Search Results

• CANDLESTICKS

  Linda Komaroff

  from the late 6th/12th through the early 10th/16th century one of the most common types of implement produced as a luxury metalware in Iran. Their form, decoration, and epigraphic program reflect contemporary trends in Iranian metalwork.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DOḴTARĀN-E ĪRĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  lit., “Daughters of Iran”; a monthly variety magazine for girls published in Shiraz from 23 July 1931 to November 1932.

• EMĀMZĀDA iii. Number, distribution, and important examples

  PARVĪZ VARJĀVAND

• ZĀR

  Maria Sabaye Moghaddam

  harmful wind (bād) associated with spirit possession beliefs in southern coastal regions of Iran. People believe in the existence of winds that can be either vicious or peaceful, believer (Muslim) or non-believer (infidel).

• GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (b. Hannoversch-Münden, 1775; d. Hannover, 1853), German philologist and scholar of oriental studies.

• Italy xiv. CURRENT CENTERS OF IRANIAN STUDIES IN ITALY

  Carlo G. Cereti

  Studies on subjects related to the Iranian cultural world can boast an ancient tradition in Italy, but not as an independent field of study at academic level. Things have considerably changed in recent times.

• ĀFRĪD

  J. P. Asmussen

  5th-century Christian bishop of Sagastān.

• ARTOXARES

  M. Dandamayev

  a Paphlagonian eunuch at the court of Artaxerxes I and satrap of Armenia.

• BEET

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  Beta vulgaris L., PERS. čoḡondar. The present distinction of beet varieties into vegetable (or red) beet, sugar beet, and fodder beet was unknown to the early Islamic botanists-pharmacologists.

• DĀITYĀ, VAŊHVĪ

  Gherardo Gnoli

  the name of a river connected with the religious law, frequently identified in scholarly literature with the Oxus or with rivers of the northeastern region.

• ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

  Eskandar Firouz, Daniel Balland

  efforts to protect natural resources, wildlife, and ecosystems and to control pollution. In Persia conservation consciousness began, as it so often does, with concern for wildlife.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FAUSTUS

  James R. Russell

  fifth-century author of the Patmutʿiwn Hayocʿ (History of the Armenians) or Buzandaran.

• MARDONIUS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Name of several Persians in Achaemenid times, as OPers. M-r-d^u-u-n-i-y- /Mr̥duniya-/ (DB 4.84) is rendered in Greek (Mardónios) and Latin (Mardonius).

• ḠALYĀN

  Shahnaz Razpush and EIr

  or QALYĀN (nargileh); a water pipe chiefly used in the Middle East and Central Asia for smoking tobacco. It is composed of several parts: the bādgīr (chimney); sar-e ḡālyān or sarpūš (the top bowl; sar-ḵāna in Afghanistan); tana (the body); mīlāb (the immersion pipe); ney-e pīč (hose); and kūza (the reservoir of water).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HNČʿAK

  Aram Arkun

  colloquial term for members of the Social Democratic Hnčʿakean Party [SDHP], founded in Switzerland by Russian Armenians in 1887, with  branches in Persia, the Russian empire, the Ottoman empire, and elsewhere.

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ LĀHĪJĪ

  W. Madelung

  Theologian and philosopher (and poet under the pen name FAYYĀŻ, 11th/17th century).

• AMĪN-AL-ŻARB, ḤĀJJ MOḤAMMAD-ḤASAN

  A. Enayat

  (AMĪN-AL-ŻARB), custodian of the state mint under Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah, regarded as the most successful Iranian entrepreneur of his time (1253-1316/1837-98).

• BADUSPANIDS

  W. Madelung

  a dynasty ruling Rūyān and Rostamdār from the late 11th to the 16th century with the title of ostandār and later of king.

• ČARḴĪ, Mawlānā Yaʿqūb

  Hamid Algar

  an early shaikh of the Naqšbandī order and author of several works in Persian (d. 851/1447).

• DORRI EFENDI

  Cross-Reference

  See DÜRRI EFENDI.

• FASĀ ii. Tall-e Żaḥḥāk

  JOHN F. HANSMAN

  a tell or artificial mound, lying within a still broader archeological zone, built up by successive layers of human occupation from prehistoric to medieval times; it is located 130 km south of Shiraz and 3 km southeast of Fasā.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• VAZIRI, ʿAli-Naqi

  Hormoz Farhat

  (b. Tehran, 1887; d., Tehran, 9 September 1979), composer, virtuoso tār player, musical theorist, and educator.

• ḠURIĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See FUŠANJ.

• JĀḠORI

  A. Monsutti

  a term of uncertain etymological origin for both a tribal section of the Hazāras and a district (woluswāli) of Ḡazni province in Afghanistan.

• ĀḠĀJĪ

  ʿA. Zaryāb

  title of a court official in the administrations of the Ghaznavids and Saljuqs.

• ASADĀBĀDĪ, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN

  Cross-Reference

  See AFḠĀNĪ, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN.

• BEKTĀŠ, ḤĀJĪ

  Hamid Algar

  , ḤĀJĪ (d. 1270-71?), Khorasanian Sufi and eponym of the Bektāšī order, once widespread in Anatolia and the Balkans, with offshoots in Egypt, Iraq, and Western Iran.

• DANDĀNQĀN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a small town of medieval Khorasan, in the Qara Qum, or sandy desert, between Marv and Saraḵs, 10 farsaḵs from the former, on which it was administratively dependent.

• ĒRĀN-ŠĀD-KAWĀD

  Rika Gyselen

  name of a Sasanian town occurring in post-Sasanian sources only.

• KHALCHAYAN

  Lolita Nehru

  in Surxondaryo prov., southern Uzbekistan, site of a settlement and palace of the nomad Yuezhi, with paintings and sculptures of the mid-1st century BCE. The Yuezhi, and perhaps other nomad groups, overthrew the Hellenistic Greek dynasty which had ruled there since the mid-3rd century as successor to the post-Achaemenid governments of Alexander and the Seleucids.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GORGĀN

  Multiple Authors

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Geography, ii. Dašt-e Gorgān, iii. Population, iv. Archeology, v. Pre-Islamic history, vi. History from the rise of Islam to the beginning of the Safavid Period, vii. To the end of the Pahlavi era.

• GANJ-ʿALĪ KHAN

  Mohammad-Ebrahim Bastani Parizi

  a military leader and governor of Kermān, Sīstān, and Qandahār under Shah ʿAbbās I (996-1038/1588-1629). 

• ḤOQUQ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the name of various 20th-century periodicals in Iran and Afghanistan.

• ʿABDALLĀH, QAVĀM-AL-DĪN

  T. Kuroyanagi

  14th century theologian and faqīh of Shiraz (d. 772/1370).

• AMITĀYUS

  R. E. Emmerick

  Sanskrit name of one of the transcendental Buddhas, the so-called Dhyāni-Buddhas, of later Buddhism. 

• BAGHDAD PACT

  J. A. Kechichian

  popular name for the 1955 pro-Western defense alliance between Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, and the United Kingdom.

• CASTRATION

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  (of men; ḵaṣī kardan, ḵāya kešīdan, ḵᵛāja kardan), discussion of castration in Islamic medical literature, on its legal status, and on its historical attestation in Islamic Persia.

• ḎU’L-FAQĀR KHAN AFŠĀR

  J. R. PERRY

  governor (ḥākem) of Ḵamsa province (ca. 1763-80) under the Zand dynasty.

• CARPETS xii. Pahlavi Period

  Willem Floor

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FARHANG-E WAFĀʾI

  Solomon Bayevsky

  or Resāla-ye Wafāʾi; a Persian lexicon of some 2,425 mainly literary terms, compiled by Ḥosayn Wafāʾi in 1527 and dedicated to the Safavid Shah Ṭahmāsb I.

• HADIŠ (1)

  cross-reference

  See PALACE i. ACHAEMENID.

• JALĀYER, ESMĀʿIL KHAN

  Manouchehr Broomand

  a prominent painter of the Qajar era, during the reign of Nāṣer-al-Din Shah (r. 1848-96). He was  noted for his work in the genres of irāni-sāzi (Iranian subjects, relatively unaffected by European influences) and ṭabiʿat-sāzi (fauna and flora in a European naturalistic mode).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḤMAD B. JAʿFAR

  D. M. Dunlop

  poet, man of letters, musician, wit, and bon vivant at the court of several ʿAbbasid caliphs, hence sometimes called al-Nadīm.

• ʿĀŠEQ HAWĀSĪ

  C. F. Albright

  “melody of the ʿāšeq,” term referring to (1) a type of poem often sung by ʿāšeqs in Iranian Azerbaijan and (2) the typical manner of singing the poem and the manner of accompanying it on the musical instrument.

• BESṬĀM (1)

  Wilhelm Eilers

  (or Bestām), an Iranian man’s name; as a result of its past popularity, it is a fairly common component of place names.

• DAR-E MEHR

  Mary Boyce

  a Zoroastrian term first recorded in the Persian Rivāyats and Parsi Gujarati writings.

• ESCHATOLOGY

  Multiple Authors

  the branch of theology concerned with final things, i.e., the advent of the savior to defeat evil and the end of the world.

• FEṬR

  Cross-Reference

  See FESTIVALS iii.

• ŻIĀʾ-AL-SALṬANA

  Dominic Parviz Brookshaw

  , Šāh Begom (1799-1873), seventh daughter of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah Qajar (r. 1797-1834), private secretary to him, calligrapher and poet.

• KHALAJ

  Multiple Authors

  i. Tribe Originating in Turkistan.  ii. Language.

• ḠĀYER KHAN

  Peter Jackson

  b. Tekeš (d. 1220), Turkish general of the Ḵᵛārazmšāh ʿAlāʾ-al-Dīn Moḥammad.

• ḤOSAYN B. ʿALI ii. IN POPULAR SHIʿISM

  Jean Calmard

  Legendary accounts about Ḥosayn and his martyrdom were from the outset influenced by his status as a Shiʿite Imam.

• ʿABDALLĀH ŠĪRĀZĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Painter and illuminator of the late 10th/16th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAHĀRVAND

  P. Oberling

  a Lur tribe now living mostly in the dehestāns (districts) of Kargāh and Bālā Garīva, south and southwest of Ḵorramābād.  

• ČEMĪKENT

  Cross-Reference

  See ASFĪJĀB.

• DUSHANBE

  Muriel Atkin

  capital and most populous city of Tajikistan.

• NAẒIRI NIŠĀPURI

  Paul Losensky

  Indo-Persian poet of the late 16th and early 17th centuries (b. Nishapur, ca. 1560; d. Ahmadnagar, between 1612 and 1614).

• HAFT ḴOSRAVĀNI

  Ameneh Youssefzadeh

  the seven musical systems or modes attributed to Bārbad, the famous court musician of the Sasanian king Ḵosrow II Parvēz (r. 590-628).

• JĀMEʿ AL-TAWĀRIḴ

  Charles Melville

  (The Compendium of chronicles), historical work composed i1300-10 by Ḵᵛāja Rašid-al-Din Fażl-Allāh Ṭabib Hamadāni, vizier to the Mongol Il-khans Ḡāzān and Öljeitü.

• AHMADABAD

  L. A. Desai

  Major city of Gujarat state in western India and a former center of Persian culture.

• ĀSNATAR

  W. W. Malandra

  one of the eight Zoroastrian priests (ratu) necessary for the performance of the yasna ritual.

• BĪĀR

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (from Ar. plur. of beʾr “well, spring”), a small settlement of medieval Islamic times on the northern fringe or the Dašt-e Kavīr, modern Bīārjomand.

