INFLUENCE ON KASHMIRI ART

  Mehrdad Shokoohy

  The Iranian influence on the art and architecture of Kashmir is indirect, appearing in ancient times via Hellenistic and Kushan culture and later through Muslim India. 

• DEHESTĀNĪ, ḤOSAYN

  Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī

  b. Asʿad b. Ḥosayn Moʾayyadī, Persian translator of the Arabic work al-Faraj baʿd al-šedda by Abū ʿAlī Moḥassen (939-94), a collection of poems, anecdotes, sayings, and didactic remarks arranged in thirteen chapters on the general theme of joy following hardship.

• FAḴRĀʾĪ, EBRĀHĪM REŻĀZĀDA

  Moḥammad-Taqī Pūr Aḥmad Jaktājī

  (b. Rašt, 1899; d. Tehran, 1988), educator, journalist, lawyer, and scholar.

• ḴOSROW I ii. Reforms

  Zeev Rubin

  a series of reforms in Sasanian taxation and military organization, probably initiated already under Kawāḏ I.

• ḠOLĀM-ḤOSAYN KHAN ṢĀḤEB(-E) EḴTIĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪN-E ḴALWAT.

• ABŪ NAṢR MOŠKĀN

  H. Moayyad

  head of the Ghaznavid chancery under Maḥmūd and Masʿūd from 401/1011-12 till his death in 431/1039-40.

• ARAŠ

  Cross-Reference

  Old Persian arašni-, Avestan araθni-) “cubit.” See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

• BARAK

  T. Bīneš

  a kind of firm and durable woven cloth used for coats, overcoats (labbāda), shawls (in Afghanistan), čūḵas (surcoats for shepherds) and leggings.

• WILLOW

  Cross-Reference

  See BĪD.

• CONSTITUTION OF THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC

  Said Amir Arjomand

  After the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy in 1979, Persia was declared an Islamic republic. Until that time there had been virtually no discussion, outside religious circles, of the conception of welāyat-e faqīh (lit. “mandate of the jurist”) propounded by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. During the revolutionary turmoil of 1978-79, only the vaguer notion of “Islamic government” was current.

• ʿEDĀLAT, ḤEZB-E

  Fakhreddin Azimi

  (Ar. ʿAdālat “justice”), Persian political party founded by ʿAlī Daštī in December 1941.

• FLURY, SAMUEL

  Jens Kröger

  (1874-1935) pioneer of Islamic paleographical studies. Although Flury was primarily interested in problems of the development of Kufic script, much of his specific research was focused on monuments in Persia.

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• HAYʾATHĀ-YE MOʾTALEFA-YE ESLĀMI

  Cross-Reference

  See JAMʿIYATHĀ-YE MOʾTALEFA-YE ESLĀMI.

• ḴĀDEM-E BESṬĀMI

  Kioumars Ghereghlou

  , Moḥammad Ṭāher b. Ḥasan, local historian, calligrapher, and poet of the reign of Shah ʿAbbās I.

• ʿALĪ B. BŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  the eldest of three brothers who came to power in western Persia as military adventurers and founded the Buyid dynasty. See ʿEMĀD-AL-DAWLA.

• ʿAYYĀR

  Cl. Cahen, W. L. Hanaway, Jr.

  a noun meaning literally “vagabond,” applied to members of medieval fotowwa (fotūwa) brotherhoods and comparable popular organizations.

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN viii. Indology

  Bruce B. Lawerence

  Bīrūnī’s magnum opus in Indology is Ketāb taḥqīq mā le’l-Hend men maqūla maqbūla fi’l-ʿaql aw marḏūla (The book confirming what pertains to India, whether rational or despicable).

• BRONZE

  Vincent C. Pigott, James W. Allan

  an alloy of two metals, copper and tin. When tin is alloyed with copper, it decreases the temperature at which the two metals will melt, increases fluidity during casting, and acts as a deoxidant. Although copper deposits occur with reasonable frequency throughout the highland zones of south­western, sources of tin are far less common.

• DEMOTIC CHRONICLE

  Edda Bresciani

  Egyptian papyrus document of the early 2nd century B.C.E. in which anti-Persian themes, especially focused on Cambyses, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes III, were elaborated in Ptolemaic Egyptian sacerdotal and intellectual surroundings.

• FARĀH

  Daniel Balland

  or FARAH; a town and province in southwestern Afghanistan.

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• MASRUR, Hosayn

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  (1890-1968), novelist, poet, and literary scholar.

• GOLPĀYEGĀNI DIALECT

  Cross-Reference

  See CENTRAL DIALECTS.

• IRAN NAMEH

  Abbas Milani

  the oldest post-Islamic Revolution scholarly journal published since 1982 by the Iranian Diaspora.

• ABŪ SAHL LAKŠAN

  Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī

   official under the Ghaznavid amirs Maḥmūd (388-421/998-1030) and Masʿūd (421-32/1031-41).

• ARDALĀN, ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN ARDALĀN.

• JĀMI i. Life and Works

  Paul Losensky

• SPULER, Bertold

  Werner Ende, Bert Fragner, Dagmar Riedel

  (1911-1990), German scholar of East European history and Oriental studies.

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• CORRESPONDENCE

  Multiple Authors

• EDUCATION xxviii. IN TAJIKISTAN

  Habib Borjian

  Modern education in Tajikistan developed as the country emerged as a Soviet socialist republic, under the Soviet policy of standardizing the educational system throughout the Soviet Union, with language as virtually the only variable. In Tajikistan, as in other Central Asian republics, this policy brought about nearly universal literacy.

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• FORUZĀNFAR, Badiʿ-al-Zamān

  Abd-al-Hosayn Zarrinkub

  (1903-1970) Persian literary scholar and critic, professor at the University of Tehran, one of the pioneers of literary studies in modern Persia. A significant part of Forūzānfar’s scholarship was devoted to Rūmī and his associates; other works cover Islamic mysticism and philosophy.

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• HEALTH IN PERSIA iv. PAHLAVI PERIOD

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ĀBĀNAGĀN

  Cross-Reference

  the name used by Bīrūnī (Āṯār, p. 224) for the Zoroastrian feast-day dedicated to the Waters, which was celebrated on the day Ābān of the month Ābān. See further under ĀBĀN MĀH.

• ʿALĪ ĀQĀ TABRĪZĪ, MIRZA

  Cross-Reference

  See ṮEQAT-AL-ESLĀM.

• ĀẔARĪ language

  cross-reference

  the ancient language of Azerbaijan. See AZERBAIJAN vii.

• ARMENIA and IRAN v. Accounts of Iran in Armenian sources

  M. Van Esbroeck

• BURNES, ALEXANDER

  Malcolm E. Yapp

  (1805-41), author of Travels into Bukhara (published in 1834), an account of his exploratory mission to Afghani­stan, Turkestan, and Iran.

