Search Results

• GENDARMERIE

  Stephanie Cronin

  the first modern highway patrol and rural police force in Persia. The Government Gendarmerie (Žāndārmerī-e dawlatī) was established in 1910 by the second Majles and proved the most enduring in a series of official projects for the modernization of the armed forces under the leadership of foreign officers.

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• HUNTING IN IRAN

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  i. In the pre-Islamic period. ii. In the Islamic period. See Supplement. Persian has two terms for hunting, naḵjīr and šekār, both of which have spread beyond Iranian languages.

• ĀBTĪN

  A. Tafażżolī

  father of the mythical king Feridun of the Pišdādi dynasty.

• ANGLO-AFGHAN RELATIONS

  J. A. Norris

  a survey from the earliest times to the death of the last Bārakzay ruler in 1357 Š./1978.

• BAḤRĀNĪ, AḤMAD

  E. Kohlberg

  B. MOḤAMMAD B. YŪSOF B. ṢĀLEḤ (d. 1690-91), described as the leading representative in his generation of Imami Shiʿite scholarship in Bahrain.

• CHARPENTIER, JARL

  Bo Utas

  (Hellen Robert Toussaint; b. 17 December 1884, d. 5 July 1935), Swedish Indologist, Indo-Europeanist, and Iranist, born in Gothenburg as the son of an army officer.

• EBN BĀBAWAYH (2)

  Martin McDermott

  (Bābūya), SHAIKH ṢADŪQ ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD b. Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī... Mūsā Qomī (b. Qom after 305, probably about 311/923; d. Ray, 381/991), author of one of the authoritative four books of Imami Shiʿite Hadith, Man lā yaḥżoroho’l-faqīh.

• SOUR GRAPE jUICE

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀB-ḠŪRA.

• KASRA’I, HOSAYN SIAVASH

  Hušang Ettehād

  (1939-2003), painter.

• ḤAKIMI, EBRĀHIM

  Abbas Milani and EIr

  (Ḥakim-al-Molk) (1871-1959), Persian statesman, three times prime minister.

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• JĀTAKASTAVA

  Mauro Maggi

  a Khotanese religious poem in praise (Skt. stava-) of the Buddha’s former births (Skt. jātaka-).

• ĀKAUFAČIYĀ

  R. Schmitt

  name of a tribe resident in the southeastern part of the Achaemenid empire.

• ĀSTĀNA

  Eckart Ehlers, Marcel Bazin, and Christian Bromberger

  a township and a district of Lāhīǰān in the province of Gīlān.

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN

  Multiple Authors

  scholar and polymath of the period of the late Samanids and early Ghaznavids and one of the two greatest intellectual figures of his time in the eastern lands of the Muslim world (973-after 1050).

• DARYĀ-YE NŪR

  Yaḥyā Ḏokāʾ

  lit., “sea of light”; one of the largest diamonds in the world, kept and exhibited in the Jewel museum of the Central bank of Persia (Bānk-e markazī-e Īrān).

• ʿEṢMAT BOḴĀRĪ, Ḵᵛāja ʿEṢMAT-ALLĀH

  Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā

  b. Masʿūd Boḵārī (d. 1436), poet and scholar of the early Timurid period, known also for his expertise in mathematics, history, prosody, riddles, and mastery of enšāʾ.

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN vii. History of Religions

  François de Blois

  In this article some of his remarks on pre-Islamic Iranian religions, on Christian­ity and Judaism, and on Muslim sects will be discussed.

• OLEARIUS, ADAM

  Christoph Werner

  (1599-1671), German author, secretary to the Holstein mission to Persia (1635-39), noted for the detailed account of his travels in Russia and Persia.

• GERĀYLĪ

  Pierre Oberling

  a Turkic tribe of Khorasan, Gorgān, and Māzandarān.

• IGNATIUS OF JESUS

  Paola Orsatti

  (Ignazio di Gesù, 1596-1667), an Italian missionary in Persia and a scholar of the Persian language, renowned mainly for his studies on religion and on the customs of the Mandaeans.

• ABŪ BAKR QOHESTĀNĪ

  Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī

   fl. 5th/11th century, a courtier and man of letters under the Ghaznavids and Saljuqs; himself a poet, he patronized poetry generously.

• ANjOMAN-E OKOWWAT

  ʿA. Anwār and EIr

  (or OḴŪWAT) “The Society of Brotherhood,” a non-political Sufi-type society officially founded on 15 Šabʿān 1317/21 December 1899 by Mīrzā ʿAlī Khan Ẓahīr-al-dawla to promote the ideals of equity and brotherhood in Iran.

• BAḴTĪĀR-NĀMA

  W. L. Hanaway, Jr.

  an example of early New Persian prose fiction in the form of a frame story and nine included tales, the earliest version of which seems to be from the late 12th-early 13th centuries.

• CHRISTIE, CHARLES

  Kamran Ekbal

  , Captain (d. 1812), of the Bombay Regiment, an Anglo-Indian officer under the command of Sir John Malcolm.

• EBN AL-JEʿĀBĪ, ABŪ BAKR MOḤAMMAD

  Wilferd Madelung

  b. ʿOmar Tamīmī Ḥāfeẓ (b. Baghdad 1 or 2 April 897, d. Baghdad 7 July 966), traditionist with Shiʿite leanings.

• PAIRIKĀ

  Siamak Adhami

  a class of female demonic beings in the Avesta, often translated “sorceress, witch, or enchantress.”

• SHIRAZ i. HISTORY TO 1940

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

   The city of Shiraz has been the capital of the province of Fārs since the Islamic conquest, succeeding Eṣṭaḵr (q.v.) of the Sasanian period and Persepolis (q.v.) of the Achaemenid days.

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• ḤAMD-ALLĀH MOSTAWFI

  Charles Melville

  historian and geographer of the Il-khanid period (1281-1344), author of Tāriḵ-e gozida, Ẓafar-nāma, and Nozhat al-qolub.

• JERUSALEM AND IRAN

  Hagith Sivan

  Twice Jerusalem came under Persian rule, the first time in the sixth century BCE, the second during the westward expansion of the Sasanian state in the early seventh century CE.

• ĀḴŪND

  H. Algar

  (or ĀḴᵛOND), a word of uncertain etymology with the general meaning of religious scholar. Various Persian origins have been proposed for the word.

• ATĀBAKĀN-E ĀḎARBĀYJĀN

  K. A. Luther

  an influential family of military slave origin, also called Ildegozids, ruled parts of Arrān and Azerbaijan from about 530/1135-36 to 622/1225.

• BOḴĀRĀ-YE ŠARĪF

  Michael Zand

  “Boḵārā the noble,” the first Central Asian newspaper published in Persian, 1912 to 1913.

• DASTŪR-E DABĪRĪ

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  comprehensive manual of letter writing by Moḥammad Meyhanī, consisting of an introduction (dībāča) and two chapters (qeṣm; comp. December 1189-January 1190).

• ETIQUETTE

  Nancy H. Dupree

  defined as the observance of conventional decorum particularly among the elite, is itself part of the wider topic of adab.

• ARMENIA AND IRAN iv. Iranian influences in Armenian Language

  R. Schmitt, H. W. Bailey

• KIMIĀ

  Pierre Lory

  “Alchemy.” Externally, the purpose of alchemy was the conversion of base metals like lead into silver or gold by means of long and complicated operations leading to the production of a mysterious substance, the ‘philosopher’s stone,’ able to operate the transmutation. 

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN BALBAN

  Cross-Reference

  See DELHI SULTANATE.

• ABU’L-FAYŻ KAMĀL-AL-DĪN SERHENDĪ

  J. G. J. ter Harr

  author of Rawżat al-qayyūmīya, a still unpublished taḏkera of the Naqšbandīya-Moǰaddedīya order in India. 

• ANŪŠERVĀN KĀŠĀNĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  , ABŪ NAṢR ŠARAF-AL-DĪN, high official who served the Great Saljuq sultans and the ʿAbbasid caliph during the first half of the 6th/12th century.

• BALŪHAR O BŪDĀSAF

  cross-reference

  See BARLAAM AND IOSAPH.

• CISSIANS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  a name for the Susians, the Elamite inhabitants of Susiana.

• EBN NOṢRAT, AMIR BAHĀʾ-AL- DĪN BARANDAQ ḴOJANDĪ

  Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā

  (b. 1356; d. ca. 1433), Timurid poet.

• KARABALGASUN

  Toshio Hayashi, Y. Yoshida

  archeological site of a capital of the Uighur Khaghanate (second half of the 8th century to first half of the 9th century).

• PAYĀM-E MAŠREQ

  David Matthews

  Title of a collection of Persian verse by Muhammad Iqbal.

• HAOMA ii. THE RITUALS

  Mary Boyce

  Haoma yields the essential ingredient for the parahaoma, the consecrated liquid prepared during the main act of worship, the Yasna, and its extensions, the Visperad and Vendidad.

• JORDAN, SAMUEL MARTIN

  Michael Zirinsky

  (known in Iran as Dr. Jordan; 1871-1952), teacher, Presbyterian minister, missionary, founder and president of the American College of Tehran (later Alborz College).

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• ĀL-E ŠANSAB

  Cross-Reference

  See GHURIDS.

• ATSÏZ B. ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN ATSÏZ.

• BONYĀD-E ŠĀH-NĀMA-YE FERDOWSĪ

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  a research institute, 1971-78,  intended for preparation of a new critical edition of the Šāh-nāma.

• DAWLATĀBĀDĪ, SAYYED YAḤYĀ

  Abbas Amanat

  (b. Dawlatābād. near Isfahan, 8 January 1863, d. Tehran, 26 October 1939), celebrated educator, political activist, and memoirist of the constitutional and postconstitutional periods.

• EVOLUTION

  based on a longer article by ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn ZarrĪnkūb

  (takāmol, taḥawwol), a family of ideas embodying the belief that the physical universe and living organisms have developed in a process of continuous change from a lower, simpler to a higher, more complex state.

• MARTYRS, CHRISTIAN

  Christelle Jullien

  in the Iranian lands, as related in the surviving corpus of Persian Christian Acts.

• GISU-DARĀZ

  Richard M. Eaton

  or Gēsu-darāz (b. Delhi, 1321; d. Gulbarga, 1422), the popular title of Sayyed MOḤAMMAD b. Yusof Ḥosayni, the most important transmitter of Sufi traditions from North India to the Deccan plateau.

• INDRA

  W. W. Malandra

  the name of a minor demon (daēwa) in the Avesta, In sharp contrast to the Indra of the Ṛgveda [RV], the most celebrated god (devá) of the Vedic pantheon.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN ŠAMSĀBĀDĪ

  H. Algar

  (1326-96/1908-76), an influential moǰtahed of Isfahan who was murdered on 7 April 1976 under mysterious circumstances.

• ĀQĀ MĪRAK

  P. P. Soucek

  prominent painter of the 10th/16th century in the workshop of the Safavid Shah Ṭahmāsp (r. 930-84/1524-76).

• BANDAR-E GAZ

  X. De Planhol

  a port on the southern shore of Astarābād Bay in the southeastern Caspian Sea, a few kilometers from a group of nine hamlets known collectively as Gaz. The installation of Russians on the Āšūrāda islands after 1837 made it very important strategically.

• COAL

  Willem M. Floor

  (zoḡāl-e sang). Although Persia and Afghanistan are rich in coal deposits (Harrison, pp. 492-96; Research Group, pp. 58-149; Arens, pp. 126-28), these deposits have only recently come to be exploited.

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• EBRĀHĪM B. JARĪR

  Munibur Rahman

  author of a general history called Tārīḵ-e ebrāhīmī or Tārīḵ-e homāyūnī.

• MAḤJUBI, Reżā

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi and EIr

  (1898-1954) composer and violinist, brother of Morteżā.

• ḤASAB O NASAB

  Louise Marlow

  term used in Arabic and New Persian literature to express complementary aspects of the concept of nobility. I

• AḴESTĀN

  Ż. Sajjādī

  a late 12th-century ruler of the Šervānšāh dynasty, patron of the poet Ḵāqānī Šervānī.

• ʿAWĀREF AL-MAʿĀREF

  W. C. Chittick

  a classic work on Sufism by Šehāb-al-dīn Sohravardī (1145-1234)

• BOŠRŪʾĪ, Mollā Moḥammad-Ḥosayn

  Denis M. MacEoin

  Shaikhi ʿālem who became the first convert to Babism, provincial Babi leader in Khorasan, and organizer of Babi resistance in Māzandarān (1814-49).

• DECORATION

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  Despite progress in identifying or classifying the features of Persian decorative patterns, few scholars have attempted to explain why particular designs were used in specific periods, regions, or circumstances, even though it can be observed that in a given area or epoch the form and character of ornament are often consistent within a particular craft or different media.

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• FAGERGREN, CONRAD GUSTAF

  Bo Utas

  (b. Stockholm, 1818; d. Shiraz, 1879), Swedish physician in Shiraz, 1848-79.

• BOUNDARIES iii. Boundaries of Afghanistan

  Daniel Balland

  Afghanistan, the seventh largest landlocked country in the world in area, is delineated by a boundary some 5,600 km long, over which it has never exercised more than partial control. None of these boundaries was established before the last third of the 19th century.

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• SUSA i. EXCAVATIONS

  Hermann Gasche

  The excavations of ancient Susa, whose ruins document more than 5,000 years of settlement, themselves have a long history.

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• GOL-E GĀVZABĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See GĀVZABĀN.

• ABU’L-MAṮAL BOḴĀRĪ

  J. W. Clinton

  (or BOḴĀRĀʾĪ), a poet of the Samanid court.

• ʿARABŠĀHĪ

  Y. Bregel

  a dynasty of Chingisid origin that ruled in Ḵᵛārazm from the beginning of the 10th/16th century.

• BĀQELĀ

  H. Aʿlam

  broad beans, the grains of Vicia faba L. In Iran, this crop is grown rather extensively in the Caspian provinces and, to a lesser extent, in the south and southwest.

• COMMUNISM

  Multiple Authors

• ECBATANA

  Stuart C. Brown

  present-day Hamadān, capital of the Median empire, summer capital of the Achaemenids, and satrapal seat of the province of Media from Achaemenid to Sasanian times.

• LĀḴ-MAZĀR

  V. A. Livshits

  “Rocky sacred place (?),” name applied to gorges not far from the settlement of Kuč, 29 km southeast of Birjand (q.v.) in Khorasan Province (ostān). 

• ZĀDSPRAM

  Philippe Gignoux

  a 9th-century Zoroastrian scholar and author. He was one of the four sons of Gušn-Jam (or Juwānjam, according to Boyce and Cereti).

• HAŠTRUDI, MOḤSEN

  A. Shadi Tahvildar-Zadeh and Fariborz Majidi

  or Hachtroudi (1907-1976), contemporary Iranian mathematician and popular lecturer.

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• KABIR-KUH

  Majdodin Keyvani

  one of the long ranges of the Zagros mountains, lying between Iran’s two western provinces of Loristan and Ilām.

• ALEXANDER OF LYCOPOLIS

  G. Widengren

  apparently a Neoplatonic philosopher living in Egypt about 300 CE.

• ĀYATĪ, ʿABD-AL-ḤOSAYN

  Ī. Afšār

  (b. 1288/1871; d. 1332 Š./1953), son of Mollā Moḥammad-Taqī Āḵūnd Taftī, Bahāʾi missionary, journalist, author, and teacher.

• BREAD

  Hélène Desmet-Grégoire

  Persian nān. In modern Iran bread is the dietary staple food for the population and accounts, on the average, for 70 percent of the daily caloric intake.

• DéLéGATIONS ARCHéOLOGIQUES FRANçAISES

  Francine Tissot

  bodies established by the French government to conduct archeological investigations in Persia and Afghanistan respectively.

• PHILOSOPHY

  Cross-Reference

  see under FALSAFA.

• KARAFTO CAVES

  Hubertus von Gall

  an ensemble of artificially cut rock chambers dated to the 4th or 3rd century BCE, in Kordestān Province, 20 km west of Takab. The site is of considerable importance because of its Greek inscription, one of the very few examples preserved in situ in Persia.

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• GOLESTĀN-E SAʿDI

  Franklin Lewis

  probably the single most influential work of prose in the Persian tradition, completed in 1258 by Mošarref-al-Din Moṣleḥ, known as Shaikh Saʿdi of Shiraz.

• ABU’L-QĀSEM MOḤAMMAD ASLAM

  S. Moinul Haq

  (pen name MONʿEMĪ), 18th-century historian of Kashmir.

• AVERY, PETER

  David Blow

  (1923-2008), British scholar of Persian literature and history.

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• BARD-E BOT

  Cross-Reference

  See ELYMAIS.

• COPPER i. In Islamic Persia

  James W. Allan and Willem Floor

  the metallic element Cu.

• QOFS

  C. E. Bosworth

  the Arabised form of Kufiči, lit. “mountain dweller,” the name of a people of southeastern Iran found in the Islamic historians and geographers of the 10th-11th centuries.

• FORESTS AND FORESTRY i. In Persia

  Eckart Ehlers

  Less than 2 percent of Persia is covered by forests, while another 8 to 9 percent may be regarded as depleted former forest areas. Altogether, 150-160,000 km² are, or have been, densely forested areas.

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• HAZĀRA iii. Ethnography and social organization

  Alessandro Monsutti

  It would be misleading to present a fixed and definitive image of the main Hazāra tribes, as the affiliations are changing over time and the designations reflect the political situation.

• ĀB-GŪŠT

  EIr and N. Ramazani

  “Meat juice,” a popular Persian meat-based soup or stew, consisting of lamb, some legume, and herb and seasoning.

• ʿALĪ B. ʿOBAYDALLĀH ṢĀDEQ

  C. E. Bosworth

  , ABU’L ḤASAN (d. ca. 1040), Ghaznavid military commander under Sultan Masʿūd I.

• ĀZĀDĪSTĀN

  N. Parvīn

  the title of a Persian educational magazine which came out at Tabrīz in Jawzā, 1299/June-August, 1920.

• BUKHARA

  Multiple Authors

  i. In pre-Islamic times. ii. From the Arab invasions to the Mongols. iii. After the Mongol invasion. iv. The khanate of Bukhara and Khorasan. v. Archeology and monuments. vi. The Bukharan school of miniature painting. vii. Bukharan Jews.

• DERĀZ-DAST

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  having long hands.

• CHINESE TURKESTAN vii. Manicheism in Chinese Turkestan and China

  Samuel Lieu

• GILĀN

  Multiple Authors

  or Ḡelān; province at the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea. 

• GOMBROON WARES

  Cross-Reference

  See CERAMICS; ČĪNĪ.

• IRAN-NAMEH

  Vahe Boyajian

  journal of Oriental studies, founded in Yerevan, Armenia, in May 1993 as a scholarly monthly publication in the Armenian language.

• ABŪ ṬĀHER B. MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See ATĀBAKĀN-E LORESTĀN.

• ARDUMANIŠ

  P. Lecoq

  a Persian, son of Vahauka.

• BARNAVĪ, ʿALĀ-AL-DĪN ČEŠTĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ČEŠTĪYA.

• COX, PERCY ZACHARIAH

  Floreeda Safiri

  , Sir (b. Herongate, near Brentwood, Essex, England, 20 November 1864, d. Bedford, England, 20 February 1937), officer of the political service in the British Indian government who held several diplomatic posts in the Persian Gulf re­gion in 1893-1923 and played a leading role in nego­tiating the Anglo-Persian Agreement of 1919.

• EJĀZA

  Devin J. Stewart

  "lit. permission, license, authorization"; a term describing a variety of academic certificates ranging in length from a few lines to many fascicles.

• FARḠĀNĪ, SAYF-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Sayyāra Mahīnfar

  thirteenth century Persian poet and Sufi of Farḡāna.

• ĀHI, MAJID

  Bāqer ʿĀqeli

  (b. Tehran, 1265 Š./1886; d. 22 Šahrivar 1325 Š./12 September 1946), judge, governor of Fārs, minister of justice, and ambassador to the Soviet Union.

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• Qohrud i. Historical Geography

  Habib Borjian

• ḤEFẒ AL-ṢEḤḤA

  Nasseredin Parvin

  the first Iranian medical journal, published as a  monthly during 1906.

• ʿABBĀS (III)

  R. M. Savory

  Son of Shah Ṭahmāsp II, roi fainéant of the Safavid dynasty (1732-40).

• ʿALĪ-MOḤAMMAD KHAN BAHĀDOR

  Hameed ud-Din

  Historian of the Mughals and author of Merʾāt-e Aḥmadī (ca. 1111/1700-1177/1763).

• ĀŽĪR

  N. Parvīn

  “Alarm bell,” a radical leftist Persian newspaper, printed at Tehran, May 1943 to June, 1945.

• BYZANTINE-IRANIAN RELATIONS

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  From the middle of the 1st century B.C. the Middle East was dominated by the political rivalries of the empires of Rome and Iran.  

• DEZFŪL

  Massoud Kheirabadi, Colin MacKinnon

  or Dez-pol, lit. "fortress bridge"; šahrestān (subprovincial administrative unit) and city in northern Ḵūzestān province.

• QODDUS

  Nosrat Mohammad-Hosseini

  (1822-1849), spiritual title of Moḥammad-ʿAli Bārforuši, a prominent Bābi figure.

• GORGĀN vi. History From The Rise Of Islam To The Beginning Of The Safavid Period

  C. Edmund Bosworth

• ISFAHAN

  Multiple Authors

  ancient province and old city in central Iran. Isfahan city has served as one of the most important urban centers on the Iranian Plateau since ancient times.

• ĀBYĀR

  E. Ehlers

  Title of the person given official charge of the irrigation of ābī “irrigated” lands.

• ARIYĀRAMNA

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  Old Persian proper name.

• BASKERVILLE, HOWARD C.