• DARD, ḴᵛĀJA MĪR

  Annemarie Schimmel

  (b. Delhi, 13 September 1721; d. 11 January 1785), poet and author of prose works on mystical theology.

• ESḤĀQ TORK

  ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Zarrīnkūb

  propagandist sent by Abū Moslem Ḵorāsānī (governor of Khorasan and leading figure in the ʿAbbasid revolution) to the Turkish people of Transoxania.

• FIREARMS i. HISTORY

  Rudi Matthee

  While the traditional belief that firearms were first introduced to Persia under Shah ʿAbbās I was discredited long ago, the exact date remains uncertain. Terms hinting at firearms occur in late 14th-century Timurid chronicles, but it is unclear whether these mean mangonels projecting stones and inflammable naphtha or real cannon.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• PARMENIO

  Ernst Badian

  (b. ca. 400 BCE, d. 330 BCE); probably from mountainous Upper Macedonia, he became Philip II’s most successful general.

• EDUCATION xxiii. MILITARY EDUCATION

  Cross-reference

  See MILITARY EDUCATION.

• HŪITI

  cross-reference

  See AVESTAN PEOPLE.

• ABNĀʾ

  C. E. Bosworth

  "sons," term for the offspring of Persian soldiers and officials in the Yemen and of Arab mothers.

• ANDARZ

  S. Shaked, Z. Safa

  “precept, instruction, advice”: the literary genre in pre-Islamic and New Persian literatures.

• CHAMBERLAIN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤĀJEB.

• EBN ABĪ ṬĀHER ṬAYFŪR, ABU’L-FAŻL AḤMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (819-93), littérateur (adīb) and historian of Baghdad, of a Khorasani family.

• OWL

  Cross-Reference

  See BŪF.

• TOḤFAT AL-AḤBĀB

  Solomon Bayevsky

  (Gift for friends), a Persian dictionary of the early Safavid period, compiled by Ḥāfeẓ Solṭān-ʿAli Owbahi Heravi in 936/1529-30.

• HAJIABAD i. INSCRIPTIONS

  Philippe Gignoux

  The Hajiabad Inscriptions were discovered by Robert Ker Porter at Ḥājiābād in 1818 in a grotto a few kilometers north of Persepolis.

• JAPAN xiii. TRANSLATIONS OF JAPANESE WORKS INTO PERSIAN

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  Introduction of Japan to Persian readers began when Japanese military victories over China (1894-95) and, especially, Russia (1904-05) excited the interest of Iranians.

• ʿAJĀʾEB AL-DONYĀ

  L. P. Smirnova

  (“Wonders of the world” or “Wonderful things”), title of a Persian geography.

• ĀSRĒŠTĀR

  P. O. Skjærvø

  in Middle Persian Manichean texts a kind of demons, often associated with the mazans.

• BĪMA

  Willem Floor

  (bīme; Hindi bīmā), insurance. “Insurance” activities are re­ferred to for the first time in 1891, by Eʿtemād-­al-Salṭana in his diary entry of 13 Decem­ber.

• DARVĪŠ

  Mansour Shaki, Hamid Algar

  a poor, indigent, ascetic, and abstemious person or recluse.

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. Seboktegīn

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Ghaznavid prince and briefly amir in Ḡazna in 997-98.

• Kesāʾi Marvazi

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (also vocalized Kasāʾi), 10th-century Persian poet.

• ZARATHUSTRA

  Cross-Reference

  the name generally known in the West for the prophet of ancient Iran, whose transformation of his inherited religion inaugurated a movement that eventually became the dominant religion in Iran up until the triumph of Islam. See ZOROASTER.

• HYSTASPES

  Cross Reference

  father of Darius I. See GOŠTĀSP.

• ABŪ ʿAMR AL-MĀZOLĪ

  J. van Ess

  Karrāmī theologian, fl. mid-4th/mid-10th century.

• ANĪS AL-ʿOŠŠĀQ

  G. M. Wickens

  a small handbook of the imagery traditionally used in Persian love poetry, by Ḥasan b. Moḥammad Šaraf-al-din Rāmi (sometimes Zāmi), d. 795/1393.

• CHOAMANI

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  name of an eastern Iranian tribe (perhaps located in western Bactria), mentioned only by Pomponius Mela in an enumeration of the inhabitants of the interior lands.

• EBN FAHD ḤELLĪ, ABU’L-ʿABBĀS JAMĀL-AL-DĪN AḤMAD

  Marco Salami

  b. Šams-al-Dīn Moḥammad (1355-1437), Imami scholar and jurist.

• ŠARAFĀBĀD

  Robert M. Schacht and Henry T. Wright III

  the name of a village and an adjacent ancient settlement called Tepe Šarafābād in Southwest Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CAT II. PERSIAN CAT

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  In western Europe and in North America, what are called “Persian cats” are a breed of longhaired domestic cats with a massive body, measuring 40 to 50 cm in length, and up to 30 cm in the height of their withers. According to the standards, these cats must present a strong bone structure, important muscular masses, and short, straight paws.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JEH

  Albert de Jong

  name of a female demon in a small number of Zoroastrian Middle Persian texts. The name of Jeh is commonly, but with little justification, translated as “whore.”

• AḴNŪḴ

  J. P. Asmussen

  Enoch, in Manichean texts. According to the Cologne Mani Codex, the outstanding Greek Mani-vita, the prophet grew up in a Judeo-Christian environment, in the sect founded by Elkhasai in Eastern Syria about 100 CE.

• ASTROLABE

  Cross-Reference

  See ASṬORLĀB.

• BOČĀQČĪ

  Pierre Oberling

  a Turkic tribe of Sīrjān in Kermān province.

• DASTĀN (1)

  Cross-Reference

  See ZĀL.

• ESTEʿĀRA

  Julie S. Meisami

  lit. "to borrow"; the general term for metaphor.

• WAṢF

  A. A. Seyed-Gohrab

  a literary term meaning “description;” but it can carry several other connotations, including “quality,” “attribute,” “characterization,” “distinguishing mark,” and “adjective.”

• GƎUŠ TAŠAN

  William W. Malandra

  (the fashioner of the Cow), a divine craftsman who figures prominently in the Gathas of Zoroaster but falls into obscurity in the Younger Avesta, being there associated with the fourteenth day of the month, known in Middle Persian simply as Gōš.

• ILLUMINATIONISM

  Hossein Ziai

  or Illuminationist philosophy, first introduced in the 12th century as a complete, reconstructed system distinct both from the Peripatetic philosophy  of Avicenna and from theological philosophy.

• ABU’L-FARAJ ʿEBRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  (b. Malaṭīa, 1225; d. Marāḡa, 1286), Syriac historian and polymath, also known as Bar Hebraeus. See EBN AL-ʿEBRĪ, ABU’L-FARAJ.

• ANSHAN

  J. Hansman

  (or ANZAN), the name of an important Elamite region in western Fārs and of its chief city.

• BĀLAVĪ

  cross-reference

  See BĀLAWĪ FAMILY.

• CIMMERIANS

  Sergei R. Tokhtas’ev

  a nomadic people, most likely of Iranian origin, who flourished in the 8th-7th centuries B.C.

• EBN MOBĀRAK

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDALLAH B. MOBĀRAK.

• SHAHSEVAN

  Richard Tapper

  (Šāhsevan), name of a number of tribal groups in various parts of northwestern Iran, notably in the Moḡān and Ardabil districts of eastern Azerbaijan and in the Ḵaraqān and Ḵamsa districts between Zanjān and Qazvin.

• ḴORRAMIS IN BYZANTIUM

  Evangelos Venetis

  Iranians who fought the ʿAbbasid caliph Moʿtaṣem be’llāh (r. 833-41) and enrolled in the Byzantine army of the iconoclast emperor Theophilos I (r. 829-42).

• ḤAMZA -NĀMA

  William L. Hanaway, Jr., Frances W. Pritchett

  a popular prose romance transmitted orally and written down at a time unknown.

• JOČI

  Michal Biran

  (in Persian and Turkic also Tuši, Duši, ca. 1184-1227), the eldest son of Čengiz Khan (d. 1227) and the ancestor of the khans of the Golden Horde, the westernmost Mongolian khanate.

• ĀL-E FAŻLŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See ATĀBAKĀN-E LORESTĀN.

• AṮĪR AḴSĪKATĪ

  Z. Safa

  Poet of the 6th/12th century with a distinctive style.

• BOMBAY PARSI PANCHAYAT

  John R. Hinnells

  the largest Zoroastrian institution in modern history, originally founded in the 17th century in order to maintain Zoroastrian family and social values at a time of dramatic change, when Parsis were migrating from rural Gujarat to cosmopolitan Bombay.

• DAVĀZDAH EMĀMĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See SHIʿITE DOCTRINE; IRAN ix. Relgions in Iran (2) Islam in Iran.

• EUTHYDEMUS

  A. D. H. Bivar

  name of two Greek kings of Bactria: (1) Euthydemus I (ca. 230-200 B.C.E.), considered the real founder of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and (2) Euthydemus II (ca. 190-185 B.C.E.), presumably the second son of Euthydemus I, or less probably eldest son of Demetrius I.

• AVICENNA xiii. The influence of Avicenna on medical studies in the West

  U. Weisser

• KAJAKAY DAM

  Siddieq Noorzoy

  dam built on the Helmand River as a part of the multi-faceted projects aimed at the development of the Helmand Valley.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN ESFARĀʾĪNĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  first vizier for the Ghaznavid sultan Maḥmūd (r. 388-421/998-1030). 

• APOSTOLIC CANONS

  N. Sims-Williams

  fragmentary Christian Sogdian text.

• BANĀKATĪ, Abū Solaymān

  P. Jackson

  Dāwūd b. Abi’l-Fażl Moḥammad (d. 1329-30), poet and historian.

• CLEMENT of Alexandria

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  (Titus Flavius Clemens, probably b. Athens ca. 150 C.E., d. Cappadocia ca. 215), Greek convert to Christianity who became the leading theologian of his time, a polemicist particularly noted for his attempts to reconcile Greco-Roman thought with Christian teachings.

• EBN ṬĀWŪS, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN ABU’L- FAŻĀʾEL AḤMAD

  Wilferd Madelung

  b. Mūsā b. Jaʿfar b. Moḥammad Ḥasanī, 12th century Imami scholar.

• ḴAMSA OF NEẒĀMI

  Domenico Parrello

  the quintet of narrative poems for which Neẓāmi Ganjavi (1141-1209) is universally acclaimed.

• ʿĀLEMPUR, Moḥyi-al-Din

  Habib Borjian

  (Muhiddin Olimpur/Olimov), Tajik journalist, photographer, and intellectual figure who was instrumental in strengthening cultural ties among Persianate societies (1945-1995).

• HARP

  Bo Lawergren

  (čang), a string instrument which flourished in Persia in many forms from its introduction, about 3000 BCE, until the 17th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JOWŠAQĀN i. The District

  Habib Borjian

  Jowšaqān is located at 65 miles northwest of Isfahan, where the western foothills of the Karkas Mountain range break down into plain.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN ḴALJĪ

  N. H. Zaidi

  sultan of Delhi (r. 695-715/1296-1316). 

• ĀVĀZ

  G. Tsuge

  in modern Persian “song” (of any kind) or, more broadly, “music.”

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BORJ

  Abbas Daneshvari, David Pingree

  in both Persian and Arabic with two principal meanings: 1. tower, castle, or fortress; dovecote; 2. a sign of the zodiac, and by extension a solar mansion, a month.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DAYR

  QAMAR ĀRYĀN

  monastery; in early Islamic Arabic and Persian literature usually a building in which Christian monks (rāheb) lived and worshiped.