• DEYLAMĀN

  Ezat O. Negahban

  or Daylamān, district and town in Gīlān.

• ḴEZR

  Anna Krasnowolska

  a prophet known to Islamic written tradition and folklore, whose worship in Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia is connected with local calendar beliefs and fertility cults.

• GŌRĀN

  Cross-Reference

  a tribe in Kurdistan. See GURĀN.

• ABU’L-WAFĀʾ ḴᵛĀRAZMĪ

  H. Landolt

  Famous Sufi of Kobrawī affiliation, esoterist, scholar, poet, and musician (d. 835/1431-32).

• ARG-E TEHRĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See TEHRAN.

• BARTHOLD, VASILIĭ VLADIMIROVICH

  Yu. Bregel

  Russian orientalist (1869-1930). He was the first who put the study of the history of Central Asia on a firm scholarly basis and actually founded this branch of Oriental studies. But he never studied Central Asia in isolation.

• CROWN

  Multiple Authors

  (Pers. and Ar. tāj), royal and divine headdress.

• EḴWĀN AL-MOSLEMĪN, JAMʿĪYAT AL-

  Rudi Matthee

  lit. "Society of Muslim brethren"; the first modern religio-political movement in the Islamic world, founded in 1928 by Ḥasan Bannāʾ in Esmāʿīlīya Egypt.

• ʿASKARĀN

  KAMRAN EKBAL

  village in Qarābāḡ about seven miles northeast of Stepanakert in the eastern Caucasus, where peace negotiations between Russia and Persia took place in 1225/1810.

• FRAŠŌ.KƎRƎTI

  Almut Hintze

  an eschatological term referring to the final renovation and transfiguration of Ahura Mazdā’s creation after evil has been utterly defeated and driven away.

• HELLANICUS OF LESBOS

  J. Wiesehöfer

  a polyhistorian, probably younger than Herodotus but older than Thucydides (ca. 480-395 B.C.?), who was much read in the ancient world.

• ABBASID CALIPHATE

  C. E. Bosworth

  the third dynasty of caliphs who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphs in Damascus.

• ʿALĪ-QOLĪ KHAN AFŠĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿĀDEL SHAH.

• BĀB (1)

  D. M. MacEoin

  “door, gate, entrance,” a term of varied application in Shiʿism and related movements.

• ČAḠĀNĪĀN, Chaghanids

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E MOḤTĀJ.

• DĪBĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABRĪŠAM.

• ZEMESTĀN-E 62

  ʿAli Ferdowsi

  (Winter of 62, 1987), a novel published by the well-known and prolific Persian novelist Esmāʿil Fasih.

• GŌSĀN

  Mary Boyce

  a Parthian word of unknown derivation for “poet-musician, minstrel.”

• ACTS OF THE PERSIAN MARTYRS

  A. Vööbus

  a collection of the acts of martyrdom under Šāpūr II (309-79 CE).

• ARMY

  Multiple Authors

• BATRAKATAŠ

  H. Koch

  place name, apparently the same as Pasargadae, which appears on the Elamite fortification tablets found at Persepolis.

• CYROPAEDIA

  Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg

  (Gr. Kúrou paideía, The educa­tion of Cyrus), a partly fictional biography of Cyrus the Great (q.v.; 559-29 b.c.e.), founder of the Achaemenid empire.

• ĒLTOTMEŠ, ŠAMS-AL-DĪN

  Peter Jackson

  (d. 1236), first Sultan of Delhi.

• FŪŠANJĪ HERAVĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ,

  Gerhard Böwering

  correctly BŪŠANJĪ; b. Aḥmad b. Sahl (d. 958/959), an important exponent of the fetyān (javān-mardān) of Khorasan.

• HERAT vii. THE HERAT FRONTIER IN THE LATTER HALF OF 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES

  Arash Khazeni

  In the latter half of 19th century, following the settlement of the Khorasan frontier with Persia in 1857, the rulers of Kabul, with British support, sought to make Herat a part of the Afghan state.

• ʿABD-AL-ḤAYY, ḴᵛĀJĀ

  P. P. Soucek

  Miniaturist (late 8th/14th century).

• ALPTIGIN

  C. E. Bosworth

  Turkish military slave commander of the Samanids and founder of Turkish power in eastern Afghanistan (d. 352/963).

• BĀBAY

  A. Vööbus

  catholicos of the Persian Church elected at the synod at Seleucia in 497 (d. 502).

• BOUNDARIES iv. With Iraq

  Joseph A. Kechichian

  In 1921, Iraq became a state under British mandate, inheriting the old Ottoman dispute with Iran over the Šaṭṭ al-ʿArab. Relations between Iran and Iraq were thus strained from the beginning.

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• ČAḴĀNSŪR

  Daniel Balland

  principal town of the large Ḵāšrūd delta oasis in northeastern Sīstān.

• DIODOTUS

  Osmund Bopearachchi

  satrap of Bactria-Sogdiana, who revolted against his Seleucid soverign Antiochus II and proclaimed himself king, thus laying the foundation of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom. The date of his revolt has been  placed between 256 and 239 B.C., the majority of scholars arguing for about the year 250.

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• PARIḴĀN ḴĀNOM

  Manučehr Pārsādust

  (1548-1578), the second daughter of Shah Ṭahmāsp I, a politically influential and colorful figure at the Safavid court.

• GRANT DUFF, Sir EVELYN MOUNTSTUART

  Denis Wright

  (b. 1863; d. Bath, 1926), British diplomat serving successively in Rome, Tehran, St. Petersburg, Stockholm, Berlin, then London.

• ISLAM IN IRAN xii. MARTYRDOM IN ISLAM

  Cross-Reference

  Forthcoming online.

• ĀDĪNEVAND

  P. Oberling

  a small Lur tribe of Lorestān which lives the year round in the baḵš of Ṭarhān.

• BAYRĀNAVAND

  P. Oberling

  a Lor tribe of the Pīš(-e)Kūh region in Lorestān.

• CYPRUS in the Achaemenid Period

  Antigone Zournatzi

  The kings of the southeastern Mediterranean island of Cyprus reportedly submitted willingly to Cyrus II and offered military assistance to the Persians in their campaigns against Caria and Babylon (539 BCE).

• DADGAH

  court of law. See judicial system.

• EMERSON, RALPH WALDO

  John D. Yohannan

  (b. 25 May 1803, Boston; d. 27 April 1882, Concord), distinguished American transcendentalist, philosopher, and poet.

• MINARET

  W. Kleiss

  (manāra), a tower, usually attached to a mosque, from which the muezzin (moʾaḏḏen) summons Muslims to prayer. In Arabic, manāra originally denotes a lighthouse or signaling tower at sea. The minaret was not part of the architecture of the early Islamic period. It appeared first in the 8th and 9th centuries.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GAVAZN

  Cross-Reference

  See RED DEER.