  K. Ekbal

  a teacher at the American mission in Tabrīz, killed 19 April 1909 during the siege of Tabrīz by royalist troops.

• CUNEIFORM SCRIPT

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  The term “cuneiform” script in its broader sense includes that in which Old Persian was written, a simplified version invented in the 6th century B.C.E. It was the official script adopted by the Achaemenid kings (from Darius I to Artaxerxes III) for writing their mother tongue.

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• ELGOOD, CYRIL LLOYD

  F. R. C. Bagley

  (1893-1970), British historian of medicine in Persia.

• CLOTHING xx. Clothing of Khorasan

  Ḥosayn-ʿAlī Beyhaqī

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• BAYĀNI, JĀR-ALLĀH-ZĀDA

  Tahsin Yazici

  , Shaikh Moṣtafā (d. 1597), a Turkish poet who composed on the ḡazals of Hāfeẓ.

• KĀŠEF-AL-ḠEṬĀʾ, JAʿFAR

  Hamid Algar

  (1743-1812), Shiʿi scholar and jurist, broadly influential in both Iraq and Persia. His cognomen, meaning “remover of the veil,” alludes to one of his best known works.

• FREEMASONRY iii. In the Pahlavi Period

  EIr

  Freemasonry in the Pahlavi era underwent three distinct phases: (1) dormancy, from 1925-1950 under Reżā Shah and for the decade following his abdication in 1941; (2) revival, and the creation of the Lodge Pahlavi; (3) burgeoning, in the period of 1955-78, when dozens of regular lodges were chartered.

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• HENDUŠĀH B. SANJAR

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  B. ʿABD-ALLAH SAḤEBI KIRANI,  author of a Persian history  Tajāreb al-salaf (fl. first half of the 8th/14th century).

• ʿABD-AL-BARĪ

  F. Robinson

  early 20th century Indian scholar and pīr of the Ferangī Maḥal family.

• ʿALLĀF

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-HOḎAYL.

• BĀBĀ KUHI

  M. Kasheff

  popular name of Shaikh Abū ʿAbdallāh Moḥammad b. ʿAbdallāh b. ʿObaydallāh Bākūya Šīrāzī, Sufi of the 10th-11th centuries.

• ČAHĀRBĀḠ-E EṢFAHĀN

  Roger M. Savory

  the name of a broad avenue which was a key feature of the city of Isfahan as replanned by Shah ʿAbbās I after he had designated the city the new capital of the Safavid state in 1006/1597-98.

• DINAR

  Philippe Gignoux, Michael Bates

  a gold coin, in pre-Islamic times struck mainly for purposes of prestige. In Arabic of the classical Islamic period, the word dīnār had the double sense of a gold coin and of a monetary unit which might not be precisely embodied by actual coins.

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• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION vi. The press

  ʿAlī-Akabr Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

• KONDORI, MOḤAMMED B. MANṢUR

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (b. ca. 1024, d. 1064), vizier to Ṭoḡrel Beg (r. 1040-63), the first sultan of the Great Saljuqs, and, briefly, to Ṭoḡrel’s successor Alp Arslān (r. 1063-72).

• GOWHAR-E MORĀD (2)

  Cross-Reference

  pen name of the 20th-century author Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Sāʿedi. See SA'EDI, GHOLAM-HOSAYN.

• ʿADAS

  A. Parsa and N. Ramazani, A. Parsa

  "lentils."

• ARSITES

  A. SH. Shahbazi

  Greek rendering of an Old Persian name.

• BAYATỊ, GAPPO

  F. Thordarson

  (Ger.: Georg-Gappo Baiew; 1869-1939), Ossetic man of letters.

• DABĪR-E AʿẒAM

  Cross-Reference

  See BAHRAMĪ, FARAJ-ALLĀH.

• EMĀM-E JOMʿA

  Hamid Algar

  leader of the congregational prayer performed at midday on Fridays.

• FARROḴĪ YAZDĪ

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak

  (1889-1939), journalist and poet and an early advocate of socialist revolution in Persia.

• LENTZ, OTTO HELMUT WOLFGANG

  Gerd Gropp

  (1900-1986), German Iranologist who specialized in Middle Iranian and New Persian dialects as well as on Iranian religions.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SAYYED AJALL

  George Lane

  governor of the Dali province in China during the Mongol period.

• GATE

  Cross-Reference

  See DARVĀZA.

• HERODIAN

  Philip Huyse

  (fl. shortly before 250 CE), historian, probably a native of Syria, who wrote a Greek history of the Roman emperors from the death of Marcus Aurelius in 180 CE to the accession of Gordian III in 238.

• ʿABD-AL-LAṬĪF BHETĀʾĪ

  M. Baqir

  Sufi poet of Sind (1689-1752).

• ʿAMĀMA

  H. Algar

  (or ʿAMMĀMA, Arabic ʿEMĀMA), the turban. Imbued with symbolic significance, the turban was once the almost universal headgear of adult male Muslims. 

• BABYLONIA i. History of Babylonia in the Median and Achaemenid periods

  M. A. Dandamayev

  The Medes, under their king Cyaxares, first seized the Assyrian province of Arrapha in 614 B.C. Then, in the autumn of the same year, and after a fierce battle, they gained control of Assyria’s ancient capital, Assur. Nabopolassar brought his Babylonian army and joined the Medes after Assur had fallen.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS viii. In the reign of Reżā Shah Pahlavī

  A. Reza Sheikholeslami

• SAMAK-E ʿAYYĀR

  Marina Gaillard

  a prose narrative originating in the milieu of professional storytellers, transmitted orally and written down around the 12th century.

• ISMAʿILISM xiv. ISMAʿILISM IN GINĀN LITERATURE

  Ali Sultaan Ali Asani

  Nezāri Ismaʿili texts from the Indian Subcontinent exhibit an adaptive response to the region’s complex religious, literary, and cultural environment.

• ĀDUR GUŠNASP

  M. Boyce

  an Ātaš Bahrām, that is, a Zoroastrian sacred fire of the highest grade, held to be one of the three great fires of ancient Iran, existing since creation.

• ARTABĒ

  M. A. Dandamayev

  the Greek form of a Median and Old Persian measure of volume.

• BĀZĀR-E WAKĪL

  Karāmat-Allāh Afsar

  an architectural monument of Shiraz from the reign of Karīm Khan Zand (Wakīl, r. 1750-79) and still an important center of business.

• DAF(F) AND DAYERA

  Jean During, Veronica Doubleday

  terms applied to types of frame drum common in both the art music and popular traditions of Persia. Such drums have long been known throughout Asia in various forms and under different names.  The term dāyera originally referred to the flat, circular drums of pre-­Islamic Arabia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿENĀYAT-ALLĀH

  Sheila S. Blair

  Timurid builder or tile maker of the 15th century.

• FASĀʾĪ, ḤĀJJ MĪRZĀ ḤASAN ḤOSAYNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See FĀRS-NĀMA-YE NĀṢERĪ.

• NĒZAK

  Frantz Grenet

  dynastic name appearing on a long series of silver coins issued by a local dynasty in Kāpisā (in the region of Kabul; Sk. Kāpiśī) ca. late 7th century C.E.

• MOQANNAʿ

  Patricia Crone

  (lit. “the veiled one,” d. 163/780 or later), leader of a rebellious movement in Sogdiana.

• GÄDIATỊ (SEḰAYỊ FỊRT) COMAQ

  Fridrik Thordarson

  (1883-1931), Ossetic writer.

• HESYCHIUS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (Gk. Hēsýchios), Greek lexicographer from Alexandria, whose lexicon records a number of Iranian words (6th or possibly 5th century CE).

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤĪM ʿANBARĪN-QALAM

  M. A. Chaghatai

  Calligrapher of India (fl. late 10th-11th centuries).

• ʿAMĪD-AL-DĪN SANĀMĪ

  M. U. Memon

  Persian poet of India, panegyrist of Nāṣer-al-dīn Maḥmūd (r. 644-64/1246-66) and perhaps of Ḡīāṯ-al-dīn Balban (7th/13th century).

• BĀDGĪR

  S. Roaf

  (wind-tower), literally “wind catcher,” a traditional structure used for passive air-conditioning of buildings. Yazd is known as šahr-e bādgīrhā (the city of wind catchers) and is renowned for the number and variety of them, some of which date from the Timurid period

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• XERXES i. The Name

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  the common Greek (Xérxēs) and Latin form (Xerxes, Xerses) of the Achaemenid throne-name which in Old Persian is spelled x-š-y-a-r-š-a. 

• DOLOMITAE

  Cross-Reference

  See DEYLAMITES i.

• ESCHATOLOGY ii. Manichean Eschatology

  Werner Sundermann

• AMPELIUS, LUCIUS

  Philip Huyse

  author of a short encyclopaedic work Liber memorialis in fifty chapters covering such diverse subjects as cosmography (and astronomy), geography and ethnography, theology and especially history.

• GUBARU

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Babylonian rendering of the Iranian name Gaub(a)ruva, which is best known in the Greek form Gōbryas.

• JABAL-E SERĀJ

  Erwin Grötzbach

  a small town in the province of Parvān in Afghanistan, located at the mouth of the Sālang valley in Kabul Kohestān to the north of the city of Charikar (Čārikār).

• AFŠĀR, AḤMAD SOLṬĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See AḤMAD SOLṬĀN.

• ʿARŪŻĪ, YŪSOF

  Z. Safa

  rhetorician and poet of the 4th/10th century.

• BEH

  Wilhelm Eilers, Hūšang Aʿlam, Nesta Ramazani

  “quince, Cydonia.”  i. The word.  ii. The tree.  iii. Culinary uses of the fruit. Wild quince trees are found in the Caucasus, and the cultivated variety may have originated there.

• DAKANĪ, REŻĀ ʿALĪŠĀH

  Javad Nurbakhsh

  also known as Shah ʿAlī-Reżā (1683-1799), leader (qoṭb, lit., “pole”) in the years 1741-99 of the Neʿmat-­Allāhī Sufi order in Hyderabad (Deccan), India.

• EPIGRAPHY

  Multiple Authors

  the study of inscriptions, particularly their collection, decipherment, interpretation, dating, and classification.

• FAYŻĀBĀD

  Daniel Balland

  a toponym of auspicious meaning (“blessed abode”) which enjoys great popularity throughout the Iranian world.

• SAFINE-YE SOLAYMANI

  M. Ismail Marcinkowski

  (“Ship of Solayman”), a Persian travel account of an embassy sent by the Safavid ruler Shah Solayman (r. 1666-94) to Siam in the year 1685.

• MEYBOD

  Ali Modarres

  name of a sub-province (šahrestān) and town in Yazd Province (32°14′45″ N, 54°2′10″ E; elev. 3,637 ft.) on the road to Tehran, at a short distance south of Ardakān (see ARDAKĀN-e YAZD) and about 48 km northwest of the city of Yazd.

• GAN(N)ĀG MĒNŪG

  Cross-Reference

  See AHRIMAN.

• HOFFMANN, KARL

  Johanna Narten

  (1915-1996), German Indo-Europeanist and Indo-Iranist. From the 1960s on, he particularly devoted his attention to the history of the Avesta tradition, above all to the Avestan script.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABD-AL-ṢAMAD ḤAMADĀNĪ

  M. Bayat

  Faqīh, author, and well-known Sufi master of the Neʿmatallāhī order (d. 1216/1801).

• AMĪR

  C. E. Bosworth

  “commander, governor, prince” in Arabic. The term seems to be basically Islamic; although it does not occur in the Koran, we do find there the related concept of the “holders of authority.”

• BĀḠ-E FĪN

  ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  garden southwest of the city of Kāšān, where subterranean waters from the Dandāna and Haft Kotal mountains emerge to form the Fīn springs.

• CARPETS xv. Caucasian Carpets

  Richard E. Wright

  The oldest surviving rugs produced in the Caucasus may be a group with representations of dragons and phoenixes in combat. There is, however, no evidence to permit attribution to the Caucasus. A group of carpets from the 18th century does include patterns and motifs that persisted in subsequent productions; they are predominantly long rugs with bold repeat patterns and have been found primarily in mosques in Turkey.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DOZDĀB

  Cross-Reference

  See ZĀHEDĀN.

• CASPIAN SEA

  Multiple Authors

  actually a lake, the largest in the world (estimated surface area in 1986: 378,400 km², volume 78,600 km³; approx. between lat 37° and 47° N, long 46° and 54° E); it is bounded on the south by Persia.

• LAYARD, Austen Henry

  John Curtis

  (1817-1894), French archeologist and politician. Layard is chiefly known for his excavations in northern Iraq between 1845 and 1851.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GUTSCHMID, HERMANN ALFRED FREIHERR VON

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  (b. Loschwitz near Dresden, 1831; d. Tübingen, 1887), classical scholar and ancient historian with a special interest in the Ancient Near East.

• JAHĀNGOŠĀ-YE NĀDERI

  Ernest Tucker

  , TĀRIḴ-E (or Tāriḵ-e nāderi), one of the most important chronicles of the reign of Nāder Shah Afšār (r. 1736-47) by his court secretary, Mirzā Moḥammad-Mahdi Khan EEstrābādi/Astarābādi.

• ĀḠKAND

  R. Schnyder

  a special kind of pottery, so designated because of a village in southeast Azerbaijan of the same name, where most of it was said to have been found in the 1930s. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀṢAFĪ HERAVĪ

  A. ʿA. Rajāʾī

  a minor poet of the Timurid period (d. 923/1517).

• BELL, GERTRUDE Margaret Lowthian

  G. Michael Wickens

  (1868-1926), British traveler, private scholar, archeolo­gist, sometime government servant, and a translator of Ḥāfeẓ.

• DĀNEŠ-NĀMA-YE ĪRĀN WA ESLĀM

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Encyclopedia of Iran and Islam.

• ʿERĀQ-E ʿAJAM(Ī)

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  lit. “Persian Iraq”; the name given in medieval times to the largely mountainous, western portion of modern Persia.

• FERDOWS

  Baqer Parham

  šahrestān in Khorasan consisting of three administrative districts: the city of Ferdows and its immediate suburbs, Bošrūya and Sarāyān.

• MARYAM KHANOM

  Dominic Parviz Brookshaw

  thirty-ninth wife of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah Qajar (r. 1797-1834), mother of Żiāʾ-al-Salṭana and Maḥmud Mirzā.

• NATEL-KHANLARI, Parviz

  CROSS-REFERENCE

  See KHANLARI, Parviz.

• GARAMAIOI

  Cross-Reference

  See BĒT GARMĒ.

• CORN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḎORRAT.

• AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS

  M. L. Chaumont

  historian who provides important information on the Sasanians (b. ca. 330-35).

• BAHĀʾ-AL-DAWLA, ABŪ NAṢR FĪRŪZ

  cross-reference

  See BUYIDS.

• CAUCASUS ii. Language contact

  Fridrik Thordarson

• ḎŪ QĀR

  Ella Landau-Tasseron

  watering place near Kūfa in Iraq where a battle was fought between Arab tribesmen and Persian forces in the early 7th century.

• ʿOBAYD ZĀKĀNI

  Daniela Meneghini

  a Persian poet from the Mongol period (d. ca. 770/1370), renowned above all for his satirical poems.

• ḴAMSA-ye JAMĀLI

  Paola Orsatti

  a suite of five mathnawis, composed in response to the Ḵamsa by Neẓāmi (1141-1209).

• HADITH v. AS INFLUENCED BY IRANIAN IDEAS AND PRACTICES

  Shaul Shaked

  The contact of Arabia with ancient Iran started even before Islam, and there are definite traces of the presence of Iranian religious notions in the Koran.

• JALULĀ

  Klaus Klier

  the site of a major battle between the Sasanian and Muslim forces. This locale is a medium-sized town in the Diāla Province of Iraq, situated on the middle course of the Diāla River.

• AḤMAD-E ʿABD-AL-ṢAMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See AḤMAD ŠĪRĀZĪ.

• ASFEZĀRĪ, ABŪ ḤĀTEM

  D. Pingree

  5th/12th-century astronomer, of whose life almost nothing is known.

• DĀRA, MIRZĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDALLĀH MĪRZĀ DĀRĀ.

• EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA, EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR

  Cross-Reference

  See EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR.

• FEVZİ MOSTĀRĪ

  Hamid Algar

  or FAWZĪ (d. 1747), author of the Bolbolestān, an imitation of Saʿdī’s Golestān, the only prose work written in Persian known to be by a Bosnian author.

• ḠAZAL ii. CHARACTERISTICS AND CONVENTIONS

  Ehsan Yarshater

  The Persian ḡazal, especially the Hafezian and the post-Hafezian, does not usually follow a sustained narrative, but consists of a number of lines and statements largely independent of each other.

• GAZA

  Cross-Reference

  See GANZAK.

• ḤOSAYN KHAN KAMĀNČAKAŠ

  Ameneh Youssefzadeh

  a famous musician and a master of the kamānča, the chief traditional Persian string instrument played with a bow (d. 1934).

• ʿĀBEDĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a landowner (dehqān) of Transoxania (12th century).

• ANĀMAKA

  R. Schmitt

  name of the tenth month (December-January) of the Old Persian calendar.

• CENTRAL DIALECTS

  Gernot L. Windfuhr

  designation of a number of Iranian dialects spoken in the center of Persia, roughly between Hamadān, Isfahan, Yazd, and Tehran, that is, the area of ancient Media Major, which constitute the core of the western Iranian dialects.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DŪZAḴ

  Mansour Shaki

  hell.

• ZEǏMAL’, Evegeniǐ Vladislavovich

  Alexander Nikitin

  (1932-1998), Russian numismatist and historian of ancient Iran and Central Asia.

• PHRAORTES

  I. Medvedskaya

  the second king of the Median dynasty. All information about him is from Herodotus.

• HAFTŌRANG

  Antonio Panaino

  the circumpolar constellation Ursa Major (UMa),  known in Young Avestan literature under the appellative of haptōiriṇga- (only pl. with star- “star”).

• KUKADARU, JAMSHEDJI SORAB

  Michael Stausberg and Ramiyar P. Karanjia

  (1831-1900), Parsi Zoroastrian priest. He was renowned for his spiritual powers, in particular with respect to healing and divination.

• AḤRĀR, ḴᵛĀJA ʿOBAYDALLĀH

  J. M. Rogers

  (806-96/1404-90), influential Naqšbandī of Transoxania.

• ĀSŌRISTĀN

  G. Widengren

  name of the Sasanian province of Babylonia.

• BICKERMAN, ELIAS JOSEPH

  Muhammed A. Dandamayev

  (1897-1981), a leading scholar of Greco-Roman history and the Hellenistic world, whose research interests extended to Judaism and some aspects of Iranian history.

• DARĪ IN AFGHANISTAN

  Cross-Reference

  See AFGHANISTAN v. LANGUAGES. 

• ESKANDAR B. JĀNĪ BEG

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-ALLĀH KHAN b. ESKANDAR.

• FĪRŪZ ŠĀPŪR

  Cross-reference

  name of a town on the left bank of the Euphrates five km north-west of Fallūǰa and sixty-two km west of Baghdad. See ANBĀR.

• ŠARḤ-e TAʿARROF

  Nasrollah Pourjavady

  an extensive commentary in Persian on Abu Bakr Moḥammad Kalābāḏi’s Sufi manual Ketāb al-Taʿarrof le-maḏhab ahl al-taṣawwuf.

• GELĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See CARPETS.

• HUMOR

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  In the present article the focus will be on description and classification of the types of humor that can be found in Persian literary sources, mainly belonging to the classical period.

• šBRĪZĀN

  255, 255, 255

  See TĪRAGĀN.

• ANDREAS, FRIEDRICH CARL

  W. Lentz, D. N. MacKenzie, B. Schlerath

  German Iranologist (1846-1930).

• BAHRĀMĪ, FARAJ-ALLĀH

  M. Amānat

  , DABĪR AʿẒAM (1878/79?-1951), Reżā Shah’s personal secretary and an early supporter who played a key role in Reżā Shah’s control of absolute power.

• CHARES of MITYLENE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Greek historiographer, who participated in Alexander’s expedition and wrote “Stories about Alexander” (Perì Aléxandron historíai), of which fragments remain.

• EBN AL-AṮĪR, ʿEZZ-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ

  D. S. Richards

  b. Moḥammad Jazarī (b. Jazīrat Ebn ʿOmar [modern Cizre, in eastern Turkey] 13 May 1160; d. Mosul, June 1233), major Islamic historian and important source for the history of Persia and adjacent areas from the Samanids to the first Mongol invasion.

• RICE

  Cross-Reference

  See BERENJ.

• DARKE, Hubert Seymour Garland

  John Perry

  (b. London, 8 May 1919, d. Cambridge, 6 February 1998), teacher and scholar of Persian, Lecturer in Persian at Cambridge University ‘s Faculty of Oriental Studies from 1961 to 1982.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤAKAMI

  Mohammad-Mahdi Khalaji

  , Mirzā ʿALI-AKBAR (ca.1848-1925-6), philosopher and theosopher, known in his lifetime as Ḥakim but later referred to as Ḥakami.

• JĀRUDIYA

  cross-reference

  See ZAIDIS.

• ĀJĪL

  M. Kasheff

  an assortment of nuts, roasted chickpeas and seeds such as watermelon, pumpkin, and pear, and raisins and other dried fruits.

• ASSYRIANS IN IRAN

  R. Macuch, A. Ishaya

  Assyrians (Āšūrīs) is the term for the modern, East Syrian Christian communities in Iran. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BIRD, ISABELLA L

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  also known under her married surname of Bishop (1831-1904), British traveler in western Iran and Kurdistan during the late Victorian period.

• DARVĪŠREŻAÚ

  Kathryn Babayan

  (d. 1040/1631), a qezelbāš functionary who claimed to be the awaited Mahdī.