• ʿEZRĀ-NĀMA

  Amnon Netzer

  paraphrased versification of the Book of ʿEzrā containing midrashic and Iranian legends. 

• ČOḠĀ BONUT

  Abbas Alizadeh

  archeological site in lowland Susiana, in the present-day province of Ḵuzestān in southwestern Iran; to date, Čoḡā Bonut has provided evidence of the earliest stages of settled agricultural life in Ḵuzestān.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GODIN TEPE

  T. Cuyler Young, Jr.

  or GOWDIN TEPE; an archeological site in the central Zagros, which was occupied from ca. 5,000 to 500 B.C.E. located at 48° 4′ E and 34° 31′ N in the Kangāvar valley, approximately halfway between Hamadān and Kermānšāh.

• INTAPHERNES

  cross-reference

  See VINDAFARNĀ.

• ABU’L-ḴAYR B. AL-ḴAMMĀR

  W. Madelung

  Nestorian Christian physician, philosopher, theologian, and translator, b. Rabīʿ I, 331/November, 942 in Baghdad.

• ARA THE BEAUTIFUL

  J. R. Russell

  son of Aram, mythical king of Armenia.  

• BANŪ AMĀJŪR

  D. Pingree

  (or MĀJŪR), ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿABD-ALLĀH  and his son Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī, 10th-century astronomers.

• COINS AND COINAGE

  Stephen Album, Michael L. Bates, and Willem Floor

  During the reign of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah (1797-1834) the first steps toward a modern currency were taken. At the Tabrīz and Isfahan mints well-executed silver and gold coins were struck along with the normal, less carefully minted products, with full, even pressure and reeded edges similar to those found on contemporary British Indian coins. It is unclear whether these coins were intended only for presentation or as prototypes for a technically superior circulating coinage,

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EBRĀHĪM ŠARQĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ŠARQĪ.

• PIR-E ZAN

  Anna Krasnowolska

  a calendar-related legend about an Old Woman who personifies winter.  Besides Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia, the legend is widespread all over southern Europe and the Balkans (from Portugal to Bulgaria), as well as in Turkey, Arab Near East, and North Africa (from Morocco to Egypt).

• RAJʿA

  Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi

  (lit.: “return”), theological term that has had many meanings according to the context in which it was professed. 

• ḤASAN-ʿALI MIRZĀ ŠOJĀʿ-AL-ṢALṬANA

  cross-reference

  See ŠOJĀʿ-AL-ṢALṬANA, ḤASAN-ʿALI MIRZĀ.

• JULFA ii. THE 18TH AND THE 19TH CENTURY

  Vazken S. Ghougassian

  The Afghan occupation of Isfahan between 1722 and 1729 struck a most devastating blow to the Armenians of New Julfa, although the city was spared total destruction and massive killings of its population. Nāder Shah Afšār (d. 1747) was even more brutal. Karim Khan Zand (d. 1779) treated the Armenian community fairly well and tried to encourage the return of expatriate Julfan merchants.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALAWĪYAT AL-AʿSAR

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALAWAYH.

• ĀXWARRBED

  A. Tafażżolī

  Middle Iranian term for the “Stablemaster, Royal Equerry.”

• BOZORG, MĪRZĀ

  cross-reference

  See QĀʾEMMAQĀM, MĪRZĀ BOZORG.

• DEHLORĀN

  Frank Hole

  (Deh Lorān), the name of a šahrestān (subprovince) in Īlām province in southwestern Persia, and of the main town.

• FĀL

  Cross-reference

  See DIVINATION.

• QĀNUNI, RAḤIM

  Houman Sarshar

  Širāzi (1871-1944), innovator, master of Persian classical music, and teacher.

• ḠOLĀT

  Heinz Halm

  lit. "exaggerators," sing. ḡāli; an Arabic term originally used by Twelver Shiʿite (eṯnā ʿašariya) heresiographers to designate those dissidents who exaggerate the status of the Imams in an undue manner by attributing to them divine qualities.

• BATTLE-AXES in Eastern Iran

  Boris A. Litvinsky

  Battle-axes made of bronze appeared in Eastern Iran during the Bronze Age. One such object comes from a burial at the Sapalli-tepa settlement in southern Uzbekistan.

• ABŪ ʿOṮMĀN RABĪʿA

  L. A. Giffen

  often called RABĪʿAT-AL-RAʾY, important lawyer of the ancient school of Medina and transmitter of Traditions from Companions of the Prophet, died 136/753. 

• ARAXA

  M. A. Dandamayev

  Old Persian form of the name of a leader of a Babylonian rebellion against Darius I.

• BĀRĀN

  D. Balland

  “rain.” The presence of the oblique Zagros and Hindu Kush ranges at the western and eastern extremes of Irano-Afghan territory introduces great contrasts between the relatively humid slopes exposed to the winds and the much more arid slopes of the sheltered sides.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CONTARINI, AMBROGIO

  Filippo Bertotti

  (1429-99), Venetian merchant and diplomat, author of a noteworthy report on Persia under the Āq Qoyunlū Uzun Ḥasan.

• EDUCATION

  Multiple Authors

  (Pers. āmūzeš o parvareš; earlier Ar. Per. taʿlīm o tarbīat) in Iranian-speaking areas.

• TEHRĀNI, Ḥosayn

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi

  (1911-1973) well-known master performer of the tonbak.

• FOLKLORE STUDIES ii. OF AFGHANISTAN

  Margaret A. Mills and Abdul Ali Ahrary

• ḤAYDAR MIRZĀ ṢAFAVI

  Michel M. Mazzaoui

  Safavid prince who considered himself to be the chosen successor of his father, Shah Ṭahmāsb, but was killed immediately after the latter’s death on 14 May 1576.

• KAEMPFER, ENGELBERT

  Detlef Haberland

  German physician and traveler to Russia, the Orient, and the Far East (1651-1716).

• ʿALĪ B. ḤOSĀM-AL-DAWLA

  cross-reference

  ŠAHRĪĀR. See ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA ʿALĪ.

• ʿAYYŪQĪ

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  a poet of the fifth/eleventh century who versified the romance of Varqa o Golšāh.

• BŪ DOLAF

  cross-reference

  See ABŪ DOLAF.

• DĒNAG

  Philippe Gignoux

  name of several Sasanian queens; it was not feminine by derivation but was clearly reserved for feminine prosopography.

• TĀJ-al-SALṬANA

  Afsaneh Najmabadi

  (1884-1936), one of the best known daughters of the Qajar king Nāṣer-al-Din Shah (r. 1848-96), due to her memoirs (Ḵāterāt), written in 1914, which were first partially published in 1969 and whose authenticity has been disputed.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLŠĀN ALBUM

  Kambiz Eslami

  or Moraqqaʿ-e golšan; a sumptuous 17th-century album of paintings, drawings, calligraphy, and engravings by Mughal, Persian, Deccani, Turkish, and European artists in the Golestān Palace Library, Tehran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRĀN-E JAVĀN, ANJOMAN-E

  Jamšid Behnām

  (The society of young Iran), a society founded in January 1921 by a number of young intellectuals who had received their higher education in Europe.

• ABŪ SAʿĪD JANNĀBĪ

  W. Madelung

  founder of the Qarmaṭī state in Baḥrain (b. between 230/845, and 240/855, d. 300/913 or 301/913-14). 

• ARDAŠĪR

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  name of several figures in the Šāh-nāma.

• BARĪDŠĀHĪ DYNASTY

  R. M. Eaton

  Indo-Muslim kings of the Deccan plateau, ruled from 1491-92 to 1619 in one of the five successor states to the Bahmanid kingdom (1347-1538).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• COSMETICS

  This article is based on information provided by Žāla Mottaḥedīn and Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī.

  prepara­tions for personal beautification, in Persian tradition used mainly by women on special occasions.

• EGLANTINE

  Cross-Reference

  See NASTARAN.

• FARANG, FARANGĪ

  Forthcoming online.

• MOSHFEQ-e KAZEMI, SAYYED MORTAZA

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  (1904-1978), author of Iran’s first social novel.

• FOWAṬĪ, HEŠĀM

  Josef van Ess

  b. ʿAMR (d. Baghdad, ca. 845), Muʿtazilite theologian of Basran affiliation and student of Abu’l-Hoḏayl.

• HEDĀYAT, MOḴBER-AL-SALṬANA

  Manouchehr Kasheff, Amemeh Yousefzadeh

  , MEHDIQOLI, statesman, author, and musicologist (1864-1955).

• ABARKĀVĀN

  M. Kasheff

  Late Sasanian name of Qešm island in the Straits of Hormoz.

• ʿALĪ BESṬĀMĪ

  D. M. MacEoin

  early Bābī ʿālem and member of the ḥorūf al-ḥayy or sābeqūn, the first followers of the Bāb.

• AZDĀKARA

  M. Dandamayev

  (from Old Persian azdā- “announcement” and kara- “maker”), officials of the Achaemenid chancery, the heralds, who made known, for example, the government edicts, court sentences.

• BŪŠĀSP

  Allan V. Williams

  demon of slothfulness and procrastination in Zoroastrianism.

• DEYLAMĪ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ḤASAN

  Etan Kohlberg

  b. Abi’l-Ḥasan (b.) Moḥammad b. ʿAlī b. ʿAbd-Allāh (or Moḥammad), Shiʿite author and traditionist.

• CLASS SYSTEM ii. In the Median and Achaemenid Periods

  Pierre Briant

• KOBRAWIYA ii. THE ORDER

  Hamid Algar

  The crystallization of a given line of Sufi tradition as an “order” should not be understood as imposing on all the spiritual descendants of the eponym a definitive and permanently binding choice of methods and emphases.

• ḠORBATI

  Cross-Reference

  See GYPSY.

• IRAQ x. SHIʿITES OF IRAQ

  Meir Litvak

  Iraq was the cradle of Shiʿism, where it evolved as a political and religious movement, yet, Shiʿites became a majority there only during the 19th century.

• ABŪ YAʿQŪB JORJĀNĪ

  J. van Ess

  disciple of Ebn Karrām (d. 255/869).  

• ARḠŪN ĀQĀ

  P. Jackson

  a Mongol administrator in Iran (d. 1275).

• BĀRŪT

  W. Floor

  “gunpowder.” Guns and cannon, and thus gunpowder, probably were first introduced in Iran during Uzun Ḥasan Āq Qoyunlū’s reign; in 1473 he asked Venice for “artillery, arquebuses, and gunners.”

• CRYSTAL

  Layla S. Diba

  originally a type of fine glass developed in England in the 17th century and owing its special clarity and brilliance to the high refractive index of lead oxide in the metal; the term is often applied to fine glass in general.

• ELĀHĪ QOMŠA’Ī, MAHDĪ

  S. Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī

  b. Abu’l-Ḥasan (b. in Qomša, 1902; d. in Tehran, 1975), poet and professor of Islamic law and philosophy.

• FARHANG-E RAŠĪDĪ

  Solomon Bayevsky

  Persian dictionary compiled in India in 1654 by the poet and scholar ʿAbd-al- Rašīd b. ʿAbd-al-Ḡafūr Ḥosaynī Tattavī.

• AXSE

  M. L. Chaumont

  name of a Parthian hostage in Rome, inscribed in the dedication of an epitaph engraved on a marble plaque and discovered at the Forum Boarium in Rome (Priuli, 1977, pp. 331-34; 1979, p. 25, no. 78). ...

• KĀŠḠARI, SAʿD-AL-DIN

  Hamid Algar

  (d. 1456), propagator of the Naqšbandi order in Timurid Herat, noteworthy primarily as the initiator ofʿAbd-al-Raḥmān Jāmi into the path.