• HERZFELD, ERNST

  Stefan R. Hauser, Hubertus von Gall, David Stronach, Prods Oktor Skjaervo

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Life and Work. ii. Herzfeld and Pasargadae. iii. Herzfeld and Persepolis. iv. Herzfeld and Paikuli. v. Herzfeld and the history of ancient Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABD-AL-QĀDER KHAN

  M. Aslam

  Author of Avīmāq-e Moḡol (publ. 1900), better known as Mirzā Moḥammad Āḡā Jān.

• ĀMEDĪ

  E. Kohlberg

  6th/12th century traditionist.

• BADAḴŠĪ SAMARQANDĪ

  Z. Safa

  the poet laureate (malek-al-šoʿarāʾ) of the Timurid Mīrzā Uluḡ Beg (murdered 1449).

• CAMPHOR

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  a strong-smelling volatile white solid essential oil obtained from two genera of the camphor tree and used from ancient times in Persia as an aromatic with antiseptic and insect-repelling properties.

• DOJAYL

  Cross-Reference

  See KĀRŪN.

• ṬUSI, NAṢIR-AL-DIN ii. AS MATHEMATICIAN AND ASTRONOMER

  George Saliba

  Naṣir-al-Din Abu Jaʿfar Moḥammad Ṭusi (1201-1274) participated in the whole spectrum of mathematical sciences that were known in antiquity, from elementary works on arithmetic to the more advanced works on geometry, and to what we would now call mathematical geography and spherical trigonometry, to astronomy proper as well as to  astrological science and the related fields of optics and trigonometry.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Greece xi - xii. Persian Loanwords and Names in Greek

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  The Greeks came into direct contact with speakers of Iranian languages when Cyrus II conquered the Lydian empire in 547 B.C.E. However, the possibility of linguistic borrowings in prehistoric times cannot be ruled out.

• TĀRIḴ-E SISTĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  an anonymous local history in Persian of the eastern Iranian region of Sistān, the region that straddles the modern Iran-Afghanistan border. It forms a notable example of the flourishing genre of local histories, dealing with towns and provinces, in the pre-modern Iranian lands.

• DAʿĪ

  Farhad Daftary

  he who summons; a term used by several Muslim groups, especially the Ismaʿilis, to designate their propagandists or missionaries.

• ENQELĀB-E ESLĀMĪ

  See REVOLUTION OF 1978-79.

• OUPHARIZES

  R. N. Frye

  (Greek name or appellative Wahriz), general of cavalry in the time of Ḵosrow I.

• GAHĪZ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  weekly newspaper published in Kabul from January 1968 to April 1973, owned, edited, and published by Menhāj-al-Dīn Gahīz (1922-73), who was apparently assassinated by Soviet agents.

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN B. ʿOMAR ṢŪFĪ

  P. Kunitzsch

  Astronomer, especially well versed in knowledge of the fixed stars (10th century).

• AMĪN ḤAŻRAT

  J. Calmard

  eldest son of Āqā Ebrāhīm Amīn-al-solṭān who succeeded his father as Head of the royal pantry (ābdār-bašī), which allowed him to accompany Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah in all his travels in Iran and abroad.

• BADR ČĀČĪ

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  a Persian poet of the 14th century, born in the town or district of Čāč (also written Šāš) in Transoxiana.

• CHINESE TURKESTAN iii. From the Advent of Islam to the Mongols

  Isenbike Togan

• CARDAMOM

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  hel in modern Persian (from Skt. elā), the aromatic seeds of several plants of the family Zingiberaceae.

• DŌRĪ

  Daniel Balland

  river in southern Afghanistan, the main tributary of the Arḡandā.

• LUSCHEY, Heinz

  Wolfram Kleiss

  (1910-1992), German archaeologist and art historian of Iran and the Middle East.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GÜNDÜZLÜ

  Cross-Reference

  See TURKIC TRIBES.

• JAʿFAR KHAN BAḴTIĀRI

  cross-reference

  See BAḴTIĀRI (1).

• AFŻAL-AL-DĪN TORKA

  R. Quiring-Zoche

  name of three figures from Isfahan.

• ARZŪR

  J. P. Asmussen

  Mid. Pers. form of Avestan Arəzūra-, the name of a demon of unclear origin or function in Zoroastrian tradition. 

• FĀRESĪYĀT

  Aḥmad Mahdawī Dāmḡānī

  a literary term used in Arabic literature to refer to poems in Arabic which contain some Persian words or even phrases in their original form, the most notable example being the Fāresīyāt of Abū Nowās.

• BEH-QOBĀD

  Michael Morony

  (Mid. Pers. Vēh-Kavāt), an administrative district created by the Sasanian king Qobād I in the early sixth century along the Babylon branch of the Euphrates.

• SADEQI, BAHRAM

  Saeed Honarmand

  poet and noted modernist fiction writer of the 20th century, who explored new literary techniques with almost each piece he wrote.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĀMDĀD NASK

  D. N. MacKenzie

  the Middle Persian (Pahlavi) name of one of the lost nasks of the Avesta. 

• EQDĀM

  Nassereddin Parvin

  name of two separate series of a Persian newspaper published and edited in the first half of the twentieth century in Tehran by the journalist, poet, novelist, and translator, ʿAbbās Ḵalīlī.

• ACHAEMENID SATRAPIES

  Bruno Jacobs

  the administrative units of the Achaemenid empire.

• GANJ-E BĀDĀVARD

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  (the treasure brought by the wind), name of one of the eight treasures of the Sasanian Ḵosrow II Parvēz (r. 591-628 C.E.) according to most Persian sources.

• HOMĀYUN PĀDEŠĀH

  Wheeler M. Thackston

  , NĀṢER-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD, (1508–56), second Mughal emperor in Kabul (1530–56) and northern India (1530–40 and 1555–56). succesor to Bābor.

• ABDADĀNA

  M. Dandamayev

  Region in western Media, mentioned in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions and annals.

• AMĪR NEẒĀM GARRŪSĪ

  A. Amanat

  known also as Sālār-e Laškar (1236-1317/1820-1900), officer, diplomat, statesman, and literary figure of the Qajar period. 

• BAGAYAṞIČ

  R. H. Hewsen

  site of the great temple of Mihr (Mithras), one of the eight principal pagan shrines of pre-Christian Armenia, traditionally built by Tigranes II the Great (r. 95-56 B.C.).

• CASPIAN SEA i. GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

  actually a lake, the largest in the world (estimated surface area in 1986: 378,400 km², volume 78,600 km³; approx. between lat 37° and 47° N, long 46° and 54° E); it is bounded on the south by Persia.

• DRŌN

  Jamsheed K. Choksy

  Zoroastrian ritual term originally meaning “sacred portion” and designating a ritual offering to divine beings.