• ESMĀʿĪL III ṢAFAWĪ

  John R. Perry

  , ABŪ TORĀB, Safavid shadow-king, (r. 1750-73), the third Safavid dynast of that name.

• MARD-E ĀZĀD

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a daily newspaper published in Tehran  to support Reżā Khan (the future Reza Shah) in his bid for power, 1923.

• ʿID-E NIMA-YE ŠAʿBĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See Islam In Iran vii.

• ABŪ BAKR B. SAʿD

  B. Spuler

  (623-58/1226-60), member of the Salghurid dynasty, atabeg of Fārs.

• ANJOMAN-E ESMĀʿĪLI

  F. Daftary

  (Ismaʿili Society), a research institution founded on 16 February 1946 in Bombay, India, under the patronage of the third Aqa Khan.

• BAḴTĪĀRĪ (2)

  cross-reference

  in music, a gūša. See HOMĀYŪN.

• CHORASMIA

  Multiple Authors

  region on the lower reaches of the Oxus (Amu Darya) in western Central Asia.

• EBN FŪRAK

  EBN FŪRAK. See Supplement.

• MEʿRĀJ i. DEFINITION

  Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi

  Derived from the Arabic instrumental form mefʿāl, the term meʿrāj means “instrument of ascension,” either a “ladder” or a “stairway;” it can also designate the place one revolves or from where one climbs. However, in a technical sense and often accompanied by the article al-, it designates “heavenly or celestial ascent,” more specifically that which Muslim tradition attributes to the Prophet Mohammad, an ascension soon associated with the “nocturnal or night journey” (esrāʾ) of the latter.

• ŠĀH-NĀMA TRANSLATIONS xvi. INTO SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES

  Claus V. Pedersen

  among the works of classical Persian literature, Ferdowsi’s Šāh-nāma is the one best known in the Scandinavian countries.

• HAMĀRAKARA

  Muhammad A.Dandamayev

  (*hmāra-kara-, lit. “account-maker”), “bookkeeper,” an Old Iranian title attested in various sources of Achaemenid and later times.

• JENJĀN

  Daniel T. Potts

  coll. Jenjun, “Jinjun,” village in western Fārs, small archeological site of the Achaemenid period. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḴTĀJĪ

  D. O. Morgan

  a term, Mongolian in origin, derived from aḵtā “gelding” and meaning “groom” or, more specifically in the context of the court, “master of the horse.”

• ASWĀR

  P. O. Skjærvø

  (Middle Persian) “horseman.” In Old Persian asabāra designated the horseman as opposed to the foot-soldier.

• BOHRĀS

  cross-reference

   See ISMAʿILISM xvi. MODERN ISMAʿILI COMMUNITIES.

• DAŠTĪ

  Jean During

  one of the twelve modal systems in the repertoire of traditional music (radīf); it is an āvāz, or auxiliary modal system, derived from or attached to the dastgāh Šūr.

• ESTEQLĀL-e ĪRĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  an evening daily published in Tehran from 31 May 1910-17 August 1911; it was the organ of the small Unity and Progress party (Ḥezb-e ettefāq o taraqqī) and was published by the party’s leader, the well-known constitutionalist Zayn-al-ʿĀbedīn Mostaʿān-al-Molk

• ARABIC LANGUAGE iii. Arabic influences in Persian literature

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

• CONVERSION i. Of Iranians to the Zoroastrian faith

  Gherardo Gnoli

• GĪĀʾĪ, ḤAYDAR

  Mina Marefat

  or Heydar Ghiaï-Chamlou (b. Tehran, 1922; d. Cap d’Antibe, 1985), an influential pioneer of modern architecture in Persia and professor at the University of Tehran. Stylistically, his work was thoroughly “modern,” introducing aspects of the contemporary and International Style architecture of Europe and using new technology and materials such as aluminum.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU’L-FATḤ KHAN BAḴTĪĀRĪ

  J. R. Perry

  a chieftain of the Haft Lang branch of the Baḵtīārī and paramount chief (īlḵānī) of the tribe.

• ANTIOCHUS

  J. Sievers

  name of thirteen kings of the Seleucid dynasty, several of whom were active in Iran.

• BALḴĪ, ABŪ ʿALĪ ABD-ALLĀH

  H. Schützinger

  B. MOḤAMMAD B. ʿALĪ (d. 907-08), a traditionist (moḥaddeṯ) and author.

• ČINWAD PUHL

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  traditionally thought to mean “the bridge of the separator” but recently shown to be “the bridge of the accumulator/collector,” the name of a bridge that, according to a Mazdayasnian/Zoroastrian eschatological myth, leads from this world to the next and must be crossed by the souls of the departed.

• EBN MOṬARREF

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-WAZĪR MARVAZĪ.

• KANJAKI

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  language mentioned in the 11th-century Turkish lexicon of Maḥmud al-Kāšḡari as being spoken in the villages near Kāšḡar.

• MIR FENDERESKI

  Sajjad H. Rizvi

  , Sayyed Amir Abu’l-Qāsem b. Mirzā Beg b. Ṣadr-al-Din Moḥammad Ḥosayni Astarābādi, renowned philosopher and mystic during the Safavid revitalization of philosophy (b. 1562-63,  d. 1640).

• HĀNSAVI

  S. H. Qasemi

  , Shaikh (b. 1184-5, d. i1260-61), mystic, poet, and author.

• JONDIŠĀBUR

  cross-reference

  See GONDĒŠĀPUR.

• ĀL-E MAʾMŪN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a short-lived dynasty of Iranian rulers in Ḵᵛārazm, 385-408/995-1017.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀΘRAVAN-

  M. Boyce

  (Avestan) “priest” regularly used to designate the priests as a social “class,” one of the three into which ancient Iranian society was theoretically divided.

• BONĪČA

  Willem Floor

  a tax assessed on a group as a single unit and particularly the base on which the tax was calculated—in Iran: a tax on guilds, an agricultural tax on villages and tribes, and a military tax on villages.

• DAʿWAT AL-ESLĀM

  Nassereddin Parvin

  A biweekly Persian journal published in Bombay by Ḥājj Sayyed Moḥammad Dāʿī-al-Eslām from 19 October 1906 until the end of 1909.

• EVIL EYE

  Cross-Reference

  See ČAŠM-ZAḴM.

• KUFTA

  Etrat Elahi

  popular Persian dish usually made of ground lamb or beef, and more recently, ground chicken or turkey in a mixture of herbs, spices, or other ingredients.

• GĪLĀS

  Cross-Reference

  See CHERRY.

• INDO-EUROPEAN TELEGRAPH DEPARTMENT

  Michael Rubin

  (IETD), a branch of the British Government of India, based in London, which managed a series of telegraph lines in Iran.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN ĪLČĪ

  H. Javadi

  Persian diplomat, b. 1190/1776 in Šīrāz. 

• AQA BOZORG QĀʾEM-MAQĀM

  cross-reference

  See QĀʾEM-MAQĀM.

• BAND-E TORKESTĀN

  X. De Planhol

  (boundary wall of Turkestan), the mountain range in northwestern Afghanistan which runs in a west-east direction for 200 km between the upper valley of the Morḡāb to the south and the plains of the Āmū Daryā to the north.

• CLOQUET, LOUIS-ANDRÉ-ERNEST

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  (1818-1855), French anatomist and French minister to the court at Tehran 1846-55, serving as personal physician to Moḥammad Shah (r. 1834-48) and Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qājār (r. 1848-96).

• EBRĀHĪM

  Amnon Netzer

  Abraham, the name of the first patriarch of the Hebrew people.

• GOTTHEIL, RICHARD JAMES HORATIO

  Dagmar Riedel

  (b. Manchester, UK, 1862; d. New York City, 1936), a prolific scholar, an important academic teacher and administrator, as well as an influential public intellectual.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HĀRUN AL-RAŠID

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  , HĀRUN B. MOḤAMMAD B. ʿABD-ALLĀH (d. 809), the fifth caliph of the ʿAbbasid dynasty (r. 786-809), the third son of the caliph al-Mahdi.

• JUBĀRA

  cross-reference

  See ISFAHAN xviii. JEWISH COMMUNITY

• ALA-FIRENG

  Cross-Reference

  See ALĀFRANK.

• AVROMAN

  D. N. MacKenzie

  a mountainous region on the western frontier of Persian Kurdistan.

• BORŪMAND, NŪR-ʿALĪ

  Bruno Nettl

  (1905-1977), one of the foremost authorities on the performance and history of Persian classical music in the 20th century.

• DE MORGAN, Jacques

  Pierre Amiet

  (b. Huisseau-sur-Cosson, near Blois, 3 June 1857, d. Marseilles, 14 June 1924), French archeologist and prehistorian.

• FABRITIUS, LUDVIG

  Rudi Matthee

  or LODEWYCK (b. Brazil, 1648; died Stockholm, 1729), Swedish envoy to the Safavid court.

• BIBLE vii. Persian Translations

  Kenneth J. Thomas and Fereydun Vahman

  The Pentateuch, the books of the prophets, and the writings (Heb. ketūbīm), including the Psalms, from the Hebrew scriptures, collectively known as the Old Testament, and the Gospels and other writings in Greek, collectively known as the New Testament, have all been translated into Persian.

• NAQŠ-E ROSTAM

  Hubertus von Gall

  a perpendicular cliff wall in Fārs, about 6 km northwest of Persepolis, a site unusually rich in Achaemenid and Sasanian monuments.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOKARN

  Cross-Reference

  See HAOMA.

• IRAJ

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  the youngest son of Ferēdun and the eponymous hero of the Iranians in their traditional history.

• ABŪ MANṢŪR HERAVĪ

  L. Richter-Bernburg

  (fl. ca. 370-80/980-90), author of the oldest preserved Persian text on materia medica, Ketāb al-abnīa ʿan ḥaqāʾeq al-adwīa.

• ʿARABESTĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḴŪZESTĀN.

• BANŪ OMAYYA

  cross-reference

  See OMMAYADS.

• COLUMNS

  Wolfram Kleiss

  one of several kinds of upright, load-bearing architectural members encompassed, along with piers, in the term sotūn. In the Achaemenid palaces at Persepolis and Susa columns, whether plain or fluted, reached a height of 19 m and a diameter up to 1.60 m; they were topped by double-protome capitals, themselves an additional 8 m high.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EBRĀHĪMĪ, ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ.

• MENHAJ-e SERAJ

  C. E. Bosworth

  author of a general history in Persian valuable as a first-hand source for the history of the Ghurids, the Šamsi Delhi Sultans, and the irruption of the Mongols into the eastern Islamic lands.

• TĀRIḴ-E QOM

  Andreas Drechsler

  (The History of Qom), an early local history (comp. 378/988) from medieval Persia by Ḥasan b. Moḥammad Qomi, which has been preserved in an early 9th/15th-century Persian translation.

• ḤASIBI, KĀẒEM

  Bagher Agheli and EIr

  (1906-1990), political figure and university professor. When the oil industry was nationalized in 1951, Ḥasibi, as Deputy Minister of Finance, became a member of the delegation charged with the eviction of the former oil company. He accompanied Dr. Moṣaddeq to the U.N. Security Council and also, as oil adviser, defended Persia at the Hague International Tribunal against the British complaint.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUSTI, FERDINAND (WILHELM JAKOB)

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  German scholar of Oriental, particularly Iranian, studies, comparative philologist, and folklorist (1837-1907).

• ĀLČĪ

  D. O. Morgan

  (“sealer”), a Turkish term (from āl “red seal”) designating an il-khanid chancery official.

• AYĀDĪ-E AMR ALLĀH

  D. M. MacEoin

  “Hands of the Cause of God”, term used in Bahaʾism to designate the highest rank of the appointed religious hierarchy.

• BRĀHMĪ

  Douglas A. Hitch

  Indian script used for a variety of languages in Chinese Turkestan, including Iranian languages. From the Tarim Basin (Xinjiang, China) we have first-millennium documents in Brāhmī script in several Iranian languages.

• ḎEKRĪS

  Cross-Reference

  See BALUCHISTAN i.

• FALĀṬŪRĪ, ʿabd-al-jawād

  Judith Pfeiffer

  (b. Isfahan, 1926; d. Berlin, 30 December 1996), professor of Islamic studies at Cologne University (1974-96).

• TERKEN ḴĀTUN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  title of the wife of the Khwarazmshah Tekiš b. Il-Arslān (r. 1172-1200) and mother of ʿAlāʾ-al-Din Moḥammad (r. 1200-20).

• GOLESTĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the title of two early 20th-century Persian newspapers.

• SPEAR

  Boris A. Litvinsky

• ABU’L-QĀSEM KAʿBĪ

  J. van Ess

  Administrator and intellectual of Persian descent, Hanafite jurist and foremost representative of the Moʿtazela in Khorasan (d. Šaʿbān, 319/February, 931).

• ARBACES

  M. A. Dandamayev

  Greek form of an Old Iranian proper name.

• BARBARO, GIOSAFAT

  A. M. Piemontese

  Venetian merchant, traveler, and diplomat (1413-94), appointed Venetian ambassador to Persia (1473-78); author of a travel account.

• COOKIES

  Ṣoḡrā Bāzargān

   (kolūča, nān-e kolūča, kolīča) in Persia; in this article the cookies most frequently made in major Persian cities today, both traditional types and those reflecting foreign influence, will be described.

• ṬURĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  (ṬOVARĀN), the mediaeval Islamic name for the mountainous district of east-central Baluchistan lying to the north of the mediaeval coastal region of Makrān, what was in recent centuries, until 1947, the Aḥmadzay Khanate of Kalat.

• FORĀT B. EBRĀHĪM

  Meir M. Bar-Asher

  Shiʿite(most probably Imami) Koran commentator and Hadith scholar. The dates of his birth and death are unknown, but the time he flourished can be estimated by the dates of the scholars whom he quoted or who transmitted Hadith on his authority.

• HAZĀR O YAK ŠAB

  cross-reference

  See ALF LAYLA WA LAYLA.

• AB-ANBĀR ii. Construction

  M. Sotūda

• ʿALĪ B. MASʿŪD

  C. E. Bosworth

  [I], BAHĀʾ-AL-DAWLA ABU’L-ḤASAN, Ghaznavid sultan, reigned briefly ca. 1048-49.

• ĀZĀD KHAN AFḠĀN

  J. R. Perry

  (d. 1781), a major contender for supremacy in western Iran after the death of Nāder Shah Afšār (r. 1736-47).

• BŪḎARJOMEHRĪ, Karīm Āqā

  Bāqer ʿĀqelī

  , Major General (sar-laškar) (1886-1951), military officer, mayor of Tehran, and minister of Public Welfare. 

• DEOBAND

  Barbara Daly Metcalf

  country town northeast of Delhi in what is now the Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh, India, where an influential Dār al-ʿolūm was founded by a group of religious scholars in 1867 as an expression of a major religious reform movement partly inspired by British educational models.

• CHINESE TURKESTAN ii. In Pre-Islamic Times

  Victor Mair and Prods Oktor Skjærvø

• DIAKONOFF, Igor’ Mikhaĭlovich

  Muhammad Dandamayev

  or D’YAKONOV (b. Petrograd, 30 December 1914/12 January 1915; d. St. Petersburg, 2 May 1999), Russian orientalist of international standing, one of the greatest scholars in the field of Ancient Near Eastern studies.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLŠEHRI, SOLAYMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  Sufi and poet in Turkish and Persian. See GÜLŠEHRI.

• IRANIAN IDENTITY iii. MEDIEVAL ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Ahmad Ashraf

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU’L-ŠAYḴ EṢFAHĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  Traditionist and Koran commentator, important principally for his Ṭabaqāt al-moḥaddeṯī (274-369/887-979). See EṢFAHĀNĪ, ABU’L-ŠAYḴ.

• ARDAVĀN

  Cross-Reference

  (ARDAWĀN). See ARTABANUS.

• BARM-e DELAK

  L. Vanden Berghe

  a site with a spring about 10 km southeast of Shiraz, where three panels bearing two Sasanian rock reliefs are carved in the mountain at a height of about 6.5 m above the ground.  

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS

  Multiple Authors

• EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA

  Īraj Afšār

  (1839-92), first son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār and maternal grandson of Moḥammad-ʿAlī Mīrzā Dawlatšāh.

• FĀRESĪ, KAMĀL-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ḤASAN MOḤAMMAD

  Gül A. Russell

  (d. 1320), the most significant figure in optics after Ebn al-Hayṯam (Alhazen; 965-1040). The two names have been linked due to his critical revision of Ebn al-Hayṯam’s Ketāb al-manāẓer, which represents a watershed in the scientifi;c understanding of light and vision.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ACKERMAN, PHYLLIS

  Cornelia Montgomery

  (b. Oakland, California, 1893; d. Shiraz, 25 January 1977), author, editor, teacher and translator in the fields of Persian textiles, European tapestries, Chinese bronzes, iconography, and symbolism.

• RIAHI, MOHAMMAD AMIN

  Moḥammad Esteʿlāmi

  prominent scholar of Persian classical literature, statesman, and professor of Persian language and literature.

• HEDAYAT, SADEQ iii. HEDĀYAT AND FOLKLORE STUDIES

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ABASKŪN

  C. E. Bosworth

  (ĀBASKŪN), a port of the medieval period on the southwest shore of the Caspian Sea in Gorgān province.

• ALĪ KĀY

  B. Hourcade

  a semi-nomadic Gīlakī-speaking tribe that winters in the foothills of the central Alborz.

• AZILISES

  D. W. MacDowall

  Indo-Scythian king of the dynasty of Azes in the Indus valley about the beginning of the Christian era.  

• BŪTĪMĀR

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  a semilegendary aquatic bird; in Persian literature its lore that can be traced back at least as far as the time of Jāḥeẓ (d. 255/868).

• DEŽ-E BAHMAN

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  lit. "fortress of Bahman"; according to legend a fortress in Azerbaijan conquered by the Kayānian king Kay Ḵosrow, son of Sīāvaš and grandson of Kāvūs, king of Iran.

• MOʿJEZ ŠABESTARI

  Hasan Javadi

  (1874-1934), a satirical poet in Azerbaijani, fairly unknown during his lifetime. A social problem is addressed in every one of his poems.

• GORGĀN i. Geography

  Ḥabib-Allāh Zanjāni

  the ancient Hyrcania, an important Persian province at the southeast corner of the Caspian sea.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿISĀ B. ṢAHĀRBOḴT

  L. Richter-Bernburg

  medical author of the third/ninth century, from Gondēšāpur. descendant of an apparently Nestorian Christian Syro-Persian family.

• ABŪ ZAYN KAḤḤĀL

  L. Richter-Bernburg

  author of the medical text Šarāyeṭ-e ǰarrāḥī; its dedication to the Timurid Šāhroḵ (r. 807-50/1404-47) provides the only context for his life.

• ARIARATUS

  C. J. Brunner

  one of the three sons of the Achaemenid King Artaxerxes II.

• BĀŠGĀH-E AFSARĀN

  M. Ṣ¡āneʿī

  (Officers’ Club), an impressive building in Tehran, built in 1939.

• CUCURBITAE

  Cross-Reference

  See CUCUMBER.

• ELECTIONS

  Fakhreddin Azimi, Shaul Bakhash, M. Hassan Kakar

  i. Under the Qajar and Pahlavi monarchies. ii. Under the Islamic republic, 1979-92. iii. In Afghanistan. 

• FARHANGI ZABONI TOJIKĪ

  Cross-reference

  See FARHANG-E ZABĀN-E TĀJĪKĪ.

• BAHĀʾI TABRIZI

  Tahsin Yazici

  , AḤMAD (1874-1925), Persian calligrapher and poet.

• KARSĀSP

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  Avestan dragon-slayer, son of Sāma, and eschatological hero. In the Pahlavi and Zoroastrian Persian traditions, several heroic feats are connected with him.

• FREE VERSE

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak

  in Persian poetry. The term šeʿr-e āzād, Persian for the French vers libre and English free verse, entered Persia in the 1940s and immediately began to be used in a variety of senses and applied to diverse subspecies of the emerging canon of šeʿr-e now (new poetry), especially to highlight those features in which this body of poetry was felt to differ from classical Persian poetry and the contemporary practice modeled after it.

• ḤELMI, RAFIQ

  Joyce Blau

  Kurdish historian, poet, and political activist (1898-1960).

• ʿABD-AL-BAHĀʾ

  A. Bausani, D. MacEoin

  epithet assumed by ʿAbbās Effendi, the eldest son of Bahāʾallāh, founder of the Bahaʾi movement. The epithet means “servant of the glory of God” or “servant of Bahāʾallāh.”

• ʿALIDS

  W. Madelung

  OF ṬABARESTĀN, DAYLAMĀN, AND GĪLĀN. From its beginnings in 250/864 until the early Safavid age, ʿAlid rule in the coastal regions south of the Caspian Sea was based chiefly on Zaydī Shiʿite support.

• BĀBĀ FAḠĀNI

  Z. Safa

  Persian poet of the 15th-16th centuries.

• ČAHĀR MAḤĀ(L) WA BAḴTĪĀRĪ

  Eckart Ehlers and Hūšang Kešāvarz

  second smallest province (ostān) of Persia in area, located in the Zagros mountains of southwestern Persia.

• DILL

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  Anethum graveolens L. (fam. Umbellifera), an herb widely cultivated in Persia.

• ḴĀLU

  Pierre Oberling

  a small Turkic tribe of Kermān province.

• GOWD-E ZEREH

  Cross-Reference

  See HĀMUN;

• ADAM, GUILLAUME

  J. Richard

  14th-century traveler.

• ARSANES

  Cross-Reference

  See NARSE.

• BAYĀT

  G. Doerfer

  an important Turkish tribe. A substantial proportion of the Bayāt people must have entered Iran in the train of the Saljuq invaders in the first half of the 11th century.

• DABBĀḠĪ

  ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  tanning, the process by which animal skins are made into leather.