• FRAVAŠI

  Mary Boyce

  the Avestan word for a powerful supernatural being whose concept at an early stage in Zoroastrianism became blended with that of the urvan (the human soul).

• HELMAND RIVER

  M. Jamil Hanifi and EIr, Gherardo Gnoli, C. Edmund Bosworth, Arash Khazeni

  the border river of Afghanistan and Persia. It originates in the mountains in the Hazārajāt (q.v) and flows into the Sistān in southeastern Persia and finally drains into the Hāmun Lake.

• ʿABD-AL-ʿAZĪZ B. ʿABD-AL-VAHHĀB

  D. Duda

  Painter of the Safavid period (16th century).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĪ QŪŠJĪ

  F. Rahman, D. Pingree

  (QŪŠJŪ), theologian and scientist (d. 879/1474). 

• BĀB AL-BĀB

  cross-reference

  Shaikhi ʿālem who became the first convert to Babism, provincial Babi leader in Khorasan, and organizer of Babi resistance in Māzandarān (1814-49). See BOŠRŪʾĪ.

• ČAḠRĪ BEG DĀWŪD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Mīḵāʾīl b. Saljūq, Abū Solaymān, a member of the Saljuqs, the leading family of the Oghuz Turks, who with his brother Ṭoḡrel (Ṭoḡrïl) Beg founded the Great Saljuq dynasty in Persia in the 5th/11th century.

• DICTIONARIES

  ʿAlī Ašraf Ṣādeqī, John R. Perry, Ḥosayn Sāmeʿī

  i. Persian dictionaries. ii. Arabic-Persian dictionaries. iii. Bi/Multiligual dictionaries. iv. Specialized dictionaries. v. Slang dictionaries.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• COMMERCE iv. Before the Mongol conquest

  Bertold Spuler

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS xv. THE LAST SASANIANS IN CHINA

  Matteo Compareti

  Information on those Sasanians who avoided the submission to the Arabs and lived in Central Asia or at the Tang court can be found in the works of Muslim authors and in Chinese sources.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOSPEL

  Cross-Reference

  See BIBLE.

• ADAB NEWSPAPER

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  title of several Persian periodicals.

• ARRĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a region of eastern Transcaucasia.

• BAVĀNĀTĪ

  Ī. Afšār

  , MĪRZĀ MOḤAMMAD-BĀQER, Persian man of letters, poet, instructor of Persian in London, and self-styled prophet (d. 1892-93).

• ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ FAQĪH KERMĀNĪ

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  mystic and poet of the 14th century who used ʿEmād or, more rarely, ʿEmād-e Faqīh, as a pen name.

• FARMING

  Mohammad-Said Nouri Naini

  in Persia. In the mid-1990s Persian agriculture accounted for over 25 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 25 percent of employment, and 33 percent of non-oil exports. It also met 75 percent of domestic food requirements and 90 percent of the needs of agricultural industries in the country.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAFT QOLZOM

  Ṣafurā Hušyār

  (lit., The seven seas), the title of a Persian dictionary compiled in India in 1813-18 by Abu’l-Moẓaffar Ḡāzi-al-Din Ḥaydar (d. 1827).

• GARRŪS

  Cross-Reference

  See under KURDISTAN, forthcoming online in 2012.

• HERBERT, THOMAS

  R. W. Ferrier

  , Sir (1606-1682), author of the first English account of Persia, having accompanied the royal embassy from King Charles I to the Safavid Shah ʿAbbās I in 1626-29.

• ʿABD-AL-JABBĀR AZDĪ

  D. M. Dunlop

  Governor of Khorasan, executed in 142/759.

• ALTIN TEPE

  V. M. Masson

  a settlement of the Neolithic period and Bronze Age in the south of Turkmenistan near the village of Miana.

• BABISM

  D. M. MacEoin

  a 19th-century messianic movement in Iran and Iraq under the overall charismatic leadership of Sayyed ʿAlī-Moḥammad Šīrāzī, the Bāb (1819-1850). Babism was the only significant millenarian movement in Shiʿite Islam during the 19th century.

• ČALABĪ, ʿĀREF

  Cross-Reference

  See ČELEBĪ, ʿĀREF.

• DĪRGHANAKHA-SŪTRA

  Yutaka Yoshida

  a Buddhist text in which the Buddha expounds the merits of observing the eight commandments to a parivrājaka named Dīrghanakha.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS vi. In the Safavid period

  Roger M. Savory

• QAJARS

  Shireen Mahdavi

  : THE QAJAR-PERIOD HOUSEHOLD Qajar society was pluralistic, in the sense that different groups of various social status existed in it.

• GRAY, LOUIS HERBERT

  William W. Malandra

  (b. Newark, New Jersey; 1875; d. New York, New York, 1955), orientalist and philologist, who was associated with Columbia University throughout most of his academic life.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DADGAH

  court of law. See judicial system.

• EMERSON, RALPH WALDO

  John D. Yohannan

  (b. 25 May 1803, Boston; d. 27 April 1882, Concord), distinguished American transcendentalist, philosopher, and poet.

• FĀRS-NĀMA-YE NĀṢERĪ

  Heribert Busse; Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi

  a history and geography of the province of Fārs, with maps and illustrations, by Mīrzā Ḥasan Fasāʾī (1821-1898). Part two includes topics such as the climate of Fārs, its flora and fauna, agricultural products, the position of Fārs according to longitude and latitude, the problem of cartographic projection.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MINARET

  W. Kleiss

  (manāra), a tower, usually attached to a mosque, from which the muezzin (moʾaḏḏen) summons Muslims to prayer. In Arabic, manāra originally denotes a lighthouse or signaling tower at sea. The minaret was not part of the architecture of the early Islamic period. It appeared first in the 8th and 9th centuries.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KĒD

  NICHOLAS SIMS-WILLIAMS

  Pahlavi and Bactrian word with meanings ranging from “soothsayer” to “priest,” probably derived from OIran.

• GAVAZN

  Cross-Reference

  See RED DEER.

• HERZFELD, ERNST

  Stefan R. Hauser, Hubertus von Gall, David Stronach, Prods Oktor Skjaervo

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Life and Work. ii. Herzfeld and Pasargadae. iii. Herzfeld and Persepolis. iv. Herzfeld and Paikuli. v. Herzfeld and the history of ancient Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABD-AL-QĀDER KHAN

  M. Aslam

  Author of Avīmāq-e Moḡol (publ. 1900), better known as Mirzā Moḥammad Āḡā Jān.

• ĀMEDĪ

  E. Kohlberg

  6th/12th century traditionist.

• BADAḴŠĪ SAMARQANDĪ

  Z. Safa

  the poet laureate (malek-al-šoʿarāʾ) of the Timurid Mīrzā Uluḡ Beg (murdered 1449).

• CAMPHOR

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  a strong-smelling volatile white solid essential oil obtained from two genera of the camphor tree and used from ancient times in Persia as an aromatic with antiseptic and insect-repelling properties.

• DOJAYL

  Cross-Reference

  See KĀRŪN.

• ELAM v. Elamite language

  FRANÇOISE GRILLOT-SUSINI

• ṬUSI, NAṢIR-AL-DIN ii. AS MATHEMATICIAN AND ASTRONOMER

  George Saliba

  Naṣir-al-Din Abu Jaʿfar Moḥammad Ṭusi (1201-1274) participated in the whole spectrum of mathematical sciences that were known in antiquity, from elementary works on arithmetic to the more advanced works on geometry, and to what we would now call mathematical geography and spherical trigonometry, to astronomy proper as well as to  astrological science and the related fields of optics and trigonometry.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Greece xi - xii. Persian Loanwords and Names in Greek

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  The Greeks came into direct contact with speakers of Iranian languages when Cyrus II conquered the Lydian empire in 547 B.C.E. However, the possibility of linguistic borrowings in prehistoric times cannot be ruled out.

• AFRAHĀṬ, YAʿQŪB

  J. P. Asmussen

  Persian bishop of the mid-4th century CE, author in Syriac.

• ARTĒŠTĀR

  W. Sundermann

  a learned calque on and translation of the Avestan raθaēštā.

• BEDLĪSĪ, ḤAKĪM-AL-DĪN EDRĪS

  Cornell H. Fleischer

  B. ḤOSĀM-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ, MAWLĀNĀ (d. 1520), scholar, his­torian, poet, and statesman under the Ottoman Sultan Salīm I (r. 1512-20).

• DĀʿĪ JĀN NĀPELʾON

  Nasrin Rahimiyeh

  lit., “Uncle Napoleon”, a satirical novel written in 1348-49 Š./1969-70 by Īraj Pezeškzād, who was already known in Persia for writing such satirical novels.

• ENŠĀʾ-ALLĀH KHĀN, SAYYED

  M. Asif Naim Siddiqui

  (b. Moršedābād, 1756; d. Lucknow, 1818), Urdu-Persian poet and writer.

• FATIMIDS

  Farhad Daftary

  relations with Persia. A major Ismaʿili Shiʿite dynasty, the Fatimids founded their own caliphate, in rivalry with the ʿAbbasids, and ruled over different parts of the Islamic world, from North Africa and Sicily to Palestine and Syria.

• ÖZGÄND

  Bertold Spuler

  in the Middle Ages, a thriving city on the eastern edge of the Ferghana basin, on one of the tributaries of the Jaxartes.

• GALEN

  Cross-Reference

   See JĀLINUS.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY x. ISLAMIC REPUBLIC.

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ AWRANGĀBĀDĪ

  Hameed ud-Din

  Mughal official and biographer, chiefly famous as the author of Maʾāṯer al-omarāʾ (18th century).

• AMĪN-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See PĀŠĀ KHAN.

• BADR KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See BEDIR KHAN.

• ČĀRĪKĀR

  Daniel Balland

  main town of Kōhdāman and the administrative capital of the Afghan province of Parwān, located about 63 km north of Kabul. Throughout history there has been an important urban center at the northern end of the long Kōhdāman depression.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DORRĀNĪ, AḤMAD SHAH

  Cross-Reference

  See AFGHANISTAN x.

• FACULTIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEHRAN ii. Faculty of Fine Arts

  MORTAŻĀ MOMAYYEZ

• QAŠQĀʾI TRIBAL CONFEDERACY i. HISTORY

  Pierre Oberling

  Like most present-day tribal confederacies in Persia, the Il-e Qašqā ʾi is a conglomeration of clans of different ethnic origins, Lori, Kurdish, Arab and Turkic.

• GUR-E AMIR

  Cross-Reference

  See SAMARQAND.

• JAFR

  Gernot Windfuhr

  a term of uncertain etymology used to designate the major divinatory art in Islamic mysticism and gnosis—the art  of discovering the predestined fate of nations, dynasties, religions, and individuals by a variety of methods.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFZARĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABZARĪ, ḴᵛĀJA ʿAMĪD-AL-DĪN.

• ASAD B. SĀMĀNḴODĀ

  C. E. Bosworth

  ancestor of the Samanid dynasty.

• BEHŠAHR

  Eckart Ehlers

  older Ašraf, a town situated at 36°41′55″ north latitude and 53°32′30″ east longitude in the eastern part of central Māzandarān.

• DĀMḠĀNĪ, ABŪ ʿALĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ʿALĪ DĀMḠĀNĪ.

• ĒR, ĒR MAZDĒSN

  Gherardo Gnoli

  an ethnonym, like Old Persian ariya- and Avestan airya-, meaning “Aryan” or “Iranian.”