• WAKIL-AL-RAʿĀYĀ

  John Perry

  regnal title assumed by Karim Khan Zand (r. 1164-93/1751-79) after he established himself at Shiraz in 1765. It is recorded in variants wakil-al-raʿiya, wakil-e raʿiat, and wakil-al-ḵalāʾeq, all meaning “deputy of the people.”

• ḤABIB-ALLĀH ḴORĀSĀNI

  Jalal Matini

  , Hājj Mirzā, an enlightened religious scholar of Mašhad and a poet (1850-1909).

• JALĀL-AL-DIN ḤASAN III

  FARHAD DAFTARY

  (b. 1166-67; d. 1221), Nezāri Ismaʿili imam and the sixth lord of Alamut.

• AHL-E ḤAQQ

  H. Halm

  “People of (the absolute) Truth,” a sect found in western Persia and some regions of northeastern Iraq; the name has also been adopted by other Islamic sects (Noṣayrīs, Ḥorūfīs) and appears to be rooted in the tradition of the extremist Shiʿites (ḡolāt).

• ASB

  A. Sh. Shahbazi, F. Thordarson, ʿA. Solṭānī Gordfarāmarzī, C. E. Bosworth

  “horse.”  From the dawn of history the Iranians have celebrated the horse in their art and in their literature.  i. In pre-Islamic Iran.  ii. Among the Scythians.  iii. In Islamic times.  iv. In Afghanistan.

• FARĪBORZ

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  son of Key Kāvūs.

• BEROSSUS

  Stanley M. Burstein

  Babylonian 4th-3rd-century priest-chronicler; he took note of Iranian actions insofar as they directly affected Babylon.

• KARUN RIVER i. Geography and Hydrology, ii

  Habib Borjian

  the largest river and the only navigable waterway in Iran. It rises in the Baḵtiāri Zagros mountains west of Isfahan, flows out of the central Zagros range, traverses the Khuzestan plain, and joins the Shatt al-Arab. before the latter discharges into the Persian Gulf.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• VETCH

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿADAS.

• ERŠĀD AL-NESWĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the first women’s periodical in Afghanistan, published weekly in Kabul from 16 March-9 June 1921.

• ŠĀH-NĀMA TRANSLATIONS xiv. INTO RUSSIAN

  Natalia Chalisova

  The first translation of the Šāh-nāma into Russian dates from 1849, when V. Zhukovski (d. 1852) wrote his poem Rustem and Zorab.

• GARMSĪR AND SARDSĪR

  Xavier de Planhol

  lit. "warm zones and cold zones"; two terms identifying regional entities that form a major geographical contrast deeply affecting the popular conscience in Persia.

• HORSE RACING

  Azartash Azarnoush

  The history of horse racing in Iran can be traced back to the Achaemenid period. Xenophon refers to a race set up by Cyrus II.

• ʿABDALLĀH ḤOSAYNĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Scribe and poet in the service of the Mughal emperors Akbar and Jahāngīr (17th century).

• AMR BE MAʿRŪF

  W. Madelung

  Arabic al-amr be’l-maʿrūf wa’l-nahy ʿan al-monkar “enjoining what is proper or good and forbidding what is reprehensible or evil,” one of the principle religious duties in Islam.  

• BAHAISM

  Multiple Authors

  or BAHAI faith, a religion founded in the nineteenth century by Bahāʾ-Allāh that grew out of the Iranian messianic movement of Babism and developed into a world religion with internationalist and pacifist emphases.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION i. Intellectual background

  Abbas Amanat

• ČEHEL SOTŪN, QAZVIN

  Wolfram Kleiss

  a Safavid pavilion that stands amid gardens in the central meydān (square) of the old city and in which the Qazvīn museum is installed.

• DŪNQEŠLĀQ

  Klaus Fischer

  or Dong Qešlaq; group of pre-Islamic and Islamic archeological sites on the Emām Ṣāḥeb plain in the Qondūz province of Afghanistan, about 10 km south of the Oxus.

• MILĀN

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe in western Persian Azerbaijan.

• Jāmāsp ii. Coinage

  NIKOLAUS SCHINDEL

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḤMAD ṢĀḠĀNĪ

  D. Pingree

  one of the many astronomers who worked for the Buyids in Baghdad in the 4th/10th century.

• ʿASKARĪ

  W. M. Watt

  philologist and poet born about the middle of the 4th/10th century.

• FARROḴ KHAN KĀŠĪ, AMĪN-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪN-AL-DAWLA, ABŪ ṬĀLEB FARROḴ KHAN.

• BHAIṢAJYAGURUVAIḌŪRYAPRABHARĀJASŪTRA

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  the name of a Buddhist Mahayanist text of which a number of fragments in Old Khotanese and Sogdian are extant.

• DARB -E EMĀM

  Parvīz Varjāvand

  large shrine complex in the old Sonbolestān quarter of Isfahan. The main structure, consisting of entrance portal (sar-dar), vestibule, and tomb, was built in 1453 and expanded and modified several times during the Safavid period.

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• ESFANDĪĀR KHAN BAḴTĪĀRĪ, ṢAMṢĀM-AL-SALṬANA, SARDĀR(-E) ASʿAD

  G. R. Garthwaite

  (1844-1902), important leader of the Baḵtīārī tribe in southwestern Persia and grandfather of Queen Ṯorayyā.

• KIĀNI, Sayyed NĀDERŠĀH

  S. J. Badakhchani

  (d. 1970), Ismaʿili poet and writer of Afghanistan.

• ḠAŻĀYERĪ RĀZĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠAŻĀʾERĪ RĀZĪ.

• HOSSEIN, ANDRÉ

  Iraj Khademi

  French composer (1905-1983).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABIRĀDŪŠ

  M. Dandamayev

  a village in Elam.

• ʿANBARĪ, ABU’L-ʿABBĀS

  C. E. Bosworth

  4th-5th/10th-11th century poet and prose stylist of Khorasan and statesman in the service of the Qarakhanids.

• BAḤR-E ḴᵛĀRAZM

  cross-reference

  See ARAL SEA.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS x. Court poetry

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

• ČERĪK

  Willem Floor

  (also jerīk, from Mongol tserig “warrior[s]”), originally troops sent by an individual or camp (yort) to serve in the royal army.

• EBER-NĀRI

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  the Akkadian name used in Assyrian and Babylonian records of the 8th-5th centuries B.C.E. for the lands to the west of the Euphrates—i.e., Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine.

• TURFAN EXPEDITIONS

  Werner Sundermann

  Turfan (also Uigur Turpan, Chin. Tulufan) in Xinjiang (Chinese Turkestan) is the largest oasis (ca. 170 square kilometers) on the ancient northern Silk Road.

• ḤĀJI ĀQĀ

  F. Farzaneh

  a satirical novella by Ṣādeq Hedāyat, published in the journal Soḵan in 1945, followed by a second edition in 1952.

• AHVĀZĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-ḤASAN AHWĀZĪ.