• ʿEMĀD-AL-MOLK

  See NEẒĀM-AL-MOLK (pending).

• FARROḴ, Sayyed MAḤMŪD

  Jalal Matini

  (b. Mašhad, 1896; d. Mašhad, 1981), litterateur, poet, Majles deputy, and executive.

• ḴAFRI, ŠAMS-AL-DIN

  George Saliba

  , Moḥammad b. Aḥmad-e Kāši, one of the most competent of all the mathematical astronomers and planetary theorists of medieval Islam (d. 956/1550).

• ARZĀNI, MOḤAMMAD AKBAR

  Fabrisio Speziale

  an Indian author of works on medicine.

• GARSĒVAZ

  Cross-Reference

  See KARSĒVAZ.

• HERMIAS

  cross-reference

  See ḴOSROW I, forthcoming online.

• ʿABD-AL-KARĪM GAZĪ

  H. Algar

  A respected religious leader of Isfahan (1856-1921).

• AMA

  M. Boyce

  a minor Zoroastrian divinity, the hypostasis of strength, who appears in the Avestan hymn to Vərəθraγna (Yt. 14).

• BABR

  P. Joslin

  “tiger.” The little evidence suggests only tentative differences between the Caspian tiger (Panthera tigris virgata) and the Indian tiger (P. t. tigris) or the Siberian tiger (P. t. altaica).

• CALLIGRAPHY

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  (ḵaṭṭāṭī, ḵᵛošnevīsī), the writing system in use in Persia since early Islamic times, which grew out of the Arabic alphabet. Comparison of some of the scripts that developed on Persian ground, particularly Persian-style Kufic, with the Pahlavi and Avestan scripts reveals a number of similarities between them.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĪVĀNA NAQQĀŠ

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  15th-century painter whose work is known primarily from single-page paintings preserved in the Topkapı Sarayı library, Istanbul.

• ĀDUR

  M. Boyce

  (and ādar) Middle Persian word for “fire;” the Avestan form is ātar (of unknown derivation), and the late form is arabicized in New Persian as āẕar.

• ARTA

  Cross-Reference

  See ARDWAHIŠT and AŠA.

• BAYŻĀWĪ, NĀṢER-AL-DĪN

  E. Kohlberg

  Shafeʿite jurist, Asḥʿarite theologian, and renowned Koran commentator (13th-14th centuries).

• DADWAR, DADWARIH

  Mansour Shaki

  respectively judge, administrator of justice, lawgiver, lit., “bearer of law.”

• EMRĀNĪ

  David Yeroushalmi

  the name or most likely the penname (taḵalloṣ) of the fifteenth century Jewish-Persian poet of Isfahan and Kāšān.

• FARYĀD

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the title of seven publications in Persian.

• MONGOLS

  Peter Jackson

  an Altaic people who conquered an empire that embraced China, Central Asia, the south Russian steppe, Iran, Afghanistan and Iraq.

• GAČ

  Cross-Reference

  See GYPSUM.

• ḤESĀR (1)

  Yuri Bregel

  region in the eastern part of Transoxania, in the upper course of the Sorḵān Daryā (medieval Čaḡānrud) and the Kāfernehān.

• ʿABD-AL-QAYS

  P. Oberling

  an eastern Arabian tribe.

• ʿĀMERĪ NĪŠĀPŪRĪ

  H. Corbin

  (d. 381/992), important philosopher from Khorasan between Fārābī and Avicenna. 

• BĀDĀVARD

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  (windfall), the name of one of the seven treasures of Ḵosrow Parvēz in the Šāh-nāma.

• ČANDŪ LAʿL ŠĀDĀN

  Sharif Husain Qasemi

  Maharaja, states­man and poet in Persian and Urdu (b. 1175/1761-62, d. 7 Rabīʿ II 1261/15 April 1845 at Hyderabad).

• DOLAFIDS

  Fred M. Donner

  family of Arab origin that became politically prominent in western Persia during the 9th century.

• EPIGRAPHY ii. Greek inscriptions from ancient Iran

  Philip Huyse

• ZODIAC

  Antonio Panaino

  a circle, oblique with respect to the equator, represented on the celestial sphere and divided into twelve equal parts, conventionally of 30° each.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GRUMBATES

  Cross-Reference

  See CHIONITES.

• IVANOV, PAVEL PETROVICH

  Yuri Bregel

  (1893-1942), scholar in Central Asian studies at the Institute of Oriental Studies (Institut Vostokovedeniya) of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. His book Arkhiv khivinskikh khanov XIX v. (1940) contains detailed description of 137 documents, mostly tax registers (daftars), written in Čaḡatay.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFRIGHID DYNASTY

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E AFRĪḠ.

• ARTYPHIOS

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  or ARTYBIOS, Greek rendering of an Old Persian name.

• BEGGING

  C. Edmund Bosworth, Hamid Algar, ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  (Pers. gadāʾī, takaddī, soʾāl).  i. In the early centuries of the Islamic period. ii. In Sufi literature and practice. iii. In later Iran.

• DAIVA

  Clarisse Herrenschmidt and Jean Kelllens

  Old Iranian noun (Av. daēuua-, OPers. daiva-) corresponding to the title devá- of the Indian gods and thus reflecting the Indo-European heritage (*deiu̯ó-).

• EPHESUS, SEVEN SLEEPERS OF

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  Christian legend attested by texts in many languages.

• FAWZĪ MOSTĀRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See FEVZİ MOSTĀRĪ.

• QOM LAKE

  E. Ehlers

  (DARYĀČA-ye QOM, or Qom Basin), also called Daryāča-ye Sāva, one of the interior watersheds in northwestern Persia.

• MEGABATES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Greek rendering of the well-known name OIran. *Baga-pāta- “protected by the gods” (which is attested in El. Ba-qa-ba-(ad-/ud-)da, Bab. Ba-ga-pa-a-ta/tu₄, Ba-ga-(’)-pa-a-tú, etc., Aram. bgpt, Lyc. Magabata).

• ḠAMĀM HAMADĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠEMĀM HAMADĀNĪ.

• ḤOḎEQ, JUNAYDOLLO MAḴDUM

  Keith Hitchins

  (ḤĀḎEQ, JONAYD-ALLĀH; b. mid-1780s; killed 1843), one of the leading Tajik poets of his time.

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ NAYSABŪRĪ

  E. Baer

  Metalworker of the second half of the 6th/12th century.

• AMĪNĀ

  A. Netzer

  pen name of BENYĀMĪN B. MĪŠĀʾĪL KĀŠĀNĪ, an outstanding Jewish poet of Iran.

• BĀFQĪ, MOḤAMMAD-TAQĪ

  H. Algar

  , AYATOLLAH (1875-1946), a religious scholar known for his forthright opposition to Reżā Shah Pahlavī.

• CARMANIA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  ancient region east of Fārs province, approximately equivalent to modern Kermān. The Old Persian form is attested only once in inscriptions.

• DŌŠĪ

  Daniel Balland

  small town and district on the northern slope of the central Hindu Kush in Afghanistan.

• ARDAŠĪR I i. History

  Joseph Wiesehöfer

• ZARIRI, ʿAbbās

  Jalil Doostkhah

  (b. Isfahan 1909; d. Isfahan 1971) noted story-teller (naqqāl). Zariri like most other eulogists of his era, was functionally illiterate. He memorized and recited whatever he heard from other storytellers and scroll-writers. However, he became literate towards the end of his life.

• GUŠA

  Jean During

  lit. "corner" or "part"; a term in Persian music designating a unit of melody of variable importance, which occupies a special place in the development of one of the twelve modal systems (dastgāh or āvāz).

• JAHĀNBEGLU

  P. Oberling

  (or Jānbeglu), one of several Kurdish tribes transplanted from northwestern Persia to Māzandarān by Āḡā Moḥammad Khan Qajar (r. 1789-97).

• AḠĀNĪ, KETĀB AL-

  K. Abu-Deeb

  (“The Book of Songs”), the major work of Abu’l-Faraǰ Eṣfahānī (284-356/897-967).

• ASADĪ ṬŪSĪ

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  (d. 1072-73), poet, linguist and copyist, from Ṭūs in Khorasan.

• BELBĀS

  Pierre Oberling

  a former Kurdish tribal confederacy of northwestern Iran and northeastern Iraq.

• DĀNEŠ, AḤMAD MAḴDŪM

  Vincent Fourniau

  b. Mīr b. Yūsof ḤANAFĪ ṢEDDĪQĪ BOḴĀRĪ (1242-1314/1827-97), known as Aḥmad Kallā and Mohandes (lit., “engineer”), a historian and progressive Tajik writer of Bukhara.

• ĒRĀN-WĒZ

  D. N. MacKenzie

  the Middle Persian designation of the territory of the Aryans.

• FENDERESK

  Mīnū Yūsofnežād

  a rural district (dehestān) of the county (šahrestān) of Gonbad-e Qābūs and situated north of the Alborz range in the eastern part of Māzandarān.

• KUSA

  Anna Krasnowolska

  a carnival character known to the medieval and modern folklore of central and western Persia.

• DONKEY

  Mahmoud Omidsalar and Teresa P. Omidsalar, Daniel T. Potts

  i. In Persian tradition and folk belief. ii. Domestication in Iran

• GANJ-NĀMA

  Stuart C. Brown

  (lit. treasure book), location in a pass at an altitude of about 2,000 m across the Alvand Kūh leading westward to Tūyserkān, 12 km southwest of Hamadān.

• HORDĀD

  Antonio Panaino

  “Integrity (of body), Wholeness”, one of the Avestan entities (AMƎŠA SPƎNTA), normally mentioned in association with Amərətāt (AMURDĀD) already in the Gāθās.

• ʿABDALLĀH, ŠĀH

  K. A. Nizami

  (d. 1485), Persian Sufi who introduced the Šaṭṭārī order into India.

• AMLĀK-E ḴĀṢṢA

  Cross-Reference

  See ḴĀLEṢA.

• BAḠLĀN

  A. D. H. Bivar, D. Balland, X. de Planhol

  district and town of Afghanistan, in the upper valley of the Sorḵāb (Qondūz) river on the northern slope of the Hindu Kush range.  i. The Kushan period.  ii. The modern province.  iii. The modern town.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CATALOGUES

  Cross-reference

  See BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES.

• ḎU’L-JANĀḤ

  Jean Calmard

  Imam Ḥosayn’s winged horse, known from popular literature and rituals.

• CARPETS xiv. Tribal Carpets

  Siawosch Azadi

  In Persia rural carpets have been made in nearly every possible technical variation and for a wide range of uses. Yet there are many nomadic groups whose works are absolutely unknown, and the weavings of other groups have been only very imperfectly studied and described. For that reason there are still many objects of which the function is obscure.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KALIM KĀŠĀNI

  Daniela Meneghini

  (b. ca. 1581-85, d. 1651), Persian poet and one of the leading exponents of the “Indian style” (sabk-e hendi).

• HADITH

  Shahab Ahmed, A. Kazemi-Moussavi, Ismail K. Poonawala, Hamid Algar, Shaul Shaked

  term denoting reports that convey the normative words and deeds of the Prophet Moḥammad; it is understood to refer generically to the entire corpus of this literature and to the thousands of individual reports that comprise it.

• JALĀYER-NĀMA

  cross-reference

  See QĀʾEM-MAQĀM.

• AḤMAD B. MOḤAMMAD B. ṬĀHER

  C. E. Bosworth

  governor in Ḵᵛārazm and son of the last Tahirid governor in Khorasan. 

• ASFAND

  H. Gaube

  a medieval district (kūra) of the quarter (robʿ) of Nīšāpūr of Khorasan province.

• BESṬĀM (3)

  Chahryar Adle

  or Basṭām, a small town in the medieval Iranian province of Qūmes and modern Ostān-e Semnān. It is located in a large valley on the southern foothills of the Alborz

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĀR(- E) TANHĀ

  Ernie Haerinck

  lit., “the lonely tree”; an ar­cheological site in the district of Badr, near the village of Jabar, ca. 70 km east-southeast of Īlām, in the province of Pošt-e Kūh.

• ESTHER, BOOK OF

  Shaul Shaked

  a short book of the Old Testament, written in Hebrew.

• FEṬRAT ZARDŪZ SAMARQANDĪ, SAYYED KAMĀL

  Michael Zand

  (1660-1699), Tajik poet.

• ALEXANDER THE GREAT ii. In Zoroastrian Tradition

  F. M. Kotwal and P. G. Kreyenbroek

  The heritage of the Sasanian period includes two widely divergent storylines about Alexander, both of which were presumably transmitted by Zoroastrians and can therefore be labelled “Zoroastrian.”

• ŠAFT

  Marcel Bazin

  district and small town in southwestern Gilān.

• GAYŌMART

  Mansour Shaki

  or Gayūmarṯ, Kayūmarṯ; the sixth of the heptad in Mazdean myth of creation, the protoplast of man, and the first king in Iranian mythical history.

• ḤOSAYN B. OVAYS

  cross-reference

  See JALAYERIDS.

• ʿABDĪ

  T. Yazici

  pen name of ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN PASHA, Ottoman official and historian (d. 1692).

• AN LU-SHAN

  E. G. Pulleyblank

  frontier general of mixed Sogdian and Turkish ancestry who rose to high rank during the latter part of the reign of Hsüan-tsung (713-56).

• BAḤĪRĪ FAMILY

  R. W. Bulliet

  a major Shafiʿite family of Nishapur in the eleventh century.  

• ČENGĪZ KHAN

  David O. Morgan

  (Mong. Chinggis), probably born in 1167 in northeastern Mongolia, d. 1227, founder of the Mongol empire, the most extensive land empire known to history. Čengīz’s achievement, though hardly positive from the point of view of Persia, was by no means wholly a military and a destructive one. In the 1250s, a relatively coherent Mongol kingdom, the Il-khanate, was set up under Čengīz’s grandson Hülegü.

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• ẒAHIR-AL-DAWLA, EBRĀHIM KHAN

  Mehrnoush Soroush

  (d. Tehran, 1240/1824), military leader and governor of Kermān under Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah Qajar.

• NĀMA-YE BĀNOVĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (Women’s journal), a biweekly paper published in Tehran between 1 Mordād 1299 and 24 Khordād 1300 Š. (23 July 1920-14 June 1921).

• NĪRANGDĪN CEREMONY

  Firoze M. Kotwal and Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  a Zoroastrian ritual to consecrate gōmēz, or bull’s urine; the consecrated liquid is known as nīrang or nīrangdīn.

• HAFT PEYKAR

  François de Blois

  a famous romantic epic by Neẓāmi Ganjavi from the last decade of the 6th/12th century. The title can be translated literally as “seven portraits,” but also with the figurative meaning of “seven beauties.”

• JĀMEʿA-YE LISĀNSIAHĀ-YE DĀNEŠ-SARĀ-YE ʿĀLI

  Ahmad Birashk

   the Association of graduates of the Teacher Training College, founded in 1932 by its first two graduating classes.

• AHMADNAGAR

  Z. A. Desai

  Major city and province in the state of Maharashtra in western India, founded about 900/1495 by Malek Aḥmad Neẓām-al-molk, a Bahmanī governor, on the site where he had earlier won a battle against his sovereign’s forces.

• ĀŠOFTA

  N. Parvīn

  a Persian magazine published in Tehran 1325 Š./1946-1336 Š./1957.

• BĪBĪ ŠAHRBĀNŪ

  Mary Boyce

  the dedication of a Moslem shrine on a hillside by Ray to the south of Tehran. The legend attached to it is that of Šahrbānū, a daughter of the last Sasanian king, Yazdegerd III (r. 632-51).

• DĀREMĪ, ABŪ SAʿĪD ʿOṮMĀN

  Josef van Ess

  b. Saʿīd b. Ḵāled SEJESTĀNĪ, Persian traditionist and jurist (b. ca. 816, d. February 894).

• ESḤĀQZĪ

  Daniel Balland

  (sometimes shortened as Sāqzī, Sākzī, or even Sāgzī; sg. Esḥāqzay), an important Pashtun tribe of Afghanistan, member of the Panjpāy section of the Dorrānī confederation.

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• FIRMAN

  Cross-Reference

  See FARMĀN.

• PROSODY i. MIDDLE PERSIAN

  Gilbert Lazard

  There are remnants left of pre-Islamic poetry within western Middle Iranian languages: fragments of Manichean religious hymns, some poems preserved in the literature of Pahlavi, and poetical pieces in New Persian not following the rules of classical versification. The Manichean manuscripts in Parthian and Middle Persian enable us to recognize the general form of the poems.

• GEDROSIA

  Willem J. Vogelsang

  or Kedrosia; a place-name known only from Classical sources.

• HULĀGU KHAN

  Reuven Amitai

  fifth son of Tolui (and thus grandson of Čengiz Khan) and founder of the Il-khanid dynasty (b. ca. 1215, d. 1265).

• ABRADATAS

  C. J. Brunner

   a fictional king of Susa in Xenophon’s fictional, didactic life of Cyrus (Cyropaedia, books 5-7).

• ANDARZGAR

  J. P. Asmussen

  Mid. Pers. term, “counselor, teacher.”

• BAHRĀM B. MARDĀNŠĀH

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  a Zoroastrian priest (mōbed) of the town of Šāpūr in Fārs, mentioned in several Arabic and Persian sources as a translator of the Xwadāy-nāmag from Pahlavi into Arabic.

• CHĀNGĀ ĀSĀ

  Mary Boyce and Firoze M. Kotwal

  an eminent Parsi layman who lived in the 15th-16th centuries A.D. at Navsari in Gujarat.

• EBN ʿĀMER

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-ALLĀH B. ʿĀMER.

• PLANE TREE

  Cross-Reference

  See ČENĀR.

• VIS O RĀMIN

  Dick Davis

  an 11th-century verse romance by Faḵr al-Din Asʿad Gorgāni (q.v., s.v. Gorgāni).

• ḤĀJIĀNI

  Bruno Nettl

  a guša or subdivision of a mode in the canonic repertory (radif) of Persian classical music.

• JĀRČI-E MELLAT

  EIr.

  a weekly satirical newspaper published in Tehran, 1910-28 (with long interruptions).

• ʿAJĀʾEB AL-MAQDŪR

  U. Nashashibi

  (“The wondrous turns of fate in the vicissitudes of Tīmūr”), a history of the life and conquests of Tīmūr (1336-1405).

• ʿAṢṢĀR TABRĪZĪ

  Z. Safa

  poet, scholar, and mystic of the 8th/14th century.

• BĪNĀLŪD, KŪH-E

  Eckart Ehlers

  mountain range in northeast­ern Iran between Mašhad in the east and Nīšāpūr in the west with elevations of up to 3,211 m.

• TIGER

  Cross-Reference

  See BABR.

• ESMĀʿĪL ḴANDĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ALTUNTĀŠ.

• LION TOMBSTONES

  Pedram Khosronejad

  (šir-e sangi or bardšir “stone lion” in Lori), a type of tombstone in the form of a lion, found mostly on the graves of Lor and Qašqāʾi nomads in the west, southwest, and parts of southern Persia. These stylized, sculptured lions stare out from isolated Baḵtiāri graveyards in many valleys and along the migration routes of the tribes across the Zagros Mountains.

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• IBEX, PERSIAN

  Eskandar Firouz, D. T. Potts

  Capra aegagrus, also called Persian Wild Goat, in Persian pāzan. It is regarded as the ancestor of the domestic goat. Formerly it was numerous, found in almost all of Persia’s mountainous areas with rugged cliffs.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ ʿAṬĀ

  G. Tsuge

  one of the twelve modes in the dastgāh system of classical Iranian music; more precisely, it should be called āvāz-e Abū ʿAṭā or naḡma-ye Abū ʿAṭā.

• ANJEDĀN

  F. Daftary

  village located 37 km east of Arāk (former Solṭānābād) in Markazī province.

• BĀḴTAR-E EMRŪZ

  ʿA. M. Š. Fāṭemī

  (Today’s West), daily evening newspaper published in Tehran, 1949-53. The editor-publisher Ḥosayn Fāṭemī (1917-1954) was one of the principal associates of Dr. Moḥammad Moṣaddeq in the National Front (Jebha-ye Mellī).

• CHOARA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  or CHOARENE; a town or village in Parthia mentioned by Ptolemy (6.5.3) and called “the most attractive place of Parthia” by Pliny.

• EBN FARĪḠŪN

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E FARĪḠŪN.

• ʿAJIB MĀZANDARĀNI

  M. Dabirsiāqi

  19th-century poet of the Qajar court.

• PUNJABI

  Christopher Shackle

  Indo-Aryan language of the Punjab with about 26 million speakers in India and more than 60 million in Pakistan.

• HAMADĀN ix. JEWISH DIALECT

  Donald Stilo

  The dialect spoken by the Jews of Hamadān belong to the Central Plateau Dialect group of Northwestern Iranian languages, as opposed to Southwestern Iranian (e.g., Persian).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JELD

  cross-reference

  See BOOKBINDING 1; BOOKBINDING 2.

• ĀḴᵛOND

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀḴŪND.

• ASTVAṰ.ƎRƎTA

  M. Boyce

  the Avestan name of the Saošyant, the future Savior of Zoroastrianism.

• BŌĒ

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  (Gk. Boēs), the name of two of Kavād’s (r. 488-­96 and 498-531) generals.

• DĀSTĀN-SARĀʾĪ

  William Hanaway

  (storytelling), term used for written and oral genres of fictional narrative.

• ESTEBṢĀR

  See ṬŪSĪ, ABŪ JAʿFAR.

• AFRĀSIĀB ii. Wall Paintings

  Matteo Compareti

  The Afrāsiāb wall paintings refer to 7th-century Sogdian murals, discovered in 1965 in the residential part of ancient Samarqand (Samarkand).