• FEHİM SÜLEYMAN EFENDİ

  Tahsın Yazici

  or FAHĪM SOLAYMĀN (b. Istanbul, 1789; d. 1846), a Persian teacher and poet of Turkish origin.

• ČĀKAR

  Etienne de la Vaissiere

  personal soldier-retainer of the nobility in pre-Islamic Central Asia.

• ZARINAIA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  legendary Saka queen during the reign of the likewise legendary Median king Astibaras.

• GANJA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (Ar. Janza), the Islamic name of a town in the early medieval Islamic province of Arrān (the classical Caucasian Albania, Armenian Alvankʿ).

• HOMOSEXUALITY iv. IN MODERN IRAN

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ABDĀL BEG

  E. Glassen

  one of the seven trusted Qezelbāš amirs (ahl-e eḵteṣāṣ) who, after the death of Solṭān ʿAlī (898/1493), accompanied the latter’s young brother and designated master of the Safavid order, Esmāʿīl, to Lāhīǰān, where he found refuge from the persecution of the Āq Qoyonlū rulers.

• AMĪR TŪMĀN

  J. Calmard

  (AMĪR-E TŪMĀN) commander of 10,000 men, a military rank originally used by the Il-khanids in the 7th/13th century.

• BĀḠ iv. In Afghanistan

  N. H. Dupree

• CASSIA

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  a genus of shrubs and trees of the family Leguminosae (or Caesalpiniaceae in some classifications).

• DRVĀSPĀ

  Jean Kellens

  or Drwāspā, Druuāspā, lit., “with solid horses”; Avestan goddess.

• ARCHEOLOGY viii. REPUBLIC OF AZERBAIJAN

  M. N. Pogrebova

  Archeological sites of northern Azerbaijan (the modern Republic of Azerbaijan) first came to public attention in the mid-19th century, when European travelers became aware that it abounded in ancient ruins.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤADĀʾEQ AL-SEḤR

  N. Y. Chalisova

  shortened title of the famous treatise Ḥadāʾeq al-seḥr fi daqāʾeq al-šeʿr (“Gardens of magic in the subtleties of poetry”) by Rašid(-e) Waṭwāt (d. 1182-83).

• JALĀL-AL-DIN TURĀNŠĀH

  cross-reference

  See MOZAFFARIDS.

• AḤMAD B. ASAD

  C. E. Bosworth

  (d. 250/864), early member of the Samanid family and governor of Farḡāna under the ʿAbbasids and Taherids.

• ĀŠEʿʿAT AL-LAMAʿĀT

  A. E. Khairallah

  (The rays of the flashes), a detailed commentary by Nūr-al-dīn ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān Jāmī (817/1414-898/1492).

• BESĀṬ

  Cross-Reference

  See CARPETS.

• DAQĪQĪ, ABŪ MANṢŪR AḤMAD

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

   b. Aḥmad, one of the famous poets of the last years of the Samanid (819-1005) dynasty.

• ERZURUM

  Eir

  a town in eastern Anatolia (39° 50´ N, 41° 20´ E). 

• TURKIC-IRANIAN CONTACTS i. LINGUISTIC CONTACTS

  John R. Perry

  Speakers of Iranian and Turkic languages have been in contact since pre-Islamic times, notably along the Inner Asian commercial corridors known collectively as the Silk Road.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FORESTS AND FORESTRY

  Multiple Authors

  i. Forests and Forestry in Persia. ii. Forests and Forestry in Afghanistan.

• GĀV-ZABĀN

  Hushang Aʿlam

  lit. ”ox-tongue” (in reference to the rough, tongue-shaped leaves of the plant); the popular designation for several medicinal species of the borage family (Boraginaceae).

• HŌŠANG

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  called Pēšdād, an early hero-king in Iranian tradition, father of the Iranians and founder of the Pēšdādian dynasty.

• ʿABDALLĀH MĀZANDARĀNĪ, SHAIKH

  H. Algar

  Theologian and supporter of the constitutional movement (1840-1912).

• ʿAMŪOḠLĪ, ḤAYDAR KAN

  Cross-reference

  (ʿAMOḠLĪ). See ḤAYDAR KHAN ʿAMŪOḠLĪ.

• BAHĀR-E KESRĀ

  M. G. Morony

  “The spring of Ḵosrow,” one of the names of a huge, late Sasanian royal carpet measuring 60 cubits (araš, ḏerāʿ) square (ca. 27 m x 27 m). It was divided among the conquering Muslims after Madāʾen was captured in 637.

• ČELEBĪ, ʿĀREF

  Tahsin Yazici

  (670-719/1272-1320), the son of Bahāʾ-al-Dīn Solṭān Walad (q.v.) and the grand­son of Mawlānā Jalāl-al-Dīn Moḥammad Rūmī.

• DŪRĀSRAW

  D. N. MacKenzie

  according to the Pahlavi tradition the name of two legendary personages in the history of Zoroastrianism.

• COTTON ii. Production and Trade in Persia

  Hassan Hakimian

• MOḤTAŠAM KĀŠĀNI

  Paul Losensky

  , Šams-al-šoʿarā Kamāl-al-Din, Persian poet of the Safavid period (b. Kashan, 1528-29, d. Kashan, 1588).

• HAFT

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  (seven), the heptad and its cultural significance in Persian history. The number has been explained as the symbolic expression of a distinct culture.

• JĀMEʿ-E ʿABBĀSI

  Sajjad Rizvi

  a Persian manual on foruʿ al-feqh (positive rules derived from the sources of legal knowledge) in Shiʿism.

• AḤMAD SOLṬĀN AFŠĀR

  R. M. Savory

  Qizilbāš amir in the Safavid service.  

• ASLAM, ABU’L-QĀSEM MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-Reference

   See ABU’L-QĀSEM MOḤAMMAD ASLAM.

• BĪĀBĀN

  Brian Spooner

  name of the coastal plain that extends south from the mouth of the Mīnāb river for 88 miles to the cape Raʾs al-Kūh, which is 30 miles west of the Jask promontory.

• DARBĀR -E AʿẒAM

  Guity Nashat

  lit., “the great court”; a council of ministers established in October 1872 as one of several experiments undertaken in the reign of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1848-96) to reorganize and rationalize the Persian administration on the model of Western cabinet government.

• ESFEZĀRĪ, MOʿĪN-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD ZAMČĪ

  MARIA E. Subtelny

  (ca. 1446-1510), calligrapher specializing in the taʿlīq script, minor poet (pen name Nāmī), and master of the epistolary art who flourished in Herat during the reign of the Timurid Solṭān-Ḥosayn Bāyqarā.

• FINKENSTEIN, TREATY OF

  Cross-Reference

  See FRANCE iii; GARDANE MISSION.

• MACHALSKI, FRANCISZEK

  Anna Krasnowolska

  (1904-1979), Polish Iranist. Some of his best papers are devoted to cultural and political life in Pahlavi Persia.

• KAŠŠI, ABU ʿAMR MOḤAMMAD

  Liyakat Takim

  an Imami traditionist and an important figure in Shiʿite biographical literature (rejāl).

• ḠAZNĪ

  Xavier de Planhol, Roberta Giunta

  or Ḡazna, Ḡaznīn; province and city in southeastern Afghanistan, the latter situated 136 km south of Kabul at an altitude of about 2,200 meters. The earliest known monuments of Ḡaznī belong to the Ghaznavid period (366-583/977-1187), the best representative of which are the two minarets standing east of the citadel, close to two large mounds resembling mosques.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HOVEYDA, AMIR-ABBAS

  Abbas Milani

  (Amir ʿAbbās Hoveydā; 1919-1980), the longest serving prime minister in the modern history of Iran (1964-1975). His tenure  can be divided into two phases. In the 1960s, he was full of optimism and energy; in the 1970s he was characterized by cynicism, a clinging attachment to power and its perks, and an almost despondent air of resignation. What remained the same were his economic policies.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABJAD

  G. Krotkoff

   “alphabet,” a word formed from the first four letters of the Semitic alphabet.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ANDĀMEŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See ANDĪMEŠK; DEZFŪL.

• BAHRAIN

  X. De Planhol, X. De Planhol, J. A. Kechichian

  Ar. Baḥrayn, lit. “two seas,” the name originally applied to the area of the northeastern Arabian peninsula now known as Ḥasā (Aḥsāʾ). i. Geography. ii. Shiʿite elements in Bahrain. iii. History of political relations with Iran.

• CHALAVID DYNASTY

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E AFRĀSĪĀB.

• EBN ʿABBĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See ṢĀḤEB B. ʿABBĀD.

• NIGHTINGALE

  Cross-Reference

  See BOLBOL.

• KORA-SONNI

  Pierre Oberling

  a tribe in western Persian Azerbaijan.

• ḤĀJI MIRZĀ ĀQĀSI

  Cross-Reference

  grand vizier of Moḥammad Shah Qāǰār (r. 1250-64/1834-48) between 1251-64/1835-48. See ĀQĀSI, ḤĀJI MIRZĀ.

• ĀĪNA-KĀRĪ

  E. G. Sims

  the practice of covering an architectural surface with a mosaic of mirror-glass.

• ĀŠRAF ḠILZAY

  D. Balland

  the Afghan chief who ruled as Shah over part of Iran from 1137/1725 to 1142/1729.

• BĪJĀPŪR

  Muhammad Baqir

  capital city and domain of the ʿĀdelšāhī dynasty (1489-1686), located on the western Deccan plateau. The ʿĀdelšāhīs established Shiʿism in Bījāpūr and actively encouraged the immigration of Persian writers and religious figures.

• DĀRŪ

  Cross-Reference

   See DRUGS.

• ESMĀʿĪL

  Cross-Reference

  (ISHMAEL). See EBRĀHĪM.

• ḴALIQ LĀHURI

  Stefano Pello

   Indo-Persian poet of the 18th-century, probably a Sikh.

• MĀDAR-E SOLAYMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  "Solaymān's mother," local name of the tomb of Cyrus. See CYRUS v. The Tomb of Cyrus. 

• HYENA

  Steven C. Anderson

  Hyaena hyaena (Linnaeus, 1758), Pers. kaftār. The striped hyena is the only current Asian representative of the mammalian family Hyaenidae. Principal threats to hyena populations today are vehicular traffic (since they scavenge road kills at night), wanton shooting, and secondary poisoning. The hyena is a protected species in Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ ʿALĪ DAQQĀQ

  J. Chabbi

  ascetic of Nīšāpūr (d. 405/1015).

• ANHALT CARPET

  M. H. Beattie

  a medallion rug possibly made in Tabrīz.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAḴŠĪ

  P. Jackson

  a Buddhist lama or scholar, in particular during Mongol hegemony in Iran; subsequently, by extension, any kind of scribe or secretary.

• CHINKARA

  Khushal Habibi

  or CHIKARA (Gazella bennetti, Indian gazelle), a small antelope of slender build; its tawny coat has poorly marked facial and body stripes.

• EBN DOROSTAWAYH, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALL

  Seeger A. Bonebakker

  b. Jaʿfar b. Dorostawayh b. Marzbān (b. Fasā, 871; d. Baghdad, May 958), grammarian and lexicographer of Persian origin.

• KHATTABIYYA

  Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi

  (al-Ḵaṭṭābiya), an extremist Shiʿite sect named after Abu’l-Ḵaṭṭāb al-Asadi (killed ca. 755) who for some time was an authorized representative of Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādeq (d. ca. 765) in Kufa.