• ʿAṢR-E ENQELĀB

  N. Parvīn

  a journal of news and political comment published at Tehran in 1333-1915.

• FAṢD

  Cross-Reference

  See BLOODLETTING.

• BĪḠAMĪ

  William L. Hanaway

  , MAWLĀNĀ SHAIKH ḤĀJĪ MOḤAMMAD, oral storyteller of the 8th/14th century, narrator of the romance Dārāb-nāma.

• EY IRĀN

  Morteza Hoseyni Dehkordi and Parvin Loloi

• DARRAGAZ

  Massoud Kheirabadi, Philip Kohl

  or DARGAZ (Valley of the tamarisks), a fertile valley about 50-55 km east-west and 30-35 km north-south in the Kopet Dagh range in northern Khorasan, at about 450 m above sea level, in which are located a šahrestān (subprovince) and a town of the same name.

• EṢLĀḤĀT-E ARŻĪ

  See LAND REFORM.

• BYRON, ROBERT

  Robert Irwin

  (1905-1941), British travel writer and amateur historian of architecture. 

• GEOLOGY

  Eckart Ehlers

  This article is concerned with those aspects of the geology of Persia that are of immediate economic and cultural significance for the country and its inhabitants, primarily (1) geological structure and orohydrographic differentiation of Persia, (2) geology and natural hazards, and (3) geology and natural resources.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HVARCIERA

  cross-reference

  See XWARČIHR.

• ABU’L-ʿALĀʾ HAMADĀNĪ

  L. A. Giffen

  saintly specialist in the science of Koran readings (qerāʾāt) and Tradition, born in Hamadān in 488/1090 and died in 569/1173.

• ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENT OF 1873

  J. A. Norris

  English interest in Persia during this period is almost exclusively concerned with trade and has almost nothing to do with political relations.

• BĀJALĀN

  P. Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe in the dehestāns of Qūratū, Ḏohāb and Jagarlū in the šahrestān of Qaṣr-e Šīrīn, on the Iraqi border.

• ESCHATOLOGY iii. Imami Shiʿism

  M. A. Amir-Moezzi

• CHILDREN

  Multiple Authors

  This series of articles covers children and child-rearing in Iran and Iranian lands.

• EBN BOḴTĪŠŪʿ

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  prominent family of physicians of Gondēšāpūr at court during the early ʿAbbasid period.

• MARRIAGE CONTRACT IN THE PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Ilya Yakubovich

  a formal, written agreement, documented in both eastern and western Iranian practice.

• ḤALIMI, LOṬF-ALLĀH

  Tahsin Yazici

  b. Abi Yusof, an Ottoman poet and lexicographer of Persian origin (d. 1516).

• JAWĀLIQI, HEŠĀM

  Abbas Kadhim

  b. Sālem, an Imami jurist and theologian of the 8th century. He was a close associate of the Imams Jaʿfar al-Ṣādeq and Musā al-Kāẓem.

• AḴBĀRĪ, MĪRZĀ MOḤAMMAD

  H. Algar

  A leading exponent of the Aḵbārī school of Islamic jurisprudence (feqh) and a violent polemicist against its opponents (1178-1233/1765-1818).

• ĀSTARKĪ

  J. Qāʾem-Maqāmī

  (or AŠTARKĪ), one sub-tribe of the six which presently constitute the Dūrkī tribe of the Haft Lang confederation of the Baḵtīārī people.

• FAYŻĪ, ABU’L-FAYŻ

  Munibur Rahman

  (b. Agra, 1547; d. Lahore, 1595), Mughal court poet, also known as Fayżī Fayyāżī, who wrote mainly in Persian.

• BĪṬARAF

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (The impartial), a news and political affairs journal published in Persian and French in Tehran (1913-14).

• MOJMAL al-TAWĀRIḴ wa’l-QEṢAṢ

  Siegfried Weber and Dagmar Riedel

  an anonymous chronicle from the 12th century in the Persian tradition of literary historiography.

• DAŠLĪ

  Pierre Amiet

  or Dashly; oasis situated south of the Āmū Daryā, on the desert plain of northern Afghanistan, ancient Bactria, now in the province of Jūzjān ca 35 km northeast of Āqča.

• ʿEŠQĪ BELGRĀMĪ, SHAH BARKAT-ALLĀH

  Asifa Zamani

  (1659?-1729), Indo-Persian poet and author.

• SANGLĀḴ, MOḤAMMAD-ʿALI

  Maryam Ekhtiar

  (b. Qučān, Khorasan, date unknown; d. Tabriz, 3 March 1877), celebrated calligrapher and stone carver, as well as poet and author. He lived as a dervish and spent much of his time traveling, with long sojourns in the Ottoman empire and Egypt. He also traveled to Central Asia, Afghanistan and India, where he met with and instructed many calligraphers.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ILBĀRS KHAN

  Yuri Bregel

  name of two rulers of Ḵᵛārazm in the 16th and 18th centuries.

• ABŪ DOLAF ʿEJLĪ

  F. M. Donner

  Arab military chieftain, author, poet, governor, and boon companion for several ʿAbbasid caliphs, and most important member of the ʿEǰlī dynasty of western Iran, flourished in the early 3rd/9th century.

• ʿANNAZIDS

  K. M. Aḥmad

  (BANŪ ʿANNĀZ), a Kurdish dynasty (r. ca. 380-510/990-1117).

• BALĀḠAT

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (Ar. balāḡa), one of the most general terms to denote eloquence in speech and writing. The branches of literary criticism which developed within Muslim civilization became known collectively as the science (ʿelm) or art (ṣenāʿa) of balāḡat.

• CENSUS ii. In Afghanistan

  Daniel Balland

  The first national census of Afghanistan was not conducted until 1979, but the idea of such a survey had  already taken root  in the reign of Šēr-ʿAlī Khan (r. 1868-79), when gradual suppression of tax farming in favor of direct collection of taxes by government officials made it imperative for the administration to know the number of taxable households.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CIA

  Cross-Reference

  See CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA) IN PERSIA.

• EBN ḴĀZEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDALLĀH B. ḴĀZEM.

• CHORASMIAN COINAGE

  B. I. Vainberg

  issued by the rulers of Chorasmia between the 2nd century BCE and the 8th century CE, Chorasmian coins are important primary evidence for the Old Chorasmian language and the region’s post-Achaemenid history because of the paucity of preserved sources for this period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤAMIDI ŠIRĀZI

  Jafar Moayyad Shirazi

  poet, man of letters, literary scholar and critic, translator, journalist, and university professor (1914-1986).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JIHOṆIKA

  O. Bopearachchi

  a ruler in northwestern India known to us from his coins and an inscription (1st cent. CE).

• ĀL-E AḤMAD, JALĀL

  J. W. Clinton

  (1923-69), well-known writer and social critic.