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• GĒV

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  one of the foremost heroes of the national epic in the reigns of Kay Kāvūs and Kay Ḵosrow.

• IMPERIAL BANK OF PERSIA

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ABU’L-FARAJ EṢFAHĀNĪ

  K. Abū Deeb

  Author of the Ketāb al-aḡānī.

• ANTHROPOLOGY

  B. Spooner

  (Persian mardomšenāsī), social and cultural, in Iran and Afghanistan.

• BĀLAWĪ FAMILY

  R. W. Bulliet

  prominent scholars in Nīšāpūr in the 10th-11th centuries.

• CINEMA

  Multiple Authors

• EBN MOLJAM

  See Supplement.

• HERBERT, THOMAS (2)

  John Butler

  (1606-1682), English soldier, traveler and antiquarian who traveled to Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KURGAN TEPE

  Habib Borjian

  (Qūrḡonteppa in Tajik orthography; Kurgan-Tyube in Russian), provincial capital and former province of Tajikistan.

• ḤAMZA-NĀMA ii. In the Subcontinent

  Frances W. Pritchett

  The Indo-Persian romance tradition, extending from the medieval period to the early 20th century, produced prose works of considerable literary and cultural interest, chief among which were many versions of the Ḥamza romance.

• JOḠD

  cross-reference

  See BUF.

• ĀL-E JALĀYER

  Cross-Reference

  See JALAYERIDS.

• AṮĪR-AL-DĪN ABHARĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABHARĪ SAMARQANDĪ, AṮĪR-AL-DĪN.

• BONDĀRĪ, FATḤ B. ʿALĪ

  Cross-Reference

  b. Moḥammad EṢFAHĀNĪ. See SUPPLEMENT.

• DAVĀZDAH ROḴ

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  lit. "twelve combats"; designation of a relatively long episode in the Šāh-nāma (2,500 verses), in which a battle takes place on the borders of Tūrān between Iranians under the command of Gūdarz and Turanians under the command of Pīrān.

• EUTYCHIUS of Alexandria

  Sidney H. Griffith and EIr

  (877-940), Christian physician and historian whose Annales (written in Arabic and called Ketāb al-tārīḵ al-majmūʿ ʿalā’l-taḥqīq wa’l-taṣdīq or Naẓm al-jawhar) is a rich repository of much otherwise unobtainable information about the history of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, especially in the periods of Persian occupation in the seventh century and in Islamic times up to the early tenth century.

• KALLA-PĀČA

  Etrat Elahi

  a traditional dish made of sheep’s head and trotters and cooked over low heat, usually overnight.

• INDIA xxxi. INDIAN MERCHANTS IN 19TH-CENTURY AFGHANISTAN

  Shah Mahmoud Hanifi

  Indian communities in Afghanistan performed an array of commercial functions in both the private and state sectors that served to integrate the Afghan economy and link it to surrounding markets in Central and South Asia.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN HERAVĪ

  D. Pingree

  medieval mathematician.

• AQ EVLI

  P. Oberling

  a small Turkic tribe of Fārs. According to legend, the ancestors of the present-day Āq Evlīs were forced to migrate from Azerbaijan to Khorasan in Safavid times.

• BĀNBIŠN

  W. Sundermann

  Middle Persian “queen”: etymology and occurrences in Middle Iranian.

• SILK

  Cross-Reference

  Originally from China, silk has been known in Iran since ancient times. See ABRĪŠAM.

• EBN AL-ṬEQṬAQĀ, ṢAFĪ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Charles Melville

  b. ʿAlī b. Ṭabāṭabā (b. 1262 ?; d. after 1309 ?), historian and naqīb of the ʿAlids in Ḥella.

• KANDAHAR

  Multiple Authors

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• AUSTRIA ii. IRANIAN STUDIES IN

  X. Tremblay and N. Rastegar

  The present entry is intended as a synthetic history of the organization of Iranian studies (1) up to 1918 in all the Habsburg “hereditary countries,” which included the present Czech Republic and Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Bosnia, also parts of Poland, Romania, and Ukraine, and (2) since 1918 in the Republic of Austria exclusively.

• ḤARRĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  an ancient town of Upper Mesopotamia, now located in the modern Turkish province of Diyarbakir approximately 40 km/25 miles south-southeast of Edessa (q.v.), or Urfa.

• JOWZJĀN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Arabicized form of Persian Gowzgān(ān), a district of eastern Khorasan in early Islamic times, now roughly corresponding to the northwest of modern Afghanistan.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  B. Lewis

  chief of the Ismaʿilis of Alamūt (d. 1255).

• AVESTAN GEOGRAPHY

  G. Gnoli

  Geographical references in the Avesta are limited to the regions on the eastern Iranian plateau and on the Indo-Iranian border.

• BORQAʿĪ

  Hamid Algar

  (Ar. Borqoʿī), AYATOLLAH ʿALĪ-AKBAR (b. 1900), religious leader of the postwar period to whom leftist tendencies were imputed and whose name became embroiled in a significant incident in Qom in January, 1953.

• DAYR-E GAČĪN

  Mehrdad Shokoohy

  lit., “gypsum hospice”;  Sasanian caravansary situated in the desert halfway between Ray and Qom, on the ancient route from Ray to Isfahan. It is recorded in most early Muslim geographies. Over time, it underwent major reconstruction at least twice.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿEZZ-AL-DAWLA, ʿABD-AL-ṢAMAD MĪRZĀ

  Kambiz Eslami

  (1844-1929), half-brother of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah and governor of several provinces.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BIBLE ii. Persian Elements in the Bible

  Morton Smith

  Identification of Persian elements in the Bible is difficult because: (1) mobody knows just what was “Persian” when the biblical books were being written. (2) many things then “Persian” were also elements of other cultures.

• EGYPT xi. Persian Journalism in Egypt

  Nassereddin Parvin

• GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG von

  Hamid Tafazoli

  (1749-1832), the most renowned poet of German literature, interested in the East and in Islam.

• INVESTITURE

  Maria Brosius, Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis, Jenny Rose

  the ceremonies and symbolic actions used to assert the assumption of rulership and to elicit affirmation of it. i. The Achaemenid period. ii. The Parthian period. iii. The Sasanian period.

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• ABU’L-LAYṮ SAMARQANDĪ

  J. van Ess

  productive Hanafite jurist, author of a Koran commentary and of popular paraenetical works.

• ʿARAB

  Multiple Authors

  As two of the most prominent ethnic elements in the Middle East, Arabs and Iranians have been in contact with each other, and at times have had their fortunes intertwined, for some three millennia. 

• BANŪ ʿANNĀZ

  cross-reference

  See ʿANNAZIDS.

• COLETTI, Alessandro

  Adriano Rossi

  (b. Trieste, 1928, d. Rome, 1985), Italian scholar of Iranian languages and general oriental subjects, co-author with his wife, Hanne Grünbaum, of the most comprehensive Persian-Italian dictionary (1978) published in modern times.

• EBRĀHĪM ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Carl W. Ernst

  historian of the ʿĀdelšāhī dynasty of Bījāpūr (b. 1540-41).

• ʿABD-AL-ḤAMID b. AḤMAD b. ʿABD-AL-ṢAMAD ŠIRĀZI

  C. E. Bosworth

  long-serving vizier to the Ghaznavid sultans Ebrāhim b. Masʿud (r. 451-92/1059-99) and his son Masʿud III (r. 492-508/1199-1215).

• SALEMANN, Carl Hermann

  D. Durkin-Meisterernst

  (in Russian: Zaleman, Karl Germanovitsh), a leading Iranist scholar of his time, specializing in Middle and early Modern Persian (1849-1916).

• ḤASANLU TEPPE

  Robert H. Dyson, Jr

  archeological site in West Azerbaijan Province in northwest Persia, a short distance southwest of Lake Urmia (former Reżāʾiya). OVERVIEW of the entry: i. The site. ii. The golden bowl.

• JULFA iv. ARCHITECTURE AND PAINTING

  Armen Haghnazarian

  By 1640 New Julfa had grown into an important cultural center with many public buildings, including churches, markets, and bath houses.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ALBANIA

  M. L. Chaumont

  an ancient country in the Caucasus (for Albania in Islamic times, see Arrān). 

• AY TĪMŪR

  J. M. Smith, Jr.

  Sarbadār commander and ruler, “the son of a slave”.

• BOZORGMEHR-E BOḴTAGĀN

  Djalal Khaleghi Motlagh

  identified in literature and legend as a vizier of Ḵosrow I Anōšīravān (r. 531-78). According to Persian and Arabic sources, he was characterized by ex­ceptional wisdom and sage counsels.

• DEIOCES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (Gk. Dēïókēs), name of a Median king.

• FALAK

  Cross-Reference

  Arabic word for "sphere" (pl. aflāk). In Persian works of literature it is often referred to as being responsible for determining people's destiny. See ASTROLOGY AND ASTRONOMY IN IRAN; COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY.

• RUSSIA ii. IRANIAN-SOVIET RELATIONS (1917-1991)

  N. M. Mamedova

  From the outset, the very first international resolutions of the young Soviet state had an immediate impact on relations with Iran.

• GOLČIN GILĀNI

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak and Homa Katouzian

  (b. Rašt, 1910; d. London, 1972), pen name of the poet MAJD-AL-DIN MIR-FAḴRĀʾI. Throughout the 1940s, Golčin sent his compositions to Persia for publication; many appeared in the literary journals of the period, such as Soḵan, Yaḡmā, Armaḡān, Foruḡ, Yādgār, and Jahān-e now.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• TURKMENS OF PERSIA ii. LANGUAGE

  Michael Knüppel

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿALĪ B. MOḤAMMAD

  R. W. Bulliet

  A wealthy dehqān from Sabzavār who was prominent as a founder of madrasas in the second decade of the 5th/11th century.

• ʿARAŻ

  F. Rahman

  a term of philosophy meaning “accident.” 

• BARĀQ BĀBĀ

  H. Algar

  (b. 1257-58, d. 1307-08), a crypto-shamanic Anatolian Turkman dervish close to two of the Mongol rulers of Iran.

• CONTINENTS

  Cross-Reference

  See KEŠVAR.

• WAZIRITABĀR, Ḥosayn-ʿAli

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi

  (1906-1958) musician and prominent performer of the qaranei (clarinet). 

• FONDOQESTĀN

  B. A. Litvinskiĭ

  (FONDUKISTAN), early medieval settlement and Buddhist monastery in Afghanistan, in the province of Parvān (Parwan). The site is usually dated to the 7th century CE on the evidence of artistic style and numismatic finds, the oldest of which is from 689 C.E. However, the shape and the decorations of the stupa suggest that the complex can be even earlier.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤAYDARI and NEʿMATI

  John R. Perry

  (also Amir-Ḥaydari; Neʿmat-Allāhi), mutually hostile urban moieties of Safavid and post-Safavid Iran.

• KAFIR KALA

  Boris Litvinsky

  (Kāfer Qalʿa), ancient settlement and one of the largest archeological monuments of the Vakhsh river valley, on the western outskirts of Kolkhozabad, Tajikistan. The city (šahrestān) together with the citadel form a square, each side 360 m long, oriented approximately to the cardinal points.

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• ʿALĪ B. ḤOSAYN ANṢĀRĪ

  cross-reference

  See ZAYN-AL-DĪN ʿAṬṬĀR.

• ĀZĀD

  M. L. Chaumont, C. Toumanoff

  (older ĀZĀT), a class of the Iranian nobility.

• BŪ NAṢR MOŠKĀN

  cross-reference

  See ABŪ NAṢR MOŠKĀN.

• DENḴA TEPE

  Oscar White Muscarella

  a Bronze and Iron Age site situated in the Ošnū valley of Azerbaijan, southwest of Lake Urmia, and 15 miles west of the major Iron Age site of Hasanlu (Ḥasanlū) in the Soldūz valley.

• BĀBĀ-YE DEHQĀN

  Anna Krasnowolska

  a mythological and ritual character whose cult has been reported in agrarian communities of mountainous and lowland Tajikistan, northern Afghanistan, and adjacent countries.

• GOLŠAN-E MORĀD

  John R. Perry

  a history of the Zand Dynasty (1751-94) by Mirzā Moḥammad Abu’l-Ḥasan Ḡaffāri.

• IRĀN-E MĀ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a political newspaper published in Tehran, 1943-60, with long interruptions. It was an influential liberal paper with nationalistic orientations.

• ABŪ ŠAKŪR BALḴĪ

  G. Lazard

  poet of the Samanid period.

• ARDAŠĪR BĀBAKĀN

  H. Gaube

  Sasanian and early Islamic district (ostān) formed in the early 7th century south of Baghdad and west of the Tigris. Its capital was Weh-Ardašīr (Ar. Bahrasīr).

• BARIŠ NASK

  P. O. Skjærvø

  one of the lost nasks of the Haδamąθra group of the Avesta, analyzed in Dēnkard 8.9.

• COSSACK BRIGADE

  Muriel Atkin

  a cavalry unit in the Persian army established in 1879 on the model of Cossack units in the Russian army. The formation of the Cossack Brigade was part of a larger process in which the Persian government, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, engaged various European soldiers to train units of the Persian armed forces.

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• EHRBEDESTĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See HERBEDESTĀN.

• FARANGĪS

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  eldest daughter of Afrāsīāb and wife of Sīāvaḵš.

• CENSORING AN IRANIAN LOVE STORY

  Sara Khalili

  the first novel published in English by noted modernist writer Shahriar Mandanipour.

• FOŻŪLĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Eir

  b. Solaymān (ca. 1480-1556), widely regarded as the greatest lyric poet in Azerbayjani Turkish, who also wrote extensively in Arabic and Persian.

• HEDĀYAT, MOḴBER-AL-SALṬANA ii. AS MUSICIAN

  Amemeh Yousefzadeh

  Apart from a book about musical theory, the Majmaʿ al-adwār (Tehran, 1938), we owe him one of the earliest complete notations of the repertoire of Persian music (radifs).

• ABARQUH i. History

  C. E. Bosworth

• ʿALĪ EBRĀHĪM KHAN

  F. Lehmann

  Indian statesman and literary figure (d. 1208/1793-94).

• AZERBAIJAN

  Multiple Authors

  (Āḏarbāy[e]jān), historical region of northwestern Iran, east of Lake Urmia, since the Achaemenid era.

• BŪŠEHR

  Xavier de Planhol, Moḥammad-Taqī Masʿūdīya

  (Ar. Būšahr, European spellings Bushire, Busheer, Bouchir), port city in southern Iran on the Persian Gulf. i. The city. ii. Music of Būšehr. 

• DEYLAMITES

  Wolfgang Felix, Wilferd Madelung

  people inhabiting a shifting region in northern Persia and adjacent territories, including the Deylamān uplands.

• CLASS SYSTEM iv. Classes In Medieval Islamic Persia

  Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi

• KOLUKJĀNLU

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe in the Ḵalḵāl region of eastern Azerbaijan.

• GORDIANUS III

  Cross-Reference

  Roman emperor. See SHAPUR I.

• IRAQ xii. PERSIAN SCHOOLS IN IRAQ

  Eqbal Yaghmaʾi

  At the time of the 1905-11 Constitutional Revolution in Persia, local committees in Iraq created Persian-language schools with the backing of the leading, progressive religious scholars.

• ABU YAZĪD BESṬĀMI

  Cross-Reference

  See BESṬĀMĪ, BĀYAZĪD.

• ARIA

  R. Schmitt

  region in the eastern part of the Persian empire.

• BĀRZĀNĪ

  W. Behn

  a Kurdish tribe from Bārzān, a town of northeastern Iraq. The shaikhs of Bārzān came to prominence in the disorder following sup­pression of the semi-independent Kurdish principalities in the mid-19th century.

• CTESIAS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (Gk. Ktēsías),  Greek physician at the Achaemenid court and author of Persiká (b. perhaps ca. 441 BCE).

• ELAM

  Multiple Authors

  ancient country encompassing a large part of the Persian plateau at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. but reduced to the territory of Susiana in the Achaemenid period.

• FARHANG-E TĀRĪḴĪ-E ZABĀN-E FĀRSĪ

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  a comprehensive historical dictionary of the Persian language, of which only one volume has been published so far.

• ĀZĀD TABRIZI

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  physician, anthologist, and translator (b. Tehran, ca. 1854; d. Paris, 1936).

• KARTLI

  George Sanikidze

  region occupying most of eastern Georgia. The original name of Georgia (Sakartvelo) and the Georgian people (Kartvelebi) derive from Kartli. 

• FRAWAHR

  Cross-reference

  See FRAVAŠI.

• HELMAND RIVER ii. IN ZOROASTRIAN TRADITION

  Gherardo Gnoli

  According to Avestan geography, the region of the Haētumant River extends in a southwest direction from the point of confluence of the Arḡandāb with the Helmand.

• HERON

  Cross-Reference

  See BŪTĪMĀR.

• ʿALĪ-REŻĀ ABBĀSĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  10th-11th/16th-17th century calligrapher born and trained in Tabrīz but active principally in Qazvīn and Isfahan.

• BĀB-E HOMĀYŪN

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  (august [royal] gate), name of a gate and its connecting street in the Qajar citadel of Tehran.

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• ČĀH

  Marcel Bazin

  Well. Together with the well-known qanāt (subterranean water canals), wells (čāh) play a great part in the mobilization of the groundwater resources of Persia.

• DIEU

  J.T.P. de Bruijn

  (b. Vlissingen, Flushing, April 7, 1590; d. Leiden, Dec. 23, 1642), Dutch orientalist.

• COMMERCE vii. In the Pahlavi and post-Pahlavi periods

  Vahid Nowshirvani

  A prominent feature of Persian export trade was the steady rise in both the value and volume of oil shipments through almost the entire Pahlavi period until the Revolution, when this trend was reversed. Because of the large increase in price in 1352 Š./1973 the value of Persian oil exports climbed substantially more than the volume in the 1970s. Other exports fared less well.

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• EMAMI, KARIM

  ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Āzarang and EIr

  (1930-2005), noted translator, editor, publisher, critic, journalist, and lexicographer.

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• GOŠTĀSP

  A. Shapur Shabazi

  Kayanian king of Iranian traditional history and patron of Zoroaster.

• ADAB AL-KABĪR

  I. Abbas

  an Arabic work by Ebn al-Moqalia ž dealing largely with Persian manners and court etiquette.

• ARSACIDS

  A. Sh. Shahbazi, K. Schippmann, M. Alram, M. Boyce, A. Sh. Shahbazi, A. Sh. Shahbazi, C. Toumanoff

   (Persian Aškānīān), Parthian dynasty which ruled Iran from ca. 250 B.C. to ca. 226 A.D.

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• BĀWĪYA

  J. Perry

  a Shiʿite tribe of Ḵūzestān. They range east and south of Ahvāz, between the Kārūn and Jarrāḥī rivers, to the south of Band-e Qīr and north of Māred.

• ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD

  Emilie Savage-Smith

  b. Serāj-al-Dīn Masʿūd ŠĪRĀZĪ, the most prominent member of a 16th-century family of physicians in Shiraz.

• FARNŪDSĀR

  See NAẒEM-AL-AṬEBBĀʾ.

• KAMĀL PĀŠĀ-ZĀDA, ŠAMS-AL-DIN AḤMAD

  T. Yazici

  (1468-1534), prolific Ottoman scholar, author of several works in and on Persian.

• RASHT i. The City

  Christian Bromberger

  city and district in Gilān province, the capital of Gilān and the largest city along the Caspian coast of Iran.

• GARRŪSĪ, AMĪR NEẒĀM

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪR NEẒĀM GARRŪSĪ.

• HERMAEUS

  cross-reference

  See INDO-GREEK DYNASTY.

• ʿABD-AL-JALĪL RĀZĪ

  W. Madelung

  Emāmī Shiʿite scholar, preacher, and author, b. probably early in the 6th/12th century.

• ALTUNTAŠ

  C. E. Bosworth

  Turkish slave commander of the Ghaznavid sultans and governor in Ḵᵛārazm (408-23/1017-32). 

• BĀBOL

  X. de Planhol, S. Blair

  town in Māzandarān, occupying a central position in the coastal plain. i. The town.  ii. Islamic monuments.

• ČĀLDERĀN

  Michael J. McCaffrey

  battle of, an engagement fought near Ḵᵛoy in northwestern Azerbaijan on 23 August 1514, resulting in a decisive victory for the Ottoman forces under Sultan Salīm I over the Safavids led by Shah Esmāʿīl I. No single event prompted Salīm’s decision to wage war. It was the direct and inevitable result of the establishment of the Safavid state.

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• DĪV

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  demon, monster, fiend; expresses not only the idea of “demon,” but also that of “ogre,” “giant,” and even “Satan.”

• COURTS AND COURTIERS ii. In the Parthian and Sasanian periods

  Philippe Gignoux

• RHETORICAL FIGURES

  Natalia Chalisova

  devices of embellishment, tropes, and figures considered as an intrinsic part of literary expression in medieval Persia.

• BĀYSONḠORĪ ŠĀH-NĀMA

  Dj. Khaleghi Motlagh, T. Lentz

  an illuminated and gilded manuscript of Ferdowsī’s Šāh-nāma measur­ing 26.5 × 38 cm, containing 346 pages and twenty-one paintings, written in nastaʿlīq, and kept in the former Royal Library (Golestan Palace Museum, no. 6) in Tehran. i. The manuscript.  ii. The paintings.

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• DĀDGAR, ḤOSAYN

  Bāqer ʿĀqelī

  ʿAdl-al-Molk (b. Tehran ca. 1299/1881, d. 1349 Š./1970), at various times president of the Persian Majles, cabi­net minister, and senator under the Qajar and Pahlavi dynasties.

• EMĪN YOMNĪ, MEḤMED

  Tahsın Yazici

  Moḥammad Amīn (b. Solaymānīya in Persia, 1845, d. Istanbul, 5 April 1924), Turkish poet and man of letters who also wrote in Persian.