• OIL INDUSTRY ii. IRAN’S OIL AND GAS RESOURCES

  A. Badakhshan and F. Najmabadi

  The Iranian oil industry is the oldest in the Middle East. Although the occurrence of numerous seeps in many parts of Iran had been known since the ancient times, the systematic exploration and drilling for oil began in the first years of the 20th century. In 1901 William Knox D’Arcy, who had made a fortune in the Australian gold rush during the 1880s, obtained an oil concession from the Iranian government.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAZIRI

  Joyce Blau

  , SHAIKH AḤMAD, or Malâ-ye Jizrî, early Kurdish poet.

• AḴLĀQ AL-AŠRĀF

  P. Sprachman

  (“The ethics of the aristocracy”), a satire composed in 740/1340-41, the most important work of ʿObayd Zākānī. 

• ĀŠTĪĀNĪ, MAHDĪ

  H. Algar

  known as Mīrzā Kūček (1306-1372/1888-89 to 1952-53), a scholar who excelled in both the traditional (manqūl) and rational (maʿqūl) sciences.

• BLEEDING

  Cross-Reference

  See BLOODLETTING.

• DAŠT-E QALʿA

  Henri-Paul Francfort

  lit., “plain of the fortress”; small bāzār village on an irrigation canal near the junction of the Kōkča and Āmū Darya rivers in the province of Badaḵšān, northeastern Afghanistan, the site of several earlier settlements.

• ESTAḴR NEWSPAPER

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a newspaper published in Shiraz from 1918-1932 and 1942-1962.

• ARCHITECTURE iii. Sasanian Period

  D. Huff

  Sasanian architecture is characterized by the widespread use of mortar masonry and the associated vaulting techniques.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• TADAYYON, Sayyed Moḥammad Birjandi

  Hormoz Davarpanah

  (b. Birjand, 1881; d. United States, December 1951), early 20th-century educationist and politician.

• GERMANY x. The Persian community in Germany

  Asghar Schirazi

  Only a small number of Persians resided in Germany before World War I. They were for the most part students besides several merchants and a few political emigrants.

• IL-KHANIDS ii. Architecture

  Sheila S. Blair

  The architecture produced during the period of Il-khanid rule in Persia and Iraq is notable for its mammoth size, soaring height, sparkling color, and ingenious methods of covering space.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ ESḤĀQ ĪNJŪ

  J. W. Limbert

  (721-58/1321-59), ruler of Fārs, ʿErāq ʿAǰam (Isfahan), and parts of southern Iran, 743-55/1343-54.

• ANQUETIL-DUPERRON

  J. Duchesne-Guillemin

  (1731-1805), French orientalist, born in Paris on 7 December 1731. In June, 1759, he was able to send news to Paris that he had completed (in three months) a translation of that Vendidad.

• BALĀŠ

  M. L. Chaumont, K. Schippmann

  the name of a number of kings and several dignitaries and notables during the Parthian and Sasanian periods. The Parthian form of the name, the oldest, is Walagaš. In Middle Persian it is Wardāxš, in Pahlavi Walāxš.

• CIGARETTES

  Cross-Reference

  See DOḴĀNĪYĀT.

• EBN MARDAWAYH, AHMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Mūsā b. Mardawayh b. Fūrak Eṣfahānī (935-1019), scholar of Isfahan in the Buyid period, who wrote in the fields of tradition, tafsīr (Koranic exegsis), history, and geography.

• NALÎ

  Keith Hitchins

  (1797 or 1800-1855 or 1856), Kurdish poet who contributed immensely to making Sorani the literary language of southern Kurdistan, that is, most of present-day Iraq and the neighboring districts in Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• YAZIDIS ii. INITIATION IN YAZIDISM

  Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  Three different rites can mark the initiation of a Yazidi child as a member of the community.

• HĀMUN, DARYĀČA-YE i. GEOGRAPHY

  Eckart Ehlers

  The Sistān basin is the easternmost endorheic basin in Persia, draining a watershed 350,000 km2.

• JIROFT iv. ICONOGRAPHY OF CHLORITE ARTIFACTS

  Jean Perrot

  In the region of Jiroft, a large number of stone (chlorite) vases and objects, carrying human and animal motifs inlaid with semi-precious stones, have recently been discovered. Technical variations, notably in the inlaying method of colored stones, point to the existence of several workshops. Considering style, the aesthetic ratio of the whole is comparatively high.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀL-E BŪ KORD

  P. Oberling

  a tribe of Ḵūzestān, of uncertain origin.

• ĀTAŠ NIYĀYIŠN

  M. Boyce and F. M. Kotwal

  the fifth in a group of five Zoroastrian prayers, which is addressed to fire and its divinity.

• DAVĀN

  Hamid Mahamedi

  village located 12 km northeast of Kāzerūn in Fārs; a distinctive dialect is spoken there. Arable land is very limited and located mostly in the foothills; dry farming is the prevailing form of agriculture. Products include barley, wheat, and fruits—grapes, figs, pomegranates, and pears.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EUNUCHS

  Monsutti

  castrated males who were in charge of the concubines of royal harems, served in the daily life of the court, and sometimes carried out administrative functions.

• AVICENNA viii. Mathematics and Physical Sciences

  G. Saliba

• ṬARZI, MAḤMUD

  May Schinasi

  (1865-1933), writer, journalist, politician, and a prominent figure in Afghanistan in the first quarter of the 20th century. As well as being hailed as the "father of journalism" and overseeing the entire production of  the bi-monthly Serāj al-aḵbār, for which he wrote most of the articles, Ṭarzi was also a translator from the Turkish language, an essayist, and a poet.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MIRATH-E MAKTUB

  Ali Mir-Ansari

  a research center in Tehran, focused on editing manuscripts (including those concerned with the history of science), cataloguing Persian and Arabic manuscripts in Iran and the wider Persianate cultural area, and studying related codicological issues.

• ABŪ ḤAMZA ḴORĀSĀNĪ

  B. Reinert

  (d. 290/903), Sufi born and active in Nīšāpūr.

• APHORISM

  P. Sprachman

  “short sentences drawn from long experience” to Cervantes, “the wisdom of many, the wit of one” to Lord Russell, the terms proverb, aphorism, maxim have evaded strict definition and demarcation.

• BAN-e SORMA

  L. Vanden Berghe

  a necropolis of the Early Bronze Age, excavated in 1967 by the Belgian Mission in Iran. By analogy with the funeral furnishings from the Old Elamite period at Susa IV, the  tombs must be situated in the Early Dynastic III period, about 2600-2400 B.C. Since written sources are lacking, it is difficult to determine which population occupied this necropolis.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CLEANSING i. In Zoroastrianism

  Mary Boyce

• EBN SAHLĀN SĀVAJĪ, Qāżī ZAYN-AL-DĪN ʿOMAR

  Hossein Ziai

  (b. Sāva, fl. early 12th century), Persian philosopher and logician.

• ḴALIL SOLṬĀN b. MIRĀNŠĀH b. TIMUR

  Beatrice Forbes Manz

  Timurid ruler (1405-09).

• TAJIKISTAN v. DICTIONARIES AND ENCYCLOPEDIAS

  Habib Borjian

  The alphabet change to Roman and then to Cyrillic (1928 and 1940) coupled with vernacularization of Tajik Persian, called for independent lexicography in Tajikistan.

• HARI RUD

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• JOVAYNI, ʿALĀʾ-AL-DIN

  George Lane

  ʿAṬĀ-MALEK b. Moḥammad (1226-1283), governor of Iraq under the Il-khanids, author of Tāriḵ-e jahān-gošāy,  a major primary source for the history of Central Asia and the Mongol conquests.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  Ghurid malek and later sultan, reigned in Ḡūr from Fīrūzkūh as the last of his family there before the extinction of the dynasty by the Ḵᵛārazmšāhs, 599-602/1203-96 and 611-12/1214-15. 

• AVA

  C. E. Bosworth

  the basic modern form of the name of two small towns of northern Persia, normally written Āba in medieval Islamic sources.

• BORHĀN-AL-DĪN, ḴᵛĀJA ABŪ NAṢR FATḤ-ALLĀH

  F. R. C. Bagley

  a vizier (d. 1358) eulogized by Ḥāfeẓ in two ḡazals (nos. 374 and 478).

• DĀYA

  Mahmoud Omidsalar and Theresa Omidsalar

  wet nurse.

• BALUCHISTAN i. Geography, History and Ethnography

  Brian Spooner

  Baluchistan appears to have been divided throughout history between Iranian (highland) and Indian (lowland) spheres of influence, and since 1870 it has been formally divided among Afghanistan, Iran, and India (later Pakistan). Parts 1-7.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BALUCHISTAN iv. Music of Baluchistan

  M. T. Massoudieh

  Melodies in the music of Baluchistan are usually connected with particular ceremonies (marāsem), usually religious rites, festivals, or holidays. The relationships between melodies and particular ceremonies are reflected in their names.

• AHL-E ḠARQ

  Nasrin Raḥimieh

  (The drowned, 1990), best-known novel of Moniru Ravanipur.

• GÖBL, ROBERT

  Michael Alram

  (b. Vienna, 1919; d. 1997), Austrian numismatist.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INSECTS

  Steven C. Anderson

  The insects of Persia and Afghanistan belong to the Palearctic fauna, although in the eastern and southeastern parts of the region there are representatives of the Oriental fauna characteristic of the Indian subcontinent.

• ABU’L-JĀRŪD HAMDĀNĪ

  W. Madelung

  Kufan Shiʿite scholar and leader of the early Zaydite group named after him, the Jārūdīya.

• ʿĀQEL KHAN RĀZĪ

  S. Maqbul Ahmad

  Indo-Muslim man of letters, historian, and mystic (d. 1108/1696).

• BĀNK-E MARKAZĪ-E ĪRĀN

  M. Yeganeh

  (Central Bank of Iran), a bank established under the Iranian Banking and Monetary Act of 28 May 1960 to undertake the central banking activities in the country. The functions and powers of Bānk-e Markazī were revised following the Islamic Revolution of February, 1979, which led to the nationalization of private banking.

• ČOḠĀ MĪŠ

  Helene J. Kantor

  (Chogha Mish), the largest prehistoric and protohistoric site (ca. 17 ha) in the area below the Zagros foothills between Dezfūl and Šūštar.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EBRĀHĪM LODĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See LODĪ DYNASTY.

• KARAJ RIVER

  Bernard Hourade

  the second major permanent river of the central Iranian plateau after the Zāyandarud river.

• PAHLAVI PAPYRI

  Dieter Weber

  documents written exclusively in Egypt during the Persian (Sasanian) occupation under Ḵosrow II between 619 and 629 CE.

• ḤASAN-E ḠAZNAVI

  Julie Scott Meisami

  , SAYYED EMĀM AŠRAF ḤASAN B. MOḤAMMAD ḤOSAYNI, poet chiefly associated with the court of the Ghaznavid ruler Bahrāmšāh (d. ca. 1161).

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS iv. JUDICIAL SYSTEM FROM THE ADVENT OF ISLAM THROUGH THE 19TH CENTURY

  Willem Floor

  From the beginning of Islamic rule in Persia, a secular and a religious judiciary co-existed: the ʿorfi court applying the common law, the tribunal of religious judge (qāẓi) applying the sacred law (šariʿa).

• ʿALAWAYH

  D. M. Dunlop

  AL-AʿSAR (“the Left-handed”), a noted singer at the ʿAbbasid court under Hārūn al-Rašīd and his successors, ca. 184-230/800-54.

• ĀXŠTI

  B. Schlerath

  (Avestan) “Peace, contract of peace.”

• BOZ

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  the domestic goat. The earliest evidence for domestication of the goat has been found in Iran (ca. 10,000 B.C.), as have the largest number of prehistoric sites (ca. 7000 B.C.) showing traces of the systematic breeding of this animal.