• ĀṮĀR AL-WOZARĀʾ

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  a biographical work on ministers and other officials, their policies and literary works, by Sayf al-dīn Ḥāǰǰī b. Neẓām ʿAqīlī, written at Herat between 1470-71 and 1486-87.

• FERDOWSĪ MAGAZINE

  Esmail Nooriala

  the name of two periodicals, a bi-monthly and a weekly magazine published in Tehran.

• BOḴTĪŠŪʿ

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  the name of the eponymous ancestor of a Syro-Persian Nestorian family of physicians from Gondēšāpūr, Ḵūzestān, 8th-11th centuries, and of several of its members.

• RUDBĀR

  Marcel Bazin and Christian Bromberger

  town and district in southwestern Gilān (q.v.). Rudbār is located on both banks of the Safidrud river at lat 36°51′ N, long 49°25′ E, at an average altitude of 300 m.

• DATIS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Iranian personal name.

• EṬṬELĀʿĀT

  Nasserddin Parvin

  lit. “information, knowledge”; the oldest running Tehran afternoon daily newspaper and the oldest running Persian daily in the world. It was first published on 10 July 1926 as the organ of Markaz-e Eṭṭelāʿāt-e Īrān, the first Persian news agency.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• PALEOLITHIC AGE IN IRAN

  Frank Hole

  The Paleolithic or ‘Old Stone Age’ begins with the first stone tools some 2.5million years ago in Africa, and it ends with the Neolithic or ‘New Stone Age,’ essentially at the beginnings of agriculture.

• GIFT GIVING i, ii, iii

  EIr, Josef Wiesehöfer

  in Persia. The following articles constitute a preliminary attempt at studying various aspects of gift giving in a chronological and historical framework, from the pre-Islamic era to the early modern period.

• ABU’L-FOTŪḤ RĀZĪ

  M. J. McDermott

  Shiʿite commentator on the Koran who lived in the first half of the 6th/12th century.

• APĄM NAPĀT

  M. Boyce

  (Son of the Waters), Zoroastrian divinity of mysterious character whose true identity, like that of his Vedic counterpart, Apām Napāt, has been much debated.

• BĀMĪA

  H. Aʿlam, N. Ramazani

  (or bāmīā), okra, the edible unripe seed-pods of Hibiscus esculentus of the Malvaceae or mallows. i. The plant. ii. In cooking. iii. The sweet.  It was introduced into the culinary art of Persians by Arabs from Baghdad in the 19th century.

• SHADMAN, Sayyed Fakhr-al-Din

  Ali Gheissari

  (1907-1967), cultural critic and writer of fiction, professor of history, civil servant, and cabinet minister.

• CITY COUNCILS

  Ḥosayn Farhūdī

  (anjoman-e šahr) in Persia.

• EBN RŪḤ, ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤOSAYN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤOSAYN B. RŪḤ.

• SHAMANISM

  Philippe Gignoux

  AND ITS CONNECTION TO IRAN. Archeological and ethnological sources in Iran do not lead to confirmation of the existence of shamanic practices there, whether ancient or modern. Yet some scholars have tried to find traces of them.

• HARDINGE, CHARLES

  Denis Wright

  , Lord, First Baron Hardinge of Penshurst (1858-1944), British diplomat.

• JOURNALISM i. Qajar Period

  Negin Nabavi

  For much of the Qajar period, journalism was a state-run domain. In the second half of the period,  newspapers began to appear increasingly.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA ḎUʾL-QADAR

  R. M. Savory

  early 9th/15th century ruler of Maṛʿaš and Albestān in the kingdom of Little Armenia, east of the Taurus mountains. 

• AUGUSTINE

  G. Widengren

  prominent Christian theologian and philosopher, born 354 in Thagaste, Numidia.

• FEYLĪ DIALECT

  Cross-Reference

  See LORĪ.

• BORHĀN BALḴĪ

  Zabihollah Safa

  , BORHĀN-AL-DĪN MOẒAFFAR b. Šams b. ʿAlī b. Ḥamīd-al-Dīn, a poet of the 14th century from Balḵ. He was descended from Ebrāhīm b. Adham, the renowned Iranian Sufi of

• KĀŠI

  Cross-Reference

  and Kāšisāzi. See CERAMICS xiv. THE ISLAMIC PERIOD, 11TH-15TH CENTURIES.

• DĀWŪD

  Fatḥ-Allāh Mojtabāʾī

  or DĀʾŪD; the biblical David, mentioned in a number of passages in the Koran as the hero who fought with and killed Jālūt, the prophet who received the Book of Psalms (Zabūr) from God, and the king who was given the power to rule, enforce justice, and distinguish between truth and falsehood.

• EYES and EARS of KING

  Cross-Reference

  See COURTS AND COURTIERS.

• SASANIAN TEXTILES

  Matteo Compareti

  Classical, Islamic, and Chinese sources celebrate Sasanian textiles as a very precious commodity, but no specific descriptions of them are given. Most studies of Sasanian textile art are originally based on these sources and on examining the reliefs of the larger grotto at Tāq-e Bostān, which, although extremely interesting, present too many external influences.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOAT

  Cross-Reference

  See BOZ.

• INJU

  Cross-Reference

  See ḴĀLEṢA.

• ABU’L-ḤOSAYN KĀTEB

  C. E. Bosworth

  official of the Buyids and writer in Arabic of the 4th/10th century. 

• ʿAQDĀ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a small settlement and subdistrict (dehestān) in the district (baḵš) of Ardakān-e Yazd.

• BANĪ ḤARDĀN

  J. Perry

  a Shiʿite Arab tribe of Howayza (Ḥawīza) district in Ḵūzestān.

• SANJANA, Darab Dastur Peshotan

  Michael Stausberg

  (1857-1931), Zoroastrian head-priest and scholar.

• CODICES HAFNIENSES

  Jes P. Asmussen

  forty-three Avestan and Pahlavi codices acquired by Rasmus Kristian Rask (1787-1832) in Bombay, India, and Niels Ludvig Westergaard (1815-1878) in Persia, all originally de­posited in the library of the University of Copenhagen but later transferred to the Royal Library.

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• EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR ŠĪRĀZĪ, Ḥājī Mīrzā MOḤAMMAD Kalāntar

  Abbas Amanat

  (b. 1745, d. 1800/1801), lord mayor (kalāntar) of Shiraz during the late Zand era, the first grand vizier (ṣadr-e aʿẓam), and a major political figure of the Qajar period.

• MOTʿA

  Shahla Haeri

  in Islamic law, the word (lit. “pleasure”) used as a technical term for a marriage contracted for a definite period of time.

• ḤASAN B.TIMURTAŠ B. ČUBĀN KUČAK

  Cross-Reference

  See CHOBANIDS.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES xi. MUSIC (2)

  Houman Sarshar

  This section is divided into: moṭrebs (hired popular musicians), Persian classical music, instrument makers, and popular music. Existing scholarship and historical documents suggest that Jews were the most prevalent minority engaged as moṭrebs.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĀMĀT-E ŻOHŪR

  Cross-Reference

  See APOCALYPTIC.