• FĀRŪQĪ EBRĀHĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See FARHANG-E EBRĀHĪMĪ.

• MITHRA iii. IN MANICHEISM

  Werner Sundermann

  The Iranian Manicheans adopted the name of the Zoroastrian god Mithra (Av. Miθra; Mid. Pers.Mihr)and used it to designate one of their own deities.

• ḴEṬĀY-NĀMA

  RALPH KAUZ

  “Book on China,” written by Seyyed ʿAlī Akbar Ḵeṭāʾī (q.v.) in Istanbul.

• GĀVBĀRA

  Cross-Reference

  See DABUYIDS.

• HERZFELD, ERNST ii. HERZFELD AND PASARGADAE

  David Stronach

  Ernst Herzfeld probably devoted more attention to the study of Achaemenid Iran than to any other single topic. His name will always be associated with Pasargadae, the dynastic seat of Cyrus II (the Great), the founder of the Achaemenid Empire.

• ʿABD-AL-QĀDER KHAN JĀʾEŠĪ

  M. Baqir

  Late Mughal biographer (18th-19th century).

• ʿĀMELĪ, ʿABD-AL-MONʿEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-MONʿEM ʿĀMELĪ.

• BĀDĀM

  X. de Planhol, N. Ramazani

  “almond.”  i. General.  ii. As food.  The genus Amygdalus is very common in Iran and Afghanistan and throughout the Turco-Iranian area.

• ČANDARBHĀN BARAHMAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ČANDRA BHĀN BARAHMAN.

• DOKKĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀZĀR i.

• ELAM vii. Non-Elamite texts in Elam

  SYLVIE LACKENBACHER

• VANDEN BERGHE, Louis

  Ernie Haerinck

  (1923-1993), Belgian archeologist who devoted almost all his research to Iran’s history.

• Greece xiv. Greek Loanwords in Medieval New Persian

  Lutz Richter Bernburg and EIr

• Italy xi. TRANSLATIONS OF PERSIAN WORKS INTO ITALIAN

  Mario Casari

  The period of Italian translations of Persian literary works from the Islamic era began, and not by accident, in the post-Risorgimento (Italian unification) age (1880s) with epic poetry. In fact, apart from the appearance of occasional literary passages, the first truly representative translation is the monumental version of the Šāh-nāma by Italo Pizzi (1886-88).

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• AFRĀSĪĀB i. The Archeological Site

  G. A. Pugachenkova and Ī. V. Rtveladze

  the ruined site of ancient and medieval Samarqand in the northern part of the modern town.

• ARTHROPODS

  ʿA. Aḥmadī and R. G. Tuck, Jr.

  or ARTHROPODA, largest and undoubtedly most diverse animal phylum, comprising an estimated seventy-five to eighty percent of all known species in the kingdom; representatives of both major extant subdivisions occur within Iran.

• BEDLĪSĪ, ŻĪĀʾ-AL-DĪN ʿAMMĀR

  Edward Badeen

  Sufi shaikh (d. between 1194 and 1207-08), teacher of Najm-al-Din Kobrā.

• DĀʿĪ-E ṢAḠĪR

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤASAN b. QĀSEM ʿALAWĪ.

• ENTEBĀH

  L. P. ELWELL-SUTTON

  lit. “Awakening”; a Persian newspaper published in Karbalā, Iraq, in 1914 by Mīrzā ʿAlī Āqā Šīrāzī Labīb-al-Molk, editor of Moẓaffarī published in Būšehr and Mecca.

• FATWĀ

  Hamid Algar

  the authoritative ruling of a religious scholar on questions of Islamic jurisprudence that are either dubious or obscure in nature or which have newly arisen without known precedent.

• PANJIKANT

  Boris I. Marshak

  (Sogd. Pancyknδ), a Sogdian city, the ruins of which are located in the southern periphery of the present-day city of Panjakent in western Tajikistan. The systematic archeological excavations show that this city, situated on the rim of a high terrace overlooking a fertile, well-irrigated valley, was founded in the 5th century C.E. and was inhabited until the 770s.

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• JĀVID, ʿABD-AL-AḤMAD

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (1927-2002), educator and scholar of Persian literature and history.  

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• GĀLEŠĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See GĪLĀN x. LANGUAGES

• HISTORIOGRAPHY xii. CENTRAL ASIA

  Yuri Bregel

  The first Persian historical work produced in Central Asia (Transoxiana, Ḵʷārazm, Farḡāna, and Eastern Turkestan) was the 10th-century translation of the history of Ṭabari.

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ BEG

  J. R. Perry

  (1176-1243/1762-63 to 1827-28), literary biographer, poet, and historian of the early Qajar period.

• AMĪN-AL-SOLṬĀN, ʿALĪ-AṢḠAR KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ATĀBAK-E AʿẒAM.

• BADRĪ KAŠMĪRĪ

  Z. Safa

  Persian poet in India in the second half of the 16th century.

• ČARḴ

  Daniel Balland

  a common toponym all over the Iranian world.

• ḎORRAT

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  maize or (Indian) corn, Zea mays L. (fam. Gramineae), with many varieties and hybrids.

• FACULTIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEHRAN iv. Faculty of Letters and Humanities

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

• ṢĀʾEB TABRIZI

  Paul E. Losensky

  , MIRZĀ M0ḤAMMAD ʿALI (b. Tabriz, ca. 1000/1592; d. Isfahan, 1086-87/1676), celebrated Persian poet of the later Safavid period.

• GURĀN

  Pierre Oberling

  a tribe dwelling in the dehestān of Gurān, between Qaṣr-e Širin and Kermānšāh (Bāḵtarān), in Kurdistan.

• JAḠATU

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  an archeological site in Ḡazni province, Afghanistan, situated about 20 km north of Ḡazni on the route between Ḡazni and Wardak.

• ĀḠĀ MOḤAMMAD KHAN QĀJĀR

  J. R. Perry

  (r. 1203-12/1789-97), founder of the Qajar dynasty.

• ASADĀBĀD

  C. E. Bosworth

  names of a town in the medieval Islamic province of Jebāl.

• BEHZĀD

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  in the traditional history, the name of the black horse belonging successively to Sīāvoš, Kay Ḵosrow, and Goštāsb.

• DAMPOḴT(AK)

  Mohammad R. Ghanoonparvar

  or DAMĪ, terms referring to rice cooked in a single pot.

• ĒRĀN, ĒRĀNŠAHR

  D. N. MacKenzie

  ērānšahr properly denotes the empire, while ērān signifies “of the Iranians.”

• FELFEL

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  modern Persian term designating the fruits and/or berries of two botanically different groups of plants: the pepper proper and the capsicum peppers.

• GÖTTINGEN, UNIVERSITY OF, HISTORY OF IRANIAN STUDIES

  Ludwig Paul

  History of Iranian Studies at the University of Göttingen.

• GEOGRAPHY

  Multiple Authors

  Geography of Persia and Afghanistan. Overview of the entry: i. Evolution of geographical knowledge, ii. Human geography, iii. Political geography, iv. Cartography of Persia.

• GANJAFA

  Cross-Reference

  See CARD GAMES.

• HONARESTĀN-E ʿĀLI-E MUSIQI-E MELLI

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ABDĀLĪ

  C. M. Kieffer

  ancient name of a large tribe, or more particularly of a group of Afghan tribes, better known by the name of Dorrānī since the reign of Aḥmad Šāh Dorrānī (1747-72). 

• AMĪRAK BAYHAQĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  (d. 448/1056), intelligence officer in Khorasan under the early Ghaznavids.

• BAḠDĀDĪ, ABU’L-FAŻL

  H. Algar

  (d. 1155), Sufi whose name appears in the initiatic chain of the Neʿmatallāhī order.

• CASTLES

  Wolfram Kleiss

  primarily fortified country manors but also permanently inhabited defensive installations, maintained by the authorities along important land routes, and urban citadels, which functioned as administrative centers and places of refuge for inhabitants under siege, particularly in prehistoric and early historic times.

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• ḎU’L-AKTĀF

  Cross-Reference

  See SHAPUR II.

• HĀDI ḤASAN

  K. A. Jaisi

  Indian scholar of Persian literature (1894-1963).

• JALĀL-AL-MOLK

  cross-reference

  See IRAJ MIRZĀ.

• AḤMAD B. BAHBAL

  Hameed ud-Din

  Mughal historian and author of a Persian work, Maʿdan-e aḵbār-e Aḥmadī, also known as Maʿdan-e aḵbār-e Jahāngīrī. 

• AŠƎM VOHŪ

  B. Schlerath

  the second of the four great prayers of the Zoroastrians, the others being: Ahuna vairyō (Y. 27.13), Yeŋˊhē hātąm (Y. 27.15), and Airyəˊmā išyō (Y. 54.1).

• BESMEL ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Zabihollah Safa

  , ḤĀJĪ ʿALĪ-AKBAR, also known as Nawwāb, Persian writer and poet of note of the 18th-19th centuries.

• ḎARʿ

  cross-reference

  See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

• ESʿAD EFENDİ, MEHMED

  Tahsın Yazici

  Moḥammad Asʿad Efendi (b. Istanbul, 14 June 1570; d. Istanbul, 21 June 1625), Ottoman religious figure and author of both Persian and Turkish poetry.

• YASNA

  William W. Malandra

  the name for the central ritual in Zoroastrianism and for the long liturgical text recited during the daily performance of the ritual.

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS

  Multiple Authors

  i. Achaemenid systems.  ii. Parthian and Sasanian judicial system. iii. Sasanian legal system. iv. Judicial system, advent of Islam through the 19th century. v. Judicial system, 20th century. vi. Legal system, Islamic period.

• ḠAWṮ KHAN, NAWWĀB MOḴTĀR-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See NAWWĀB-E DAKHAN.

• ḤOSAYN B. ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA

  cross-reference

  See JALĀYERIDS.

• ʿABDALLĀH MORVĀRĪD

  P. P. Soucek

  (d. 1516), Timurid court official, poet, scribe, and musician.

• ĀMŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀMOL.

• BAHĀRESTĀN (2)

  ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  the name of a garden, public square, and complex of buildings in central Tehran.

• ČELLA

  Mahmoud Omidsalar, Hamid Algar

  term referring to any forty-day period. i. In Persian folklore. ii. In Sufism.

• DŪRMEŠ, KHAN

  Roger M. Savory

  or Dormeš; b. ʿAbdī Beg TAVĀČĪ ŠĀMLŪ, powerful Qezelbāš amir, brother-in-law and confidant of Shah Esmāʿīl I.

• MAŠREQ AL-AḎKĀR

  Moojan Momen

  (the Dawning-Place of the Remembrance [of God]), a Bahai term having three meanings.  The first meaning is a gathering which is held, ideally at dawn, to say prayers and recite from scripture; the second meaning is a building to be constructed in every community in which this dawn gathering takes place; and the third meaning is a complex of edifices centered around the prayer building but including other auxiliary social and humanitarian institutions as well. 

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• MUELLER, Friedrich W. K.

  Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst

  (1863-1930), scholar of oriental cultures and languages, a major contribution to the establishment of the philological and historical study of texts in Middle Iranian and Old Turkish.

• HAFT EQLIM

  Cross-Reference

  See HAFT KEŠVAR.

• JĀMEʿ AL-ḤEKMATAYN

  cross-reference

  See NĀṢER-E ḴOSROW.

• AḤMAD TAKŪDĀR

  P. Jackson

  third il-khan of Iran (r. 680-83/1282-84), seventh son of Hülegü.

• ĀSMĀN

  A. Tafażżolī

  (sky, heavens), in Zoroastrian cosmology the first part of the material (gētīg) world created by Ohrmazd.

• LUT

  Cross-Reference

  Persian word meaning “desert.” See DESERT.

• D'ARCY, JOSEPH

  Kambiz Eslami

  (Pers. “Mester Bārūt,” “Qūlūnel Khan,” “Qonsūl Khan”; b. Portsmouth, England, 14 March 1780, d. Lymington, England, 17 February 1848), major (later lieutenant colonel) in the British Royal Artillery who arrived in Persia in 1226/1811 with the ambassador Sir Gore Ouseley; he was one of a group of British officers and enlisted men who were to reform and equip the Persian army.

• ESḤĀQ MAWṢELĪ

  Everett K. Rowson

  (767?-850), prominent musician at the ʿAbbasid court in Baghdad and the successor of his equally famous father Ebrāhīm Mawṣelī as leader of the conservative school of musicians of the time.

• FIRE ALTARS

  Mark Garrison

  a structure used to to hold fire for urposes of veneration, probably contained within a metal or clay bowl. The term should probably be restricted to those structures which have a clear Zoroastrian religious context.

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• MESSINA, GIUSEPPE

  Carlo G. Cereti

  , SJ (1893-1951), Italian scholar of Middle and Modern Iranian studies.

• KASHAN

  Multiple Authors

  historical city and a sub-province of the province of Isfahan (q.v.) on the north-south axial route of central Iran (lat 33° 59ʹ 30ʹʹ N, long 51° 27ʹ 00ʹʹ E; elev. 950 m).

• GAZOPHYLACIUM LINGUAE PERSICAE

  Cross-Reference

  See DICTIONARIES iii.

• HÜBSCHMANN, (JOHANN) HEINRICH

  Erich Kettenhofen and Rüdiger Schmitt

  eminent German scholar of Iranian and Armenian studies (1848-1908).

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• ABḴĀZ

  Dzh. Giunashvili

  (also APSUA, APSNI), ethnic group of the Caucasus.

• ANDARĪMĀN

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the name of a number of Turanian heroes in the Šāh-nāma.

• CHALDEANS

  Muhammad Dandamayev

  (Kaldu), West Semitic tribes of southern Babylonia attested in Assyrian texts from the early 9th century B.C.

• EBN ABI’L ḤADĪD

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. ABU’L ḤADĪD.

• OAK

  Cross-Reference

  See BALŪṬ.

• OIL AGREEMENTS IN IRAN

  Parviz Mina

  (1901-1978): their history and evolution. The history of Iranian oil agreements began with an unprecedented concession granted by Nāṣer-al-Din Shah in 1872 to Baron Julius de Reuter.

• ḤĀJI PIRZĀDA

  Anna Vanzan

  , Moḥammad ʿAli Nāʾini, Persian traveler (d. 1904). His diary follows the convention of the Qajar safar-nāmas in its description of the wonders seen abroad (such as  monuments, museums, transportation systems). A pious and traditional man, he expresses a sincere apprehension for those Iranians abroad whom he felt had forgotten their culture and religion.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAPAN x. COLLECTIONS OF PERSIAN BOOKS IN JAPAN

  Cross-Reference

  Forthcoming, online.

• AIRYAMAN IŠYA

  C. J. Brunner

  Gathic Avestan prayer.

• ĀŠRAFĪ

  A. Hairi

  religious leader, born sometime before 1235/1819 and died 1315/1897-98.

• BĪLAQĀN(Ī)

  Cross-Reference

  See BAYLAQĀN.

• DARVĀZ

  Jan-Heeren Grevemeyer

  a largely autonomous principality with territory on both sides of the upper course of the Āmū Daryā, known as the Panj, until the partition between czarist Russia and the Afghan kingdom in the last quarter of the 19th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES ii. In Iran

  Aḥmad Monzawī and ʿAlī Naqī Monzawī

  Persian-language catalogues of manuscripts preserved in libraries in Iran and elsewhere range from detailed works in book form to articles in journals and short lists published separately or as supplements to other publications.

• KARIM KHAN ZAND

  John R. Perry

  (ca. 1705-1779), “The Wakil,” ruler of Persia (except Khorasan) from Shiraz during 1751-79. The Zand were a pastoral tribe of the Lak branch of the northern Lors, ranging between the inner Zagros and the Hamadān plains, centered on the villages of Pari and Kamāzān in the vicinity of Malāyer.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ZUR-KHANA

  Cross-Reference

  (zur-khaneh, zurkhaneh), lit. “house of strength,” the traditional gymnasium of urban Persia and adjacent lands. See ZUR-ḴĀNA.

• HYMN OF THE PEARL

  J. R. Russell

  or Hymn of the Soul, a Syriac poem, of which an early Greek translation also exists, composed probably in the third century CE in the region of Edessa.

• ABŪ ʿALĪ MESKAVAYH

  Cross-Reference

  Persian chancery official and treasury clerk of the Buyid period, boon companion, litterateur and accomplished writer in Arabic on a variety of topics, including history, theology, philosophy and medicine (d. 421/1030). See MESKAVAYH, ABU ʿALI AḤMAD.

• ANĪRĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ANĒRĀN.

• BAḴT

  W. Eilers, S. Shaked

  “fate, destiny,” often with the positive sense of “good luck” (ḵᵛošbaḵtī).  i. The term.  ii. The concept.

• CHITON

  Cross-Reference

  See CLOTHING i. Median and Achaemenid periods, iii. Sasanian period.

• EBN AL-EḴŠĪD, ABŪ BAKR AḤMAD

  Daniel Gimaret

  b. ʿAlī b. Beḡčor (884-938), Muʿtazilite theologian.

• ENGLISH iv. Translations Of Modern Persian Literature

  Michael Beard

• MUNICH, PERSIAN ART IN

  Avinoam Shalem

  The collecting of Persian art in Munich goes back at least to the reign of Duke Albrecht V (r. 1516-75). Artifacts of oriental origin were mainly registered as exotica. For example, between 1545 and 1550, Hans Mielich (1516-73), the court painter of Albrecht V, provided the duke with an illustrated inventory of the varied treasures in the court, among which is depicted an Ottoman vessel decorated with precious stones.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JEBĀL

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  in Arabic, the plural of jabal “mountain,” a geographical term used in early Islamic times for the western part of Persia, roughly corresponding to ancient Media (Ar. māh).

• AḴLĀQ-E MOḤSENĪ

  G. M. Wickens

  an ostensibly serious treatise on ethics by the prolific prose-stylist Kamāl-al-dīn Ḥosayn Wāʿeẓ Kāšefī, completed in 900/1494-95.

• ASTŌDĀN

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  “bone-receptacle, ossuary.” The term has an important place in the vocabulary of ancient Iranian funerary rites.

• BLOCHMANN, HEINRICH FERDINAND

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (also Henry), a German orientalist and scholar of Persian language and literature who spent most of his career in India (1838-1878).

• DAŠTAKĪ, ʿAṬĀ-ALLĀH

  Andrew J. Newman

  (d. 1506, 1511, or 1520), a scholar of Hadith in Khorasan in the late Timurid and early Safavid periods.

• EṢṬAḴRĪ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM

  O. G. Bolshakov

  b. Moḥammad Fāresī Karḵī, 10th-century Muslim traveler and geographer and founder of the genre of masālek (lit. “itineraries”) literature.

• ARCHITECTURE v. Islamic, pre-Safavid

  O. Grabar

  The beginnings of an Islamic architecture in Iran are still almost impossible to identify properly. Remaining monuments are few, most of them are very uncertainly dated, and literary information is scanty or difficult to interpret.

• TOPKAPI PALACE

  Zeren Tanındı

  and its Persian holdings. The Topkapı Palace, which was known as the Yeni Saray (New Palace) until the 19th century, served the Ottoman sultans for almost 380 years as the imperial residence and center of command.

• GEŠNĪZ

  Cross-Reference

  See CORIANDER.

• ARMOR ii. In Eastern Iran

  Boris A. Litvinsky

  By the 6th, or even 7th, century BCE, the Scythian and Northern Caucasian nomads had formed a complete complex of defensive armor.

• ABŪ ESḤĀQ NAẒẒĀM

  J. van Ess

  famous adīb and Muʿtazilite theologian.

• BALĀSĀḠŪN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a town of Central Asia, in early Islamic times the main settlement of the region known as Yeti-su or Semirechye “the land of the seven rivers,” now mainly within the eastern part of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

• CILICIA

  Michael Weiskopf

  the southeastern portion of the present Turkish coast, a satrapy of the Achaemenid empire (6th-4th centuries b.c.e.), subsequently incorporated into the Macedonian and Roman empires.

• EBN MATTAWAYH, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ḤASAN

  Martin McDermott

  b. Aḥmad b. Mattawayh, Muʿtazilite theologian of the Basran school, a student of Qāżī ʿAbd-al-Jabbār (d. 1025).

• RISHAR KHAN

  Shireen Mahdavi

  (Rišār Khan), the Persian name of Jules Richard (1816-1891), a Frenchman in the service of Persian government as a language instructor at Dār al-Fonun College, court photographer, and translator.  

• KÁRDAKES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  the name of a Persian military unit mentioned several times by Greek and Roman authors, nearly always in relation to the Achaemenid period (cf. Huyse, p. 199, n. 6).

• HĄM.VAINTĪ

  Bernfried Schlerath

  Zoroastrian divinity “Victory,” only attested as a companion with Āxšti “Peace.”

• JIWĀM

  Firoze M. Kotwal and Jamsheed K. Choksy

  “(consecrated) milk,” the designation for one of the organic items—now a mixture of milk and consecrated water—used in the  high or inner liturgical rituals of the Zoroastrians.

• ĀL-E DĀBŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See DABUYIDS.

• ĀTAŠKADA

  M. Boyce

   “house of fire,” a Zoroastrian term for a consecrated building in which there is an ever-burning sacred fire.

• BOLŪḠ

  cross-reference

  See BĀLEḠ.

• DĀVAR

  Cross-Reference

  See DĀTABARA.

• EUROPE, PERSIAN IMAGE OF

  Rudi Matthee

• AVICENNA x. Medicine and Biology

  B. Musallam

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BOARD GAMES in pre-Islamic Persia

  Ulrich Schädler and Anne-Elizabeth Dunn-Vaturi

  In contrast to the extensive literature describing the role of ancient Persia in the transmission of the games of chess and backgammon, our knowledge of other board games remains scanty. The study of ancient games relies on archeological material which is supplemented by data from epigraphic and iconographic sources, and direct evidence is lacking in most cases.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INDIA xxix. SHIʿITE COMMUNITIES IN

  Cross-Reference

  See CONVERSION iii. TO IMAMI SHI'ISM IN INDIA.