• DEHESTĀNĪ, ḤOSAYN

  Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī

  b. Asʿad b. Ḥosayn Moʾayyadī, Persian translator of the Arabic work al-Faraj baʿd al-šedda by Abū ʿAlī Moḥassen (939-94), a collection of poems, anecdotes, sayings, and didactic remarks arranged in thirteen chapters on the general theme of joy following hardship.

• FAḴRĀʾĪ, EBRĀHĪM REŻĀZĀDA

  Moḥammad-Taqī Pūr Aḥmad Jaktājī

  (b. Rašt, 1899; d. Tehran, 1988), educator, journalist, lawyer, and scholar.

• BURIAL v. In Bahai Communities

  Vahid Rafati

  Bahai laws on burial are limited to a few basic principles that are binding on all Bahai communities around the world.

• ḴOSROW I ii. Reforms

  Zeev Rubin

  a series of reforms in Sasanian taxation and military organization, probably initiated already under Kawāḏ I.

• ḠOLĀM-ḤOSAYN KHAN ṢĀḤEB(-E) EḴTIĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪN-E ḴALWAT.

• ABŪ NAṢR MOŠKĀN

  H. Moayyad

  head of the Ghaznavid chancery under Maḥmūd and Masʿūd from 401/1011-12 till his death in 431/1039-40.

• ARAŠ

  Cross-Reference

  Old Persian arašni-, Avestan araθni-) “cubit.” See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

• BARAK

  T. Bīneš

  a kind of firm and durable woven cloth used for coats, overcoats (labbāda), shawls (in Afghanistan), čūḵas (surcoats for shepherds) and leggings.

• CONSTITUTION OF THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC

  Said Amir Arjomand

  After the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy in 1979, Persia was declared an Islamic republic. Until that time there had been virtually no discussion, outside religious circles, of the conception of welāyat-e faqīh (lit. “mandate of the jurist”) propounded by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. During the revolutionary turmoil of 1978-79, only the vaguer notion of “Islamic government” was current.

• ʿEDĀLAT, ḤEZB-E

  Fakhreddin Azimi

  (Ar. ʿAdālat “justice”), Persian political party founded by ʿAlī Daštī in December 1941.

• RASTḴIZ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (Resurrection) newspaper published 1915-16 in Baghdad a group of Iranian expatriates in Europe, headed by Sayyed Ḥasan Taqizāda.

• FLURY, SAMUEL

  Jens Kröger

  (1874-1935) pioneer of Islamic paleographical studies. Although Flury was primarily interested in problems of the development of Kufic script, much of his specific research was focused on monuments in Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAYʾATHĀ-YE MOʾTALEFA-YE ESLĀMI

  Cross-Reference

  See JAMʿIYATHĀ-YE MOʾTALEFA-YE ESLĀMI.

• ḴĀDEM-E BESṬĀMI

  Kioumars Ghereghlou

  , Moḥammad Ṭāher b. Ḥasan, local historian, calligrapher, and poet of the reign of Shah ʿAbbās I.

• ʿALĪ B. BŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  the eldest of three brothers who came to power in western Persia as military adventurers and founded the Buyid dynasty. See ʿEMĀD-AL-DAWLA.

• ʿAYYĀR

  Cl. Cahen, W. L. Hanaway, Jr.

  a noun meaning literally “vagabond,” applied to members of medieval fotowwa (fotūwa) brotherhoods and comparable popular organizations.

• BRONZE

  Vincent C. Pigott, James W. Allan

  an alloy of two metals, copper and tin. When tin is alloyed with copper, it decreases the temperature at which the two metals will melt, increases fluidity during casting, and acts as a deoxidant. Although copper deposits occur with reasonable frequency throughout the highland zones of south­western, sources of tin are far less common.

• DEMOTIC CHRONICLE

  Edda Bresciani

  Egyptian papyrus document of the early 2nd century B.C.E. in which anti-Persian themes, especially focused on Cambyses, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes III, were elaborated in Ptolemaic Egyptian sacerdotal and intellectual surroundings.

• FARĀH

  Daniel Balland

  or FARAH; a town and province in southwestern Afghanistan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CHILDREN vii. Children's Literature

  EIr

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MASRUR, Hosayn

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  (1890-1968), novelist, poet, and literary scholar.

• GOLPĀYEGĀNI DIALECT

  Cross-Reference

  See CENTRAL DIALECTS.

• IRAN NAMEH

  Abbas Milani

  the oldest post-Islamic Revolution scholarly journal published since 1982 by the Iranian Diaspora.

• ABŪ SAHL LAKŠAN

  Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī

   official under the Ghaznavid amirs Maḥmūd (388-421/998-1030) and Masʿūd (421-32/1031-41).

• ARDALĀN, ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN ARDALĀN.

• JĀMI i. Life and Works

  Paul Losensky

• CORRESPONDENCE

  Multiple Authors

• EDUCATION xxviii. IN TAJIKISTAN

  Habib Borjian

  Modern education in Tajikistan developed as the country emerged as a Soviet socialist republic, under the Soviet policy of standardizing the educational system throughout the Soviet Union, with language as virtually the only variable. In Tajikistan, as in other Central Asian republics, this policy brought about nearly universal literacy.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FARĀMARZ, ABŪ MANṢŪR

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ MANṢŪR FARĀMARZ.

• SANG-E ṢABUR

  Ali Ferdowsi

  (1966, tr. by Mohammad Reza Ghanoonparvar, as The Patient Stone, 1989), the last, and arguably, the most critically acclaimed work of fiction by Sadeq Chubak.

• FORUZĀNFAR, Badiʿ-al-Zamān

  Abd-al-Hosayn Zarrinkub

  (1903-1970) Persian literary scholar and critic, professor at the University of Tehran, one of the pioneers of literary studies in modern Persia. A significant part of Forūzānfar’s scholarship was devoted to Rūmī and his associates; other works cover Islamic mysticism and philosophy.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HEALTH IN PERSIA iv. PAHLAVI PERIOD

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ĀBĀNAGĀN

  Cross-Reference

  the name used by Bīrūnī (Āṯār, p. 224) for the Zoroastrian feast-day dedicated to the Waters, which was celebrated on the day Ābān of the month Ābān. See further under ĀBĀN MĀH.

• ʿALĪ ĀQĀ TABRĪZĪ, MIRZA

  Cross-Reference

  See ṮEQAT-AL-ESLĀM.

• ĀẔARĪ language

  cross-reference

  the ancient language of Azerbaijan. See AZERBAIJAN vii.

• BURNES, ALEXANDER

  Malcolm E. Yapp

  (1805-41), author of Travels into Bukhara (published in 1834), an account of his exploratory mission to Afghani­stan, Turkestan, and Iran.

• DEYLAMĀN

  Ezat O. Negahban

  or Daylamān, district and town in Gīlān.

• CITIES i. Geographical Introduction

  Xavier De Planhol

• ḴEZR

  Anna Krasnowolska

  a prophet known to Islamic written tradition and folklore, whose worship in Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia is connected with local calendar beliefs and fertility cults.

• GŌRĀN

  Cross-Reference

  a tribe in Kurdistan. See GURĀN.

• ABU’L-WAFĀʾ ḴᵛĀRAZMĪ

  H. Landolt

  Famous Sufi of Kobrawī affiliation, esoterist, scholar, poet, and musician (d. 835/1431-32).

• ARG-E TEHRĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See TEHRAN.

• BARTHOLD, VASILIĭ VLADIMIROVICH

  Yu. Bregel

  Russian orientalist (1869-1930). He was the first who put the study of the history of Central Asia on a firm scholarly basis and actually founded this branch of Oriental studies. But he never studied Central Asia in isolation.

• CROWN

  Multiple Authors

  (Pers. and Ar. tāj), royal and divine headdress.

• EḴWĀN AL-MOSLEMĪN, JAMʿĪYAT AL-

  Rudi Matthee

  lit. "Society of Muslim brethren"; the first modern religio-political movement in the Islamic world, founded in 1928 by Ḥasan Bannāʾ in Esmāʿīlīya Egypt.

• FARHANG-E JAHĀNGĪRĪ

  Solomon Bayevsky

  one of the most complete and authoritative dictionaries of the Persian language, composed in India at the beginning of the 17th century by Mīr Jamāl-al-Dīn Ḥosayn b. Fakr-al-Dīn Ḥasan Enjū Šīrāzī.

• ʿASKARĀN

  KAMRAN EKBAL

  village in Qarābāḡ about seven miles northeast of Stepanakert in the eastern Caucasus, where peace negotiations between Russia and Persia took place in 1225/1810.

• KĀR-NĀMA-YE BALḴ

  J. T . P. de Bruijn

  a short maṯnavi by Sanāʾi of Ghazna (d. 1131), containing panegyric as well as satirical verses addressed to, or describing, people from various layers of Ghaznavid society.

• FRAŠŌ.KƎRƎTI

  Almut Hintze

  an eschatological term referring to the final renovation and transfiguration of Ahura Mazdā’s creation after evil has been utterly defeated and driven away.

• HELLANICUS OF LESBOS

  J. Wiesehöfer

  a polyhistorian, probably younger than Herodotus but older than Thucydides (ca. 480-395 B.C.?), who was much read in the ancient world.

• ABBASID CALIPHATE

  C. E. Bosworth

  the third dynasty of caliphs who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphs in Damascus.

• ʿALĪ-QOLĪ KHAN AFŠĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿĀDEL SHAH.

• BĀB (1)

  D. M. MacEoin

  “door, gate, entrance,” a term of varied application in Shiʿism and related movements.

• ČAḠĀNĪĀN, Chaghanids

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E MOḤTĀJ.

• DĪBĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABRĪŠAM.

• CLOTHING xxvii. Historical lexicon of Persian clothing

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

• ZEMESTĀN-E 62

  ʿAli Ferdowsi

  (Winter of 62, 1987), a novel published by the well-known and prolific Persian novelist Esmāʿil Fasih.

• GŌSĀN

  Mary Boyce

  a Parthian word of unknown derivation for “poet-musician, minstrel.”

• ACTS OF THE PERSIAN MARTYRS

  A. Vööbus

  a collection of the acts of martyrdom under Šāpūr II (309-79 CE).

• ARMY

  Multiple Authors

• BATRAKATAŠ

  H. Koch

  place name, apparently the same as Pasargadae, which appears on the Elamite fortification tablets found at Persepolis.

• CYROPAEDIA

  Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg

  (Gr. Kúrou paideía, The educa­tion of Cyrus), a partly fictional biography of Cyrus the Great (q.v.; 559-29 b.c.e.), founder of the Achaemenid empire.

• ĒLTOTMEŠ, ŠAMS-AL-DĪN

  Peter Jackson

  (d. 1236), first Sultan of Delhi.

• FARMĀNFARMĀ, ʿABD-AL-ḤOSAYN MĪRZĀ

  Cyrus Mir and EIr

  (1858-1939), Qajar prince-governor, military commander, skillful politician, head of various ministries, and prime minister. He managed to sail successfully the stormy sea of Persian politics for several decades while the entire social and political landscape was undergoing dramatic change.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KĀRIZ v. Kārēz in the Late 20th Century and Their Prospects

  Xavier de Planhol

  In 1990 it was estimated that the kārēz technique supplied water to around 1.5 million hectares of the planet’s total irrigated surface area, which constituted only the minor portion of approximately 0.6 percent.

• FŪŠANJĪ HERAVĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ,

  Gerhard Böwering

  correctly BŪŠANJĪ; b. Aḥmad b. Sahl (d. 958/959), an important exponent of the fetyān (javān-mardān) of Khorasan.