• AWRANGĀBĀDĪ, SHAH NEẒĀM-AL-DĪN

  M. L. Siddiqui

  the celebrated Češtī saint said to be a descendant of Abū Bakr, the first caliph, in the line of Šehāb-al-dīn Sohravardī.

• FĪRŪZA

  Cross-reference

  See TURQUOISE.

• BOWAYHIDS

  cross-reference

  See BUYIDS.

• DEH MORĀSĪ ḠONDAY

  Jim G. Shaffer

  a Bronze Age archeological site located at 34° 90’ N, 65° 30’ E, adjacent to the village of Deh Morāsī, approximately 27 km southwest of Qandahār and 6.5 km east-southeast of Pahjwāʾī in southeastern Afghanistan.

• FAḴR-al-DĪNZARRĀDĪ, MAWLĀNĀ

  Sharif Husain Qasemi

  a 14th century spiritual leader of the Češtī Sufi order in India.

• FRYER, JOHN

  Michael J. Franklin

  (b. ca. 1650; d. 1733), British travel-writer and doctor. His writings  display a lively curiosity, which, sharpened by his scientific training, produces accurate observations in geology, meteorology, and all aspects of natural history.

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• ḠOLĀM SARVAR

  Arif Naushahi

  b. Mofti Ḡolām Moḥammad LĀHURI (b. Lahore, 1828; d. near Medina, 1890), historian, hagiographer, and poet in Persian and Urdu.

• ABŪ NAṢR AL-ESMĀʿĪLĪ

  W. M. Watt

  an alleged teacher of Abū Ḥāmed Ḡazālī (450-505/1058-1111).

• ARĀN (2)

  cross-reference

  See ḤOLVĀN.

• BAR KŌNAY, THEODORE

  J. P. Asmussen

  8th-9th-century Nestorian teacher and writer from Kaškar in Mesopotamia. His The Book of Scholiais notable for its sections on Zarathustra and Mani.

• ROSE WATER

  Cross-Reference

  See GOLĀB.

• CONSERVATION

  Cross-Reference

  See ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION.

• FLORA IRANICA

  Wolfgang Frey

  a monumental work on the plants of Persia. Edited by Karl Heinz Rechinger of Vienna since 1963, Flora Iranica now consists of some 172 fascicles and is nearly complete. Only two spermatophyte families, the Cyperaceae and the Rubiaceae, are as yet lacking

• ḤĀWI, AL-

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  (i.e., al-Ketāb al-ḥāwi fi’l-ṭebb “Comprehensive book on medicine”), the title of a major Arabic work on medicine in twenty-five volumes by Abu Bakr Moḥammad.

• KABUL MUSEUM

  Carla Grissmann

  popular name of the National Museum of Afghanistan. A modest collection of artifacts and manuscripts already existed in the time of King Ḥabib-Allāh (r. 1901–19). In 1931 the collection was finally installed in a building in rural Darulaman (Dār-al-amān), eight kilometers south of Kabul City.

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• ʿALĪ B. ʿABBĀS MAJŪSĪ

  L. Richter-Bernburg

  physician from Fārs and author of an Arabic work on medicine (d. /994 [?]); probably the most important medical writer between Rāzī and Ebn Sīnā.

• AYRARAT

  R. H. Hewsen

  region of central Armenia in the broad plain of the upper Araxes.

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN ii. Bibliography

  David Pingree

  Ca. 1035-36 Bīrūnī wrote a Resāla fī fehrest kotob Moḥammad b. Zakarīyāʾ al-Rāzī in two parts, the first devoted to Rāzī and his works, the second to the books that he himself had authored up to that time.

• BRITISH PETROLEUM

  cross-reference

  See ANGLO-PERSIAN OIL COMPANY.

• DEMETRIUS

  A. D. H. Bivar

  name of two Greco-Bactrian kings.

• FĀNŪS

  Cross-reference

  lanterns. See ČERĀḠ.

• LAHUTI, Abu’l-Qasem

  Kāmyār ʿĀbedi

  (1887-1957), Marxist poet, political activist, and an important contributor to the modern of poetry of Tajikistan.

• GOLKONDA

  Cross-Reference

  See HYDERABAD.

• IRĀN newspapers

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of five newspapers, of which four were published in Persia and one in Baghdad, Iraq.

• ABŪ SAʿD TOSTARĪ

  S. D. Goitein

  businessman and quasi-vizier in Fatimid Egypt, d. 439/1047.

• ARDABĪLĪ

  W. Madelung

  known as MOQADDAS and MOḤAQQEQ ARDABĪLĪ, Imamite theologian and jurist of the early Safavid age. 

• BARƎSMAN

  Cross-Reference

  See BARSOM.

• PALM READING

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  (chiromancy or palmistry; Pers. Kaf-bini), a form of physiognomy that deduces personal characteristics from the form of the lines on the subject’s palm.

• CORMICK, WILLIAM

  Moojan Momen

  (b. Tabrīz 1822, d. Tabrīz 25 Ḏu’l-ḥejja 1294/30 December 1877), a British physician in Tabrīz.

• EDUCATION xxii. PHYSICAL EDUCATION

  Cross-Reference

  See PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

• FORŪGĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ʿALĪ ḎOKĀʾ-AL-MOLK

  Fakhreddin Azimi, Iraj Afshar

  (1877-1942), statesman, scholar, and man of letters. Forūḡī’s personal integrity and honesty have rarely been disputed, even by his critics. Others have blamed him for helping to bring about Reżā Shah’s regime and continuing to serve it despite its blatant misdeeds.

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• HEAD GEAR

  cross-reference

  See CLOTHING.

• ABĀLIŠ

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  Zoroastrian of the 9th century A.D. who apostatized to Islam.

• ʿALĪ AKBAR

  J. Calmard

  Imam Ḥosayn’s eldest son, killed at the age of 18, 19, or 25 at the battle of Karbalā on the day of ʿĀšūrā (10 Moḥarram 61/10 October 680).

• ĀẔAR KAYVĀN

  H. Corbin

  (ĀḎAR KAYVĀN;  d. between 1609 and 1618), a Zoroastrian high priest and native of Fārs who emigrated to India and became the founder of the Zoroastrian Ešrāqī or Illuminative School.

• ARABIC LANGUAGE iv. Arabic literature in Iran

  V. Danner

• BŪRĀNĪ

  Mohammad R. Ghanoonparvar

  (rarely būlānī), generic term for a category of Iranian dishes, now usually prepared with yogurt and cooked vegetables and served either hot or cold.

• DĒW

  A. V. Williams

  lit. "demon" in the Pahlavi books.