• ABŪ ḤANĪFA ESKĀFĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ESKĀFĪ, ABŪ ḤANĪFA.

• APOLLODORUS OF ARTIMITA

  M. L. Chaumont

  historian of the 1st century B.C. or later, author of a Parthian History.

• BANAFŠA

  H. Aʿlam

  “violet,” common name for the genus Viola L. in New Persian. From certain botanical features of violas there have developed some violet-based similes and metaphors in classical Persian literature.

• CLEARCHUS OF SPARTA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (b. Sparta ca. 450 BCE, d. Babylon 401 BCE), son of Rhamphias, Greek general in the service of Cyrus the Younger.

• EBN SĪNA

  Cross-Reference

  See AVICENNA.

• KĀMI AḤMED ÇELEBI

  Osman G. Özgüdenlī

   Ottoman scholar, judge, writer, and translator.

• TONB

  Guive Mirfendereski

  (GREATER and LESSER), two tiny islands of arguable strategic importance in the eastern Persian Gulf, south of the western tip of Qešm island.

• HARISA

  Etrat Elahi

  a cooked dish made from a mixture of grains, usually half-ground wheat and barley, and meat, usually lamb and more recently sometimes beef.

• JOVAYNI, ṢĀḤEB DIVĀN

  Michal Biran

  ŠAMS-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD b. Moḥammad (d. 1284), Persian statesman of the early Il-khanid period, the younger brother of the historian  ʿAlāʾ-al-Din ʿAṭā-Malek Jovayni.

• ʿALĪʾ-AL-DĪN ATSÏZ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a late and short-reigned sultan of the Ghurid dynasty in Afghanistan (607-11/1210-14).

• AVADH

  R. B. Barnett

  an ancient cultural and administrative region lying between the Himalayas and the Ganges in North India, named after Ayodhyā, the setting of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana.

• BORHĀN-AL-DĪN MOḤAQQEQ TERMEḎĪ

  cross-reference

  See MOḤAQQEQ TERMEḎĪ.

• DAYEAKUTʿIWN

  Robert G. Bedrosian

  a form of child rearing practiced in Armenia and other parts of the Caucasus.

• ʿEZRĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See BIBLE.

• BAZAR ii. Organization and Function

  Willem Floor

  Both weekly market days and regular fairs occurred in pre-Islamic times. Among the latter, for example, was the bāzār of Māḵ in Bukhara.

• ALAVI, Bozorg

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  (1904-1997), noted Persian novelist.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOD

  Cross-Reference

  See AHURA MAZDĀ; BAGA.

• INSTITUTE FOR IRANIAN PHILOLOGY

  Claus V. Pedersen

  (INSTITUT FOR IRANSK FILOLOGI), University of Copenhagen. i. Forerunners. ii. History. Although the Institute was founded only in 1961, it has a long prehistory, since it is the natural culmination of about 200 years of Iranian studies in the Kingdom of Denmark.

• ABŪ KĀLĪJĀR GARŠĀSP (I)

  C. E. Bosworth

  second son of the Kakuyid amir of Jebāl, ʿAlāʾ-al-dawla Moḥammad b. Došmanzīār, ruled in Hamadān and parts of what are now Kurdistan and Luristan, 433-37/1041-42 to 1045, d. 443/1051-52.

• ʿAQL-E SORḴ

  H. Corbin

  “The Crimsoned Archangel” (lit., “The Red Intellect”), one of the visionary recitals or treatises on spiritual initiation of Sohravardī (d. 1191)

• BANNĀʾĪ

  C. Bromberger

  While the term bannāʾī covers the entire construction field, in this brief study domestic building techniques, in particular, which are more or less part of the traditional crafts, and the recent evolution of popular housing will be emphasized.

• ČOḠĀ ZANBĪL

  Elizabeth Carter

  or Chogha Zanbil, a city founded by the Elamite king Untaš Napiriša (ca. 1275-40 B.C.E.) about 40 km southeast of Susa at a strategic point on a main road leading to the highlands. After his death it remained a place of religious pilgrimage and a burial ground until about 1000 B.C.E.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EBRĀHĪM MĪRZĀ

  Marianna S. Simpson

  (b. April 1540; d. 23 February 1577), Safavid prince, patron, artist, and poet generally referred to as Solṭān Ebrāhīm Mīrzā.

• KARBALA

  Meir Litvak

  a city in Iraq, situated about 90 km southwest of Baghdad.

• PARSI COMMUNITIES ii. IN CALCUTTA

  Jesse S. Palsetia

  Calcutta became a center of Parsi settlement from the 18th century. Dadabhoy Behramji Banaji is recorded as the first Parsi to have come to Calcutta from Surat in western India in 1767.

• ḤASAN ṢABBĀḤ

  Farhad Daftary

  prominent Ismaʿili dāʿi  and founder of the medieval Nezāri Ismaʿili state (b. 1050s, d. 1124).

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS vi. LEGAL SYSTEM, ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Cross-Reference

  See forthcoming, online. See also AḴBĀRIYA; CIVIL CODE; CONSTITUTION; CONTRACT; FEQH; HADITH.

• ʿALAWĪ, ABD-AL-KARĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-KARĪM ʿALAVĪ.

• AXTAR

  W. Eilers

  (Middle and New Persian) “star” or “constellation.”

• BOZGŪŠ

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the traditional reading of the name of a mythical tribe in Māzandarān mentioned in the Šāh-nāma.

• DEHḴODĀ, MĪRZĀ ʿALĪ-AKBAR QAZVĪNĪ

  ʿA.-A. SAʿĪDĪ SĪRJĀNĪ

  (ca. 1879–1956), scholar, poet, and social critic. In all his writing Dehḵodā was a perfectionist and a meticulous craftsman. He was a nationalist, outspoken in his convictions, indifferent to the wrath of powerful men, and a firm believer in Persian culture.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FAḴRĪ HERAVĪ, SOLṬĀN-MOḤAMMAD

  Sharif Husain Qasemi

  b. Moḥammad Amīr Khan (or Solṭān) Amīrī Heravī (b. Herat, ca. 1497, d. probably in Agra, after 1566), poet, scholar, and Sufi who wrote on various aspects of the poetic art.

• MATHESON, Sylvia Anne

  Yolande Crowe

  (1916-2006), writer, traveler and archeologist, especially remembered for her pioneering work, Persia: An Archaeological Guide, first published in 1972.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠOLĀM-ḤOSAYN KHAN ṬABĀṬABĀʾI

  Arif Naushahi

  (b. Delhi, 1727-28, d. after 1781), Sayyed, secretary (monši) by profession, political intermediary, and author of a popular history of India called Siar al-motaʾaḵḵerin.

• ABŪ NAṢR ʿOTBĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿOTBĪ, ABŪ NAṢR.

• ĀRAŠ, KAY

  A. Tafażżolī

  Avestan KAVI ARŠAN, a member of the Kayanid dynasty in Iranian legend. 

• BĀRAKZAY DYNASTY

  cross-reference

  See AFGHANISTAN x. Political History ; and DORRĀNĪ.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION

  Multiple Authors

  (Enqelāb-e mašrūṭa) of 1323-29/1905-11, during which a parliament and constitutional monarchy were established in Persia.

• EDEB

  Amir Hassanpour

  b. Armanī Bolāḡī (1860-1918), pen name of the Kurdish poet ʿAbd-Allāh Beg b. Aḥmad Beg Bābāmīrī Miṣbāḥ-al-Dīwān.

• RAM, Emad

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi

  (1931-2003), composer, vocalist, and flute player.

• FŌLĀDĪ

  Cross-Reference

  Buddhist cave site in Afghanistan. See AFGHANISTAN viii.

• ḤAYĀTI, ABDÜLHAY

  Tahsin Yazici

  or ʿAbd-al-Ḥayy, 15th century poet who wrote a series of Turkish poems modeled on Neẓāmi’s Ḵamsa.

• KADIMI

  Ramiyar P. Karanjia

  a Zoroastrian sect (Ar. qadim “old, ancient”). The movement emerged in 18th-century India.

• ʿALĪ B. ḤĀMED

  cross-reference

  KŪFĪ. See ČĀČ-NĀMA.

• AYYOHAʾL-WALAD

  I. Abbas

  a short treatise by Abū Ḥāmed Moḥammad Ḡazālī Ṭūsī (fl. 450-505/1058-1111), originally composed in Persian.

• BRONZES OF LURISTAN

  Oscar White Muscarella

  the accepted term for a distinct body of metalwork produced in the first half of the first millennium B.C. and characterized by a wide range of idiosyncratic forms and a highly stylized conception of human and animal representation.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĒN

  Mansour Shaki

  theological and metaphysical term with a variety of meanings:  “the sum of man’s spiritual attributes and individuality, vision, inner self, conscience, religion.”

• PERSIS, KINGS OF

  Joseph Wiesehöfer

  the Persian dynasts who between the 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE ruled as Parthian representatives in Persis, southwestern Iran.

• GOLŠAHRI, SOLAYMĀN

  EIr

   or GÜLŞEHRÎ; 13th century Ottoman Sufi and poet who wrote in Persian and Turkish.

• IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIRS

  Malcolm Byrne

  the linkage in the mid-1980s of two separate and distinct U.S. covert operations in Iran and Central America.

• ABŪ SAHL ZŪZANĪ

  Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī

  courtier and official under the Ghaznavid amirs Maḥmūd (388-421/998-1030) and Masʿūd (421-32/1031-41), d. ca. 440-50/1050-59.

• BARGOSTVĀN

  A. S. Melikian-Chirvani

  horse armor, a distinctive feature of Iranian warfare from very early times on. The earliest known helmet (chamfron) has been excavated at Ḥasanlū from a 9th-century B.C. stratum.

• ČORŪM

  Cross-Reference

  See ČERĀM.

• EFTEḴĀRĪĀN

  François de Blois

  a family of officials and poets from Qazvīn, reputed descendants of the caliph Abū Bakr, who flourished under the early Il-khans in the 13th century.

• FARĀMARZ-NĀMA

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  a Persian epic recounting the adventures of the hero Farāmarz.

• ĀYENAHĀ-YE DARDĀR

  Mohammad Mehdi Khorrami

  (Mirrors with cover doors, Tehran, 1992), one of the last major works by Hushang Golshiri.

• FOTŪḤ AL-SALĀṮĪN

  Cross-reference

  Work by Indo-Muslim poet ʿAbd-al-Malek ʿEṣāmi. See ʿEṢAMI, ʿABD-AL-MALEK.

• HECATAEUS OF MILETUS

  Joseph Wiesehöfer

  a Greek author from the city of Miletus in Asia Minor (fl. between 560 and 418 BCE), author of a geographical survey of the regions and the peoples in the Achaemenid empire.

• ABAQA

  Peter Jackson

  (or ABAḠA, “paternal uncle” in Mongolian; ABĀQĀ in Persian and Arabic), eldest son and first successor of the Il-khan Hülegü.

• ʿALĪ AṢḠAR BORŪJERDĪ

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  author of several works including the ʿAqāʾed al-šīʿa, written in 1263/1874 and dedicated to Moḥammad Shah Qāǰār.

• ĀZARMĪGDUXT

  Ph. Gignoux

  Sasanian queen who according to Ṭabarī ruled for a few months in 630.

• BURUSHASKI

  Hermann Berger

  language spoken in Hunza-Karakorum, North Pakistan, containing some Iranian loanwords of various origins.

• DEYLAMĪ, ʿABD-AL-RAŠĪD

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-RAŠĪD DAYLAMĪ.

• CITIES iv. Modern Urbanization and Modernization in Persia

  Eckart Ehlers

• KHAYYAM, OMAR ix. ILLUSTRATIONS OF ENGLISH TRANSLATIONS OF OMAR KHAYYAM’S RUBAIYAT

  William H. Martin and Sandra Mason

  The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam contain some of the best-known verses in the world. The book is also one of the most frequently and widely illustrated of all literary works. The stimulus to illustrate Khayyam’s Rubaiyat came initially from outside Persia, in response to translations in the West.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GORĀZ

  Cross-Reference

  See BOAR.

• ABU’L-WAZIR MARVAZĪ

  L. A. Giffen

  Secretary and author (d. 186/802).

• ARḠANDĀB RIVER

  D. Balland

  a river in the south of Afghanistan, the biggest tributary of the Helmand. The present name, in the form Āb-e Arḡand, is attested from the 7th/13th century.

• BARTHOLOMAE’S LAW

  M. Mayrhofer

  the name given to a rule of phonetic assimilation in the Indo-Iranian and probably also the proto-Indo-European languages first noted by Christian Bartholomae in 1882.

• CROWN PRINCE

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  the officially recognized heir apparent to the throne.

• ELĀHĪ

  Hamid Algar, J. W. Morris, Jean During

  or ʿAlīšāh (1895-1974), innovative and charismatic leader of one branch of the Ahl-e Ḥaqq and author of several texts on its teachings. The most complete presentation is to be found not in his Persian books, destined for circulation among Twelver Shiʿites, but in his unpublished writings in Gūrānī, intended to be read only by Ahl-e Ḥaqq initiates.

• FARHANG-E NĀFĪSĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See NĀẒEM-AL-AṬEBBĀʾ.

• ATEŞ, AHMED

  Tahsin Yazici

  (1911-1966), Turkish orientalist and scholar of Persian literature.

• KAŠF AL-ẒONUN

  Kioumars Ghereghlou

  (“Unveiling of suppositions”), a major bibliographical dictionary in Arabic, composed by Kāteb Čelebi Moṣṭafā b. ʿAbd-Allāh, also known as Ḥāji Ḵalifa (1609-57).

• FRAŠOŠTAR

  Cross-reference

  See JĀMĀSP.

• HELLESPONT

  cross-reference

  See XERXES.

• ʿABD-AL-ʿALĪ BĪRJANDĪ

  D. Pingree

  (or BARJANDĪ) Islamic astronomer, said to have died in 934/1527-28.

• ʿALĪ-QOLĪ KHAN MOḴBER-AL-DAWLA

  Cross-Reference

  See MOḴBER-AL-DAWLA.

• BĀB, ʿAli Moḥammad Širāzi

  D. M. MacEoin

  the founder of Babism (1819-1850).

• ČAḠĀNRŪD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Čaḡānīrūd in Farroḵī, the seventh and last right-bank tributary of the Oxus or Amu Darya.

• DIBĪR

  Cross-Reference

  See DABĪR.

• COMMERCE i. In the prehistoric period

  Oscar White Muscarella

• ALIZADEH, Ghazaleh

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  (1947-1996), noted novelist and short story writer.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GŌSFAND

  Cross-Reference

  See GUSFAND.

• ĀDĀ

  J. Duchesne-Guillemin

  “requital” in Avestan.

• ARNOLD, THOMAS WALKER

  B. W. Robinson

  , Sir (1864-1930), British orientalist.

• BISOTUN ii. Archeology

  Heinz Luschey

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CYRTIANS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  a tribe dwell­ing mainly in the mountains of Atropatenian Media together with the Cadusii, Amardi (or “Mardi”), Tapyri, and others.

• ELYMAIS

  John F. Hansman

  semi-independent state frequently subject to Parthian domination, which existed between the second century B.C.E. and the early third century C. E. in the territories of Ḵūzestān, in southwestern Persia.

• FARMĀNFARMĀ, FĪRŪZ MĪRZĀ NOṢRAT-AL-DAWLA

  Shireen Mahdavi

  (1817-1886), sixteenth son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā and grandson of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah. His political and military career flourished in the reigns of his brother Moḥammad Shah (834-48) and his nephew Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1848-96), under whom he held numerous governorships and other prominent posts.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GARMAPADA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  name of the fourth month (June-July) of the Old Persian calendar.

• JAMKARĀN

  Jean Calmard

  village near Qom, located 6 km south of it on the Qom-Kashan highway.

• GABAE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  the name of two places in Persia and Sogdiana.

• HĒRBEDESTĀN

  Firoze M. Kotwal

  (school for priests, religious school), a Middle Persian term designating (1) Zoroastrian priestly studies and (2) an Avestan/Pahlavi text found together with the Nērangestān manuscripts.

• ʿABD-AL-JABBĀR

  D. Duda

  Calligrapher at the Safavid court in Isfahan in the time of Shah ʿAbbās I (17th century).

• ALQĀS MĪRZA

  C. Fleischer

  second of Shah Esmāʿīl’s four surviving sons (1516-1550) and leader of a revolt.

• BĀBAY OF NISIBIS

  N. Sims-Williams

  Christian Syriac writer who flourished about the beginning of the seventh century CE; a homily of his is attested in Sogdian.

• ČAKĀVAK

  Hūšang Aʿlam, Hūšang Aʿlam

  (Mid. Pers. čakōk). i. The lark. ii. A melody in Persian music.

• DIONYSIUS

  RüDIGER SCHMITT

  (Gk. Dionýsios) of Miletus, Greek historiographer, who may have lived in the 5th century B.C.E. and is said to have written a book about Persian history after the death of Darius I.

• COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY vi. In Ismaʿilism

  Wilferd Madelung

• PAYANDEH, ABU’L-QASEM

  Ṣafdar Taqizāda

  (1908/1911-1984), journalist, translator, and fiction writer.

• GRAPHIC ARTS

  Mortażā Momayyez, Peter Chelkowski

  Broadly speaking, graphic art and design have a long history in Persia; their antecedents can be seen in graphic motifs and patterns on ancient clay and metal vessels, stone reliefs, seals, brickwork, glazed tiles, plaster and wood carvings, cloths, carpets, marquetry, miniature paintings, calligraphy, and illumination of manuscripts.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISLAM IN IRAN xiv - xviii

  Cross-Reference

• ADMINISTRATION in Iran

  Multiple Authors

• ART IN IRAN ix. SAFAVID To Qajar Periods

  A. Welch

• FĀRSĪ, ABŪ NAṢR ḤEBBAT-ALLĀH

  Cross-reference

  Official, soldier and poet of the Ghaznavid empire, flourished in the second half of the 5th/11th century during the reigns of the sultans Ebrāhīm b. Masʿūd I and Masʿūd III b. Ebrāhīm. See ABŪ NAṢR FĀRSĪ.

• MEILLET, (PAUL JULES) ANTOINE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  French linguist and scholar of Iranian and Armenian studies (1866-1936).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ZENDA BE GUR

  SOHILA SAREMI

  short story by the 20th-century writer, Sadeq Hedayat, in a collection of the same title.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠĀVĀL

  Jean During

  or daf; the most widespread percussion instrument in the Republic of Azerbaijan, played as much in artistic as in popular music and professional ensembles.

• HERODOTUS xi. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

  Robert Rollinger

• ʿABD-AL-QĀDER BALḴĪ

  T. Yazici

  (1839-1923), an Ottoman Sufi and poet who came originally from Balḵ. 

• AMATUNI

  C. Toumanoff

  Armenian dynastic house, known historically after the 4th century CE.

• BADĀʾ

  W. Madelung

  (Ar. appearance, emergence), as a theological term denotes a change of a divine decision or ruling in response to the emergence of new circumstances.  It is upheld in Imami Shiʿite doctrine.

• CAMEL THORN

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  (Alhagi Adans. spp.), common name for wild thorny suffrutescent plants of the Papilionaceae family, called šotor-ḵār and ḵār-e šotor (lit. “camel’s thorn”) in Persian.

• DOG

  Mahmoud Omidsalar and Teresa P. Omidsalar, Mary Boyce, Jean-Pierre Digard

  Canis familiaris; i. In literature and folklore. ii. In Zoroastrianism. iii. Ethnography.

• ELAM ii. The archeology of Elam

  Elizabeth Carter

  The archeological use of the term “Elam” is based on a loose unity recognizable in the material cultures of the period 3400-525 BCE at Susa in Ḵūzestān, at Anshan in Fārs, and at sites in adjacent areas of the Zagros mountains. Text-based definitions often lead to interpretations that are at odds with those derived from the study of material culture.

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• NAJM-AL-SALṬANA

  Mansoureh Ettehadieh

  a Qajar princess whose life spanned the late Qajar and early Pahlavi eras (b. 1231-32 Š./1853; d. 1311 Š./1932).

• AFNĀN

  M. Momen

  (“twigs” or “branches”), term used in the Bahaʾi faith (initially by Bahāʾallāh) to designate certain lines of descent in the maternal family of the Bāb.

• ARTEMBARĒS

  M. A. Dandamayev

  Greek form of an Old Iranian proper name.

• BĒDIL

  cross-reference

  See BĪDEL.

• DĀʿĪ, MĪRZĀ ŠAMS-AL-DĪN BOḴĀRĪ

  Cathérine Poujol

  (d. 1885), poet from Bukhara, probably born during the reign of Amir Naṣr-Allāh (1827-60).

• ENQELĀB-E MAŠṞUṬĪYĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION.

• FATḤ JANG

  Mehrdad Shokoohy

  or Mīrzā Ebrāhīm (d. 1623-24), a Mughal official. 

• OXYARTES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Bactrian noble, satrap under Alexander the Great.

• DAŠT-E MOḠĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See MOḠĀN.

• GALBANUM

  Hushang Aʿlam

  (Pers. bārīja, bārzad), a slightly bitter odorous gum resin obtained from several Asian umbelliferous plants, for which numerous medicinal uses have been recorded.

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• ʿABD-AL-RAŠĪD DAYLAMĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Calligrapher and poet who served the Mughal ruler Shah Jahān (1037-58/1628-58).

• AMĪN ḴALWAT

  F. Gaffary

  (Trustee of the Shah’s private household or court), an office and title in the late Qajar period held by members of the Ḡaffārī family.