• HERAT vii. THE HERAT FRONTIER IN THE LATTER HALF OF 19TH AND 20TH CENTURIES

  Arash Khazeni

  In the latter half of 19th century, following the settlement of the Khorasan frontier with Persia in 1857, the rulers of Kabul, with British support, sought to make Herat a part of the Afghan state.

• ʿABD-AL-ḤAYY, ḴᵛĀJĀ

  P. P. Soucek

  Miniaturist (late 8th/14th century).

• ALPTIGIN

  C. E. Bosworth

  Turkish military slave commander of the Samanids and founder of Turkish power in eastern Afghanistan (d. 352/963).

• BĀBAY

  A. Vööbus

  catholicos of the Persian Church elected at the synod at Seleucia in 497 (d. 502).

• ČAḴĀNSŪR

  Daniel Balland

  principal town of the large Ḵāšrūd delta oasis in northeastern Sīstān.

• DIODOTUS

  Osmund Bopearachchi

  satrap of Bactria-Sogdiana, who revolted against his Seleucid soverign Antiochus II and proclaimed himself king, thus laying the foundation of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom. The date of his revolt has been  placed between 256 and 239 B.C., the majority of scholars arguing for about the year 250.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY iv. In the Mazdakite religion

  Werner Sundermann

• PARIḴĀN ḴĀNOM

  Manučehr Pārsādust

  (1548-1578), the second daughter of Shah Ṭahmāsp I, a politically influential and colorful figure at the Safavid court.

• GRANT DUFF, Sir EVELYN MOUNTSTUART

  Denis Wright

  (b. 1863; d. Bath, 1926), British diplomat serving successively in Rome, Tehran, St. Petersburg, Stockholm, Berlin, then London.

• ISLAM IN IRAN xii. MARTYRDOM IN ISLAM

  Cross-Reference

  Forthcoming online.

• ĀDĪNEVAND

  P. Oberling

  a small Lur tribe of Lorestān which lives the year round in the baḵš of Ṭarhān.

• BAYRĀNAVAND

  P. Oberling

  a Lor tribe of the Pīš(-e)Kūh region in Lorestān.

• MANṢUR B. NUḤ

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  the name of two of the later Amirs of the Samanids (q.v.), the first ruling in both Transoxiana and Khorasan, and the second in Transoxiana only.

• TAḎKERA-YE NAṢRĀBĀDI

  MAHMOUD FOTOOHI

  a compilation of short biographical notices on some one thousand poets of the Safavid period.

• GAVA

  Cross-Reference

  See SOGHDIA.

• HERODOTUS ix. TIGRANES AND THE BATTLE OF MYCALE

  Robert Rollinger

  After Salamis, the escaped Persian fleet for a while ceased playing any further part. During the winter it was anchored in part at Cyme, and in part before Samos.

• ʿABD-AL-NABĪ AḤMADNAGARĪ

  M. Baqir

  12th/18th century Gujerati scholar.

• AʿMAŠ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD

  E. Kohlberg

  SOLAYMĀN B. MEḤRĀN ASADĪ (in some sources, erroneously, Azdī) KĀHELĪ KŪFĪ, 1st-2nd/7th-8th century Shiʿite scholar, traditionist, and Koran reader.

• BADʾ WAʾL-TAʾRĪḴ

  M. Morony

  (The book of creation and history), an encyclopedic compilation of religious, historical, and philosophical knowledge written in Arabic by Abū Naṣr Moṭahhar b. al-Moṭahhar (or Ṭāher) Maqdesī in 966.

• ČAMČAMĀL

  Abdollah Mardukh

  (Kurdish čam “river” and Čamāl/Jamāl, personal name; in the sources also writ­ten Jamjamāl), a fertile dehestān of Ṣaḥna baḵš in Kermānšāhān (Bāḵtarān) province located to the south and west of Ṣaḥna on the Kermānšāh-Hamadān road and watered by Gāmāsb and Dīnavar rivers.

• DŌDĀ-BĀLĀÇ

  Cross-Reference

  See BALUCHISTAN iii/II.

• TELEGRAPH i. FIRST TELEGRAPH LINES IN PERSIA

  Soli Shahvar

  The initiator of introducing the electric telegraph in Persia was Mirzā Malkom Khan. In 1858 he carried out two successful telegraphic experiments for Nāṣer-al-Din Shah.

• ʿAFĪF

  N. H. Zaidi

  (d. ca. 802/1399), author of Tārīḵ-eFīrūzšāhī, a Persian life of Fīrūz Shah Toḡloq (r. 752-90/1351-88).

• ARTAXIAS I

  J. Russell

  reigned 189-160 B.C., founder of the Artaxiad dynasty in Greater Armenia.

• BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE

  Werner Sundermann

  (1659-1738), Huguenot pastor, scholar and pioneer of modern studies of Manicheism.

• DAʿĪ

  Farhad Daftary

  he who summons; a term used by several Muslim groups, especially the Ismaʿilis, to designate their propagandists or missionaries.

• ENQELĀB-E ESLĀMĪ

  See REVOLUTION OF 1978-79.

• FATḤ-ʿALĪ SHAH QĀJĀR

  Abbas Amanat

  (1769-1834), second ruler of the Qajar dynasty. He transformed a largely Turkic tribal khanship into a centralized and stable monarchy on the old imperial model which brought to the Guarded Domains of Persia (mamālek-e maḥrūsa-ye Īrān) a period of relative calm and prosperity, secured a state-religious symbiosis, and fostered a period of cultural and artistic revival.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• OUPHARIZES

  R. N. Frye

  (Greek name or appellative Wahriz), general of cavalry in the time of Ḵosrow I.

• GAHĪZ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  weekly newspaper published in Kabul from January 1968 to April 1973, owned, edited, and published by Menhāj-al-Dīn Gahīz (1922-73), who was apparently assassinated by Soviet agents.

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN B. ʿOMAR ṢŪFĪ

  P. Kunitzsch

  Astronomer, especially well versed in knowledge of the fixed stars (10th century).

• AMĪN ḤAŻRAT

  J. Calmard

  eldest son of Āqā Ebrāhīm Amīn-al-solṭān who succeeded his father as Head of the royal pantry (ābdār-bašī), which allowed him to accompany Nāṣer-al-dīn Shah in all his travels in Iran and abroad.

• BADR ČĀČĪ

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  a Persian poet of the 14th century, born in the town or district of Čāč (also written Šāš) in Transoxiana.

• CARDAMOM

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  hel in modern Persian (from Skt. elā), the aromatic seeds of several plants of the family Zingiberaceae.

• DŌRĪ

  Daniel Balland

  river in southern Afghanistan, the main tributary of the Arḡandā.

• FĀRĀBĪ iii. Metaphysics

  Thérèse-Anne Druart

• LUSCHEY, Heinz

  Wolfram Kleiss

  (1910-1992), German archaeologist and art historian of Iran and the Middle East.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GÜNDÜZLÜ

  Cross-Reference

  See TURKIC TRIBES.

• JAʿFAR KHAN BAḴTIĀRI

  cross-reference

  See BAḴTIĀRI (1).

• AFŻAL-AL-DĪN TORKA

  R. Quiring-Zoche

  name of three figures from Isfahan.

• ARZŪR

  J. P. Asmussen

  Mid. Pers. form of Avestan Arəzūra-, the name of a demon of unclear origin or function in Zoroastrian tradition. 

• BEH-QOBĀD

  Michael Morony

  (Mid. Pers. Vēh-Kavāt), an administrative district created by the Sasanian king Qobād I in the early sixth century along the Babylon branch of the Euphrates.

• DĀMDĀD NASK

  D. N. MacKenzie

  the Middle Persian (Pahlavi) name of one of the lost nasks of the Avesta. 

• EQDĀM

  Nassereddin Parvin

  name of two separate series of a Persian newspaper published and edited in the first half of the twentieth century in Tehran by the journalist, poet, novelist, and translator, ʿAbbās Ḵalīlī.

• FAŻLŪYA, Amir ABU’L-ʿABBĀS FAŻL

  ʿAbd-Allāh Mardūḵ

  known also as Neẓām-al-Dīn Fażl-Allāh, chief of the Šabānkāra Kurds in Fārs during the 11th century.

• ACHAEMENID SATRAPIES

  Bruno Jacobs

  the administrative units of the Achaemenid empire.

• GANJ-E BĀDĀVARD

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  (the treasure brought by the wind), name of one of the eight treasures of the Sasanian Ḵosrow II Parvēz (r. 591-628 C.E.) according to most Persian sources.

• HOMĀYUN PĀDEŠĀH

  Wheeler M. Thackston

  , NĀṢER-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD, (1508–56), second Mughal emperor in Kabul (1530–56) and northern India (1530–40 and 1555–56). succesor to Bābor.

• ABDADĀNA

  M. Dandamayev

  Region in western Media, mentioned in Neo-Assyrian royal inscriptions and annals.

• AMĪR NEẒĀM GARRŪSĪ

  A. Amanat

  known also as Sālār-e Laškar (1236-1317/1820-1900), officer, diplomat, statesman, and literary figure of the Qajar period. 

• BAGAYAṞIČ

  R. H. Hewsen

  site of the great temple of Mihr (Mithras), one of the eight principal pagan shrines of pre-Christian Armenia, traditionally built by Tigranes II the Great (r. 95-56 B.C.).

• CASPIAN SEA i. GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

  actually a lake, the largest in the world (estimated surface area in 1986: 378,400 km², volume 78,600 km³; approx. between lat 37° and 47° N, long 46° and 54° E); it is bounded on the south by Persia.

• DRŌN

  Jamsheed K. Choksy

  Zoroastrian ritual term originally meaning “sacred portion” and designating a ritual offering to divine beings.

• JADE iii. Jade Carving, 4th century B.C.E to 15th century C.E.

  Manuel Keene

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• WAKIL-AL-RAʿĀYĀ

  John Perry

  regnal title assumed by Karim Khan Zand (r. 1164-93/1751-79) after he established himself at Shiraz in 1765. It is recorded in variants wakil-al-raʿiya, wakil-e raʿiat, and wakil-al-ḵalāʾeq, all meaning “deputy of the people.”

• ḤABIB-ALLĀH ḴORĀSĀNI

  Jalal Matini

  , Hājj Mirzā, an enlightened religious scholar of Mašhad and a poet (1850-1909).

• JALĀL-AL-DIN ḤASAN III

  FARHAD DAFTARY

  (b. 1166-67; d. 1221), Nezāri Ismaʿili imam and the sixth lord of Alamut.

• AHL-E ḤAQQ

  H. Halm

  “People of (the absolute) Truth,” a sect found in western Persia and some regions of northeastern Iraq; the name has also been adopted by other Islamic sects (Noṣayrīs, Ḥorūfīs) and appears to be rooted in the tradition of the extremist Shiʿites (ḡolāt).

• ASB

  A. Sh. Shahbazi, F. Thordarson, ʿA. Solṭānī Gordfarāmarzī, C. E. Bosworth

  “horse.”  From the dawn of history the Iranians have celebrated the horse in their art and in their literature.  i. In pre-Islamic Iran.  ii. Among the Scythians.  iii. In Islamic times.  iv. In Afghanistan.

• BEROSSUS

  Stanley M. Burstein

  Babylonian 4th-3rd-century priest-chronicler; he took note of Iranian actions insofar as they directly affected Babylon.

• VETCH

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿADAS.

• ERŠĀD AL-NESWĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the first women’s periodical in Afghanistan, published weekly in Kabul from 16 March-9 June 1921.

• FERQA-YE DEMOKRĀT-E ĀḎARBĀYJĀN

  Democratic Party of Azerbaijan