• GONBAD-E QĀBUS

  E. Ehlers, M. Momeni, and EIr, Habib-Allāh Zanjāni, Sheila S. Blair

  (now referred to officially as Gonbad-e Kāvus) is the administrative center of the sub-province (šahrestān) of the same name and the urban center of the Turkman tribal area in northern Persia. It is the named after its major monument, a tall tower that marks the grave of the Ziyarid ruler Qābus b. Vošmgir (r. 978-1012).

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• IRANSHENASI

  Abbas Milani

  a journal of Iranian studies, founded 1989.

• ABU’L-ṬAYYEB ṬĀHER

  M. Forstner

  founder of the Taherid dynasty of Khorasan; born 139/775-76 in Pūšang (Būšang), died 207/822 in Marv.

• ʿĀREŻ

  C. E. Bosworth

  the official in medieval eastern Islamic states had charge of the administrative side of the military forces, being especially concerned with payment, recruitment, training, and inspection.

• BARSḴĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  or Barsḡān, a place in Central Asia, on the southern shores of the Ïsïq-Göl, in the region known as Semirechye or Yeti-su “the land of the seven rivers,” in what is now the Kyrgyz Republic.

• KARAPAN

  William Malandra

  (or Karpan), designation of members of a class of daivic priests opposed to the religion of Zarathustra.

• CROCODILE

  S. C. Anderson

  (nahang, Baluchi gandū), Croco­dylus palustris, the marsh crocodile. It inhabits fresh-water marshes, pools, and rivers, and probably the only suitable croco­dile habitat in Persian Baluchistan is along the Sarbāz river. The present intermittent distribution of this species in Pakistan and Persian Baluchistan represents a fragmentation of a once more continuous range during moister climatic regimes in the recent past.

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• EKSĪR

  Cross-Reference

  See KĪMĪĀ.

• ANTHROPOMORPHISM

  J. Duchesne-Guillemin

• HEKMAT, ŠAMSI MORĀDPUR

  Houman Sarshar

  educator and philanthropist (1917-1997).

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• ʿABBĀSĀBĀD Caravan Station

  W. Kleiss

  Flourishing caravan station of the Safavid period.

• ʿĀLĪ QĀPŪ

  P. P. Soucek

  a five-storied building overlooking the Maydān-e Šāh of Isfahan.

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• ʿAŻOD-AL-MOLK, ʿALĪ REŻĀ KHAN

  Ḥ. Maḥbūbī Ardakānī

  during the Tobacco protest of 1891-92, ʿone of the chief mediators between the shah and the ʿolamāʾ of Tehran; regent of Iran in 1909-10.

• AZERBAIJAN ix. Iranian Elements in Azeri Turkish

  L. Johanson

• CADUSII

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  an Iranian tribe settled between the Caspian and the Black sea.

• DĪA

  Khalid Abu El Fadl

  the prescribed blood money or wergild paid in compensation for a wrongful death or certain other physical injuries.

• ṬAHMĀSP I

  Colin P. Mitchell

  (1514-1576), second ruler of the Safavid dynasty. His 52-year reign was the longest of all Safavid rulers.

• GORUH-E FARHANGI-E HADAF

  Cross-Reference

  See HADAF EDUCATIONAL GROUP.

• ACHMA

  R. E. Emmerick

  (a Turkish word meaning “opening”), a town in the Domoko (Dumaqu) oasis near Khotan, so named with reference to the local springs.

• ARMENIA AND IRAN

  Multiple Authors

  This series of articles covers Irano-Armenian relations in pre-modern times. 

• BĀṬĀS

  R. M. Boehmer

  a village in Iraq,   Arbīl province. The nearby rock relief, no longer in good preservation, may  depict Izates II, the king of Adiabene (ca. 36-62 A.D.), who was converted to Judaism. He is likely to have ordered the carving after the unexpected retreat of the Parthian king of kings, Vologases I.

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• CYAXARES

  I. M. Diakonoff

  (Gk. Kyaxárēs) king of Media in the 6th century B.C.E.

• ʿELM O HONAR

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of two Persian magazines.

• DĀNEŠKADA

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a monthly literary journal published from April 1918 to April 1919 in Tehran by the distinguished poet, literary critic, and scholar Moḥammad-Taqi Malek-al-Šoʿarāʾ Bahār, considered the leading Persian literary figure of his time.

• FŪMAN

  Marcel Bazin

  town and district in western Gīlān, 21 km west-southwest of Rašt, on the left bank of Gāzrūdbār river. An important town in medieval times, Fūman is again a commercial and administrative center, with a very active Tuesday market and a large tea-processing factory.

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• HERAT ii. HISTORY, PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  W. J. Vogelsang

  The present town of Herat dates back to ancient times, but its exact age remains unknown. In Achaemenid times (ca. 550-330 BCE), the surrounding district was known as Haraiva.

• ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD LĀHŪRĪ

  R. M. Eaton

  17th-century Indo-Persian historian and author of the Pādšāh-nāma, the official account of the reign of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahān (1037-67/1628-57).

• ALLĀHYĀR KHAN ĀṢAF-AL-DAWLA

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀṢAF-AL-DAWLA.

• BĀBAK

  R. N. Frye

  (Mid. Pers. Pāpak, Pābag), a ruler of Fārs at the beginning of the third century, father of Ardašīr, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty.  

• BIBLE viii. Translations into other Modern Iranian Languages

  Kenneth J. Thomas

  John Leyden, a gifted Scottish linguist and poet who went to Calcutta in 1803 as a surgeon’s assistant for the East India Company and subsequently became a professor at the College of Fort William, was involved in translating the Gospels into a number of languages, including both Pashto and Bal­uchi.

• ČĀH-BAHĀR

  Eckart Ehlers

  Name of a town and bay on the Makrān coast of Persian Baluchistan facing the coast of Oman.

• DĪNŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See IRANI, DINSHAH JIJIBHOY.

• NAḴJAVĀNI, ḤĀJJ MOḤAMMAD

  Hushang Ettehad and EIr

  (1880-1962), businessman, scholar, and collector of manuscripts.

• GŌZIHR

  D. N. Mackenzie

  the Middle Persian development of an old Iranian compound adjective *gau-čiθra-, recorded in the Younger Avesta in the form gaočiθra-, as an epithet of the moon, “bearing the seed, having the origin of cattle” (or, “the ox”).

• ADĪB NAṬANZĪ

  ʿA. N. Monzawī

  poet and linguist of the 5th/11th century, from Naṭanz, near Isfahan.

• BĀYJŪ

  P. Jackson

  Mongol general and military governor in northwestern Iran (fl. 1228-1259). He belonged to the Besüt tribe and was a kinsman of Jengiz Khan’s general Jebe (Jaba).

• ʿOTBI

  C. E. Bosworth

  the family name of two viziers of the Samanids of Transoxiana and Khorasan.