• BADR-AL-DĪN SERHENDĪ

  Y. Friedmann

  (b. ca. 1593-94), a Sufi author, translator, and disciple of Aḥmad Serhendī.

• CARDUCHI

  Muhammad Dandamayev

  warlike tribes that in antiquity occupied the hilly country along the upper Tigris near the Assyrian and Median borders, in present-day western Kurdistan.

• DORNĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See CRANE.

• FĀRĀBĪ v. Music

  George Sawa

• NOṢAYRIS

  Meir M. Bar-Asher

  followers of Nusayrism, a syncretistic religion with close affinity to Shiʿism, whose adherents live mostly in Syria and southeastern Turkey.

• GUNS, GUNNERY

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀRUT; FIREARMS.

• JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ i. Life

  Robert Gleaves

• AFŻAL KHAN, AMIR MOḤAMMAD

  ʿA. Ḥabībī

  (1220-84/1814-67), governor of Balḵ and for a short time ruler of Afghanistan.

• ĀŠ

  W. Eilers, ʿE. Elāhī, M. Boyce

  (thick soup), the general term for a traditional Iranian dish comparable to the French potage.

• BEHRANGĪ, ṢAMAD

  Michael C. Hillmann

  (1939-1968), teacher, social critic, folklorist, translator, and short story writer.

• DĀMḠĀN

  Chahryar Adle

  (Damghan) Persian town located on a plain south of the Alborz range, 342 km east of Tehran. Situated on the main highway from Tehran to Nīšāpūr, Mašhad, and Herat, it  also dominates less important roads north to Sārī and Gorgān, as well as tracks leading south to Yazd and Isfahan via Jandaq.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EQLĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See CLIME.

• FEDĀʾĪ ḴORĀSĀNĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Farhad Daftary

  b. Zayn-al-ʿĀbedīn b. Karbalāʾī Dāwūd (b. ca. 1850; d. 1923), foremost Persian Nezārī Ismaʿili author and poet of modern times, who is referred to as Ḥājī Āḵūnd in the Persian Nezārī community.

• BELLES LETTRES i. SASANIAN IRAN

  Werner Sundermann

  Belles lettres, that is, entertaining works, are not lacking in Sasanian Iran but can by no means match with their development in New Persian literature, both for quality and quantity.

• KETĀB AL-FOTUḤ

  ELTON L. DANIEL

  an important early Arabic historical text by Ebn Aʿṯam Kufi (d. 314/926?), which was translated, at least in part, into Persian towards the end of the 6th/12th century.

• GANJ DAREH TEPE

  Cross-Reference

  See ECBATANA.

• HOMOSEXUALITY i. IN ZOROASTRIANISM

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  Zoroastrian literature contains discussions of personal relations only in legal contexts and is quite explicit with regard to sins of a sexual nature.

• ʿABDAK AL-ṢŪFĪ

  B. Reinert

  an eccentric religious devotee of Kūfa, who also lived for periods at Baghdad, late 2nd/8th to early 3rd/9th centuries.

• AMĪR PĀDEŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See MOḤAMMAD AMĪR B. MAḤMŪD.

• BAGAZUŠTA

  R. Schmitt

  Old Iranian personal name *Baga-zušta- “beloved of the god(s)” attested in the Achaemenid period and after.

• CASPIAN GATES

  John H. Hansman

  an ancient toponym identifying a ground-level pass that runs east and west through a southern spur of the Alborz Mountains in north central Iran.

• DRUJ-

  Jean Kellens

  Avestan feminine noun defining the concept opposed to that of aṧa-.

• AʿLAM, MOẒAFFAR

  Baqer Aqeli

  Sardār Enteṣār (1882-1973), provincial governor, minister of foreign affairs, military minister plenipotentiary. 

• ḤABIBIYA SCHOOL

  Ludwig W. Adamec

  an elite high school for boys established in 1903 in Kabul and named after its founder, Amir Ḥabib-Allāh.

• JALĀL-AL-DIN MIRZĀ

  Abbas Amanat and Farzin Vejdani

  Qajar historian and freethinker (1827-1872). Born at the court in Tehran, he was the fifty-fifth son of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah (r. 1797-1834). Besides European influences, the intellectual sources of his freethinking are not entirely known. He associated with Mirzā Malkom Khan (1833-1908) and his secret society, the Farāmuš-ḵāna (‘house of oblivion’), which made strident efforts to recruit members.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AHLĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ

  W. Thackston

  poet (858/1454?-942/1535).

• ASBĀNBAR

  Cross-Reference

  See MADĀʾEN.

• BERYĀNĪ

  Ṣoḡrā Bāzargān

  (from beryān “roast”), an Iranian meat dish usually served wrapped in flat bread.

• DĀNĪĀL-E NABĪ

  Amnon Netzer, Nicholas Sims-Williams, Parvīz Varjāvand, Amnon Netzer

  the Old Testament prophet Daniel, in the Persian tradition.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ERṮ

  Cross-Reference

  See INHERITANCE.

• FERTILITY AND MORTALITY

  Mehdi Amani

  Up to 1986 the Persian birthrate was high (as high as 48-49 per 1,000), compared to the world rate but had dropped from 1966, as a result of official policies on family planning.  In 1994 the Persian birthrate equaled the average for Asia and Central America, 26 to 30 per 1,000 population, reflecting a continued very high fertility rate.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SINEMĀ WA NEMĀYEŠĀT

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the first Persian magazine entirely devoted to cinematography (1930).

• IRAQ

  Multiple Authors

  the southern part of Mesopotamia, known in the early Islamic period as del-e Irānšahr (lit. “the heart of the kingdom of Iran”), served as the central province of the Sasanian empire as well as that of the ʿAbbasid caliphate.

• GARRETT COLLECTION

  Kambiz Eslami

  one of the finest collections of Near Eastern manuscripts, bequeathed to the Princeton University Library by Robert Garrett (1875-1961), a graduate a trustee of the university.

• HORUFISM

  Hamid Algar

  a body of antinomian and incarnationist doctrines evolved by Fażl-Allāh Astarābādi (d. 1394), known to his followers also as Fażl-e Yazdān (“the generosity of God”). Its principal features were elaborate numerological interpretations of the letters of the Perso-Arabic alphabet and an attempt to correlate them with the human form.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABDALLĀH KHAN

  B. W. Robinson

  Court painter (18th-19th century).

• AMRĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ

  I. K. Poonawala

  (d. 999/1590-91 [?], poet and Sufi from Kūhpāya, a village near Isfahan.

• BAHĀR (1)

  Ḡ.-Ḥ. Yūsofī

  a Persian literary, scientific, political, and social-affairs monthly, 1910-11, 1921-22. Bahār represented a departure from traditional Persian journalism; readers found its willingness to discuss contemporary literature and literary criticism a refreshing change.

• ČEHEL ṬŪṬĪ

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  (forty parrot [stories]), the designation of collections of entertaining stories about the wife of a merchant and a pair of parrots, several versions of which are current in Persia and which are derived from older collections called ṭūṭī-nāmas (book of the parrots).

• DURA EUROPOS

  Pierre Leriche, D. N. MacKenzie

  ruined city on the right bank of the Euphrates between Antioch and Seleucia on the Tigris, founded in 303 BCE by Nicanor, a general of Seleucus I. Its military function of the Greek period was abandoned under the Parthians, but at that time it was an administrative and economic center.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAMALZADEH, MOHAMMAD-ALI iii. Bibliography

  Nahid Mozaffari

• MOʾAYYAD FI’L-DIN ŠIRĀZI

  Verena Klemm

  (ca. 1000-87), outstanding and multitalented representative of the Fatimid religious and political mission (daʿwa) in the service of the Caliph/Imam Mostanṣer bi’llāh (r. 1036-94).

• ḤĀFEẒ-E ABRU

  Maria Eva Subtelny and Charles Melville

  (d. 1430), author of many historical and historico-geographical works in Persian, which were commissioned by Šāhroḵ, the Timurid ruler of Herat during the first decades of the 15th century.

• JĀMĀSPASA, Dastur JAMASPJI MINOCHERJI

  Ramiyar P. Karanjia and Michael Stausberg

  (1830-1898), Parsi priest and Iranologist, offspring of a priestly family from Navsari in Gujarat, India. As a high priest he guided and supervised the consecration of several fire temples, not only in Bombay but all over India. He possessed a vast collection of important Zoroastrian manuscripts, and his publication Pahlavi texts (1897-1913) made these  available to a larger audience.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḤMAD SHAH DORRĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See AFGHANISTAN X. POLITICAL HISTORY.

• ʿAŠKARĪ, ʿALĪ AL-HĀDĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ AL-HĀDĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN AL-ʿASKARĪ.

• BHARUCHA, SHERIARJI DADABHAI

  Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa

  Parsi scholar (1843-1915). During the last years of his life he was criticized for his reformist views that the Zoroastrian religion was not meant for a particular fold but was open for all.

• DARBAND (2)

  Bernard Hourcade

  a former village in the summer resort (yeylāq) of Šamīrān, situated at an elevation of 1,700 m on the extreme northern edge of the capital, where the Alborz foothills begin.

• ESFARA

  Habib Borjian

  a district in the Fergana valley south of the Jaxartes which extends to the foothills of the Turkestan range.

• FĪL

  Cross-Reference

  See ELEPHANT.

• KURDOEV, QENĀTĒ

  Joyce Blau

  (1909-1985), Kurdish philologist and university professor.

• KASRAVI, AḤMAD vii. A BIBLIOGRAPHICAL SURVEY

  EIr. and M. Amini

  Aḥmad Kasravi was a prolific writer. From the age of 25, when he began to write in Tabriz in 1915, until his assassination 30 years later in 1946.

• GAZELLE

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀHŪ, CHINKARA.

• HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

  cross-reference

  See MAJLES.

• ABĪVARD

  C. E. Bosworth

   a town in medieval northern Khorasan.

• ANBARIN QALAM, ‘ABD-AL-RAḤĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-RAḤĪM ʿANBARĪN QALAM.

• BAḤR-E ṬAWĪL

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  a type of Persian verse. generally the repetition of a whole foot (rokn) of the meter hazaj (ᴗ - - -) or of a whole foot of the meter ramal (- ᴗ - -) or a variation of the two.

• CHAARENE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (Gk. Chaarēnḗ), in Achaemenid times one of the easternmost Iranian provinces and the one closest to India.

• EBIR NĀRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See EBER-NĀRI.

• LENTIL

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿADAS.

• YAZIDIS i. GENERAL

  Christine Allison

  The Yazidis are  a heterodox Kurdish religious minority living predominantly in northern Iraq, Syria, and southeast Turkey, with well-established communities in the Caucasus and a growing European diaspora.

• ḤĀJI BĀBĀ AFŠĀR

  Anna Vanzan

  son of an officer in the army of the Crown Prince ʿAbbās Mirzā and one of the first Persian students sent to study in Europe (1811).

• JAPAN ix. Centers for Persian Studies in Japan

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  Formal undergraduate and graduate programs of Persian studies in Japan are offered at Osaka University School of Foreign Studies and Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.

• ĀĪN GOŠASP

  A. Tafażżolī

  a general of Hormazd IV (A.D. 579-590), sent by him to campaign against the rebellious general Bahrām Čūbīn.

• ĀŠRAF, town in Māzandarān

  Cross-Reference

  town in Māzandarān. See BEHŠAHR.

• BĪGDELĪ

  Gerhard Doerfer

  (or Bēgdelī, also Bagdīlū), a former Turkish tribe; the name Bīgdelī appears to have survived only in personal names.

• DARRA-YE ṢŪF

  Daniel Balland

  name of a valley in northern Afghanistan, drained by a tributary of the right bank of the Balḵāb, and of the adjoining mountain district and its administrative center in Samangān province.

• ESLĀMĪYA

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of two Persian newspapers first appearing in Tabrīz in 1906.

• BUDDHISM iv. Buddhist Sites in Afghanistan and Central Asia

  Boris A. Litvinsky

  The spread of Buddhism beyond the Indian subcontinent accelerated under the Mauryan king Aśoka (r. 265–238 BCE). An active proponent of Buddhism, he sent out religious missions.

• HINDU PERSIAN POETS

  Stefano Pello

  From the late 16th century Hindus contributed to the development of Indo-Persian literary culture in general, and to the output of Persian verse in particular.

• GEOPOTHROS

  Cross-Reference

  See GŌDARZ.

• HYDE, THOMAS

  A. V. Williams

  , D.D., English orientalist, Professor of Arabic and Hebrew in the University of Oxford, the first scholar to attempt to write a comprehensive description of the religion of Zoroaster (1636-1703).

• ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD B. ŠĀḎĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  governor (ʿamīd) of Balḵ and northern Afghanistan under the Saljuq ruler of Khorasan, Čaḡrī Beg Dāʾūd, and then under his son, Alp Arslan.

• ANGRA MAINYU

  Cross-Reference

  See AHRIMAN.

• BĀḴARZ

  C. E. Bosworth

  or Govāḵarz, a district of the medieval Islamic province of Qūhestān/Qohestān in Khorasan.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS

  Multiple Authors

• EBN DĀROST, MAJD-AL-WOZARĀʾ MOḤAMMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Manṣūr (d. Ahvā, 1074), vizier to the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Qāʾem from 9 May 1061 to 9 December 1062.

• KALĀRESTĀQ ii. The Dialect

  Habib Borjian

  The Caspian vernaculars spoken in Kalārestāq, together with those of Tonekābon district, may not be properly classified as either Māzandarāni or Gilaki but serve as a transition between these two language groups.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MUSĀ YABḠU

  Osman G. Özgüdenli

  the eponymous strongman of a Ḡozz clan, whose nephew Toḡrel founded the Saljuq dynasty.

• HALLOCK, RICHARD TREADWELL

  Charles E. Jones and Matthew W. Stolper

  (1906-1980), Elamitologist and Assyriologist, whose magnum opus, Persepolis Fortification Tablets, transformed the study of the languages and history of Achaemenid Persia.

• JAWHARI, ABU ʿABD-ALLĀH AḤMAD

  Abbas Kadhim

   b. Moḥammad b. ʿObayd-Allāh b. Ḥasan b. ʿAyyāš, 10th-century Imami transmitter of Hadith (d. 1010).

• AKES

  M. A. Dandamayev

  (Greek Akēs), a river in Central Asia, the modern Tejen or Harī-rūd (q.v.).

• ĀŠTĪĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  the name both of an administrative subdistrict (dehestān) and its chef-lieu in the First Province (ostān).

• BĪŽAN-NAMA

  William Hanaway, Jr.

  an epic poem of about 1,900 lines relating the adventures of the legendary hero Bīžan son of Gīv.

• DAŠT

  Eckart Ehlers

  lit. "plain, open ground"; Persian term for a very specific type of landscape, the extended gravel piedmonts and plains that are almost ubiquitous in arid central Persia.

• EŠRĀQĪ SCHOOL

  Cross-Reference

  See ILLUMINATIONISM.

• ARCHEOLOGY vii. Islamic Central Asia

  G. A. Pugachenkova and E. V. Rtveladze

  he study of the archeology of the Islamic period was initiated in Central Asia in the late 19th century by Turkestan amateurs and St. Petersburg scholars, and has been carried on with growing intensity in Soviet times. 

• SERĀJ AL-AḴBĀR-E AFḠĀNIYA

  May Schinasi

  “Torch of the news of Afghanistan,” bi-monthly Persian language newspaper published in Kabul during the second decade of the reign of Amir Ḥabib-Allāh (q.v.; r. 1901-19).

• ILDEGOZIDS

  cross-reference

  See ATĀBAKĀN-E ĀḎARBĀYJĀN.

• ABŪ ʿEKREMA

  D. M. Dunlop

  a freedman of Banū Ḥamdān, regarded as the first ʿAbbasid propagandist in Khorasan.

• ANŌŠAZĀD

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  (in the Šāh-nāma, Nōšzād; the name means “son of the immortal”), a son of Ḵosrow I Anōšīravān and leader of a revolt in ca. 550 CE.

• BALʿAMĪ, ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD

  cross-reference

  B. MOḤAMMAD. See AMĪRAK BALʿAMĪ.

• CICAST

  Cross-Reference

  See ČĒČAST.

• EBN MĀHĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ B. ʿĪSĀ B. MĀHĀN.

• SOLAYMĀNI, Ātajān Peyrow

  Keith Hitchins

  (1899-1933), Tajik poet who blended the classical traditions of Tajik-Persian verse with the social themes of the new Soviet Central Asia of the 1920s and early 1930s.

• FARZĀN, Sayyed Moḥammad

  EIr

  (b. near Birjand, 1894; d. Bābolsar, 1970), an eminent scholar of classical literature.

• ḤAMMĀM-E WAKĪL

  Karāmat-Allāh Afsar

  (bathhouse of the Wakil), a historic monument in Shiraz built by Karim Khan Zand “the Wakil” (r. 1751-79) after 1776.

• JIROFT i. Geography of Jiroft Sub-Province

  M. Badanj and EIr.

  Located in the south of Kerman Province, the sub-province of Jiroft is bound by those of Kermān (north), Bam (east), ʿAnbarābād and Kahnuj (south), and Bāft (west).

• ĀL-E BĀBĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀBĀN.

• ĀTAŠ, AḤMAD

  cross-reference

  See  ATEŞ, AHMED.

• BOLANDMĀZŪ

  cross-reference

  See BALŪṬ.

• DAURISES

  R. Schmitt

  name of a Persian general during the Ionian revolt, a son-in-law of Darius I (522-486 B.C.E.).

• EUCRATIDES

  Paul Bernard

  name of two Greco-Bactrian kings: (1) Eucratides I (r. 170-145 B.C.E.), one of the last and most powerful of the Greco-Bactrian kings and (2) Eucratides II, another Greco-Bactrian king, (r. 145-140 B.C.E.) known only through his coinage.

• AVICENNA v. Mysticism

  D. Gutas

• SAFAVID DYNASTY

  Rudi Matthee

  Originating from a mystical order at the turn of the 14th century, the Safavids ruled Persia from 1501 to 1722. 

• GIFT GIVING v

  Willem Floor

  v. In the Qajar Period.

• ABŪ ḤAFṢ ḤADDĀD

  J. Chabbi

  an ascetic who was born and lived in Nīšāpūr, d. between 265/874 and 270/879.

• APARIMITĀYUḤ-SŪTRA

  R. E. Emmerick

  a Buddhist text belonging to the Mahāyāna tradition. It is concerned with the merit obtained by recalling the Buddha called Aparimitāyurjñānasuviniścitarāja.

• BAMPŪR

  B. de Cardi, ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  i. Prehistoric Site. ii. In Modern Times. Bampūr is a baḵš and qaṣaba (borough) in the šahrestān of Īrānšahr in the province of Balūčestān o Sīstān. The plain of Bampūr is encircled by several high mountains.

• CLASS SYSTEM

  Multiple Authors

  (ṭabaqāt-e ejtemāʿī), a generic term referring to various types of social group, including castes, estates, status groups, and occupational categories.

• EBN ŠĀḎĀN

  Wilferd Madelung

  family name of two Imami traditionists: Abu’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. ʿAlī b. Ḥasan (or Ḥosayn) Fāmī Qomī (10th century) and his son.

• KALBĀSI

  Hamid Algar

  Ḥāj Moḥammad Ebrāhim (b. Isfahan, 1766; d. Isfahan, 1845), prominent Oṣuli jurist, influential in the affairs of Isfahan during the reigns of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah and Moḥammad Shah.

• ŠĀH-NĀMA TRANSLATIONS ii. INTO GEORGIAN

  Jamshid Sh. Giunshvili

  The Šāh-nāma was translated, not only to satisfy the literary and aesthetic needs of readers and listeners, but also to inspire the young with the spirit of heroism and Georgian patriotism.

• HAREM i. IN ANCIENT IRAN

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  There is no evidence for the practice among the early Iranians of taking large numbers of wives or concubines and keeping them in secluded quarters.

• JOURNALISM iii. Post-Revolution Era

  Hossein Shahidi

  At the time of the 1978-79 Revolution, there were about 100 newspapers in Iran, of which twenty-three were dailies. Within two years of the revolution, 700 new titles had appeared.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA ḤASAN B. ROSTAM

  W. Madelung

  B. ʿALĪ B. ŠAHRĪĀR, ŠARAF-AL-MOLŪK, Bavandid ruler of Māzandarān. According to the account of Ebn Esfandīār, he reigned from 558/1163 to 566/1171. 

• AURELIUS VICTOR

  M. L. Chaumont

  born in Africa ca. 325/330, held high positions under Julian and Theodosius.

• BORHĀN-AL-MAʾĀṮER

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• TEA

  Cross-Reference

  See ČĀY.

• EŻĀFA

  John R. Perry and Ali Ashraf Sadeghi

  (annexation, suppletion), a grammatical term embracing several types of Persian noun phrase in which the constituents are connected by the enclitic -e/-ye (kasra-ye eżāfa “the eżāfa particle”).

• SAFAVID DYNASTY (cont.)

  Rudi Matthee

  Annotated bibliography.

• SYKES, Percy Molesworth

  Denis Wright

  , Sir (1867-1945), soldier, diplomat, traveler, and writer who wrote extensively on Iran. 

• ḠOBĀRI, ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN

  Tahsİn Yazici

  b. ʿAbd-Allāh (d. 1566), Ottoman poet, calligrapher, and Sufi who wrote in both Turkish and Persian.

• INOSTRANTSEV, KONSTANTIN ALEXANDROVICH

  Aliy I. Kolesnikov

  (1876-1941), Russian orientalist and historian of culture, best known abroad as the author of Sasanidskie et’udy (Etudes sassanides).

• ABŪ ʿĪSĀ WARRĀQ

  W. M. Watt

  heretical theologian of the 3rd/9th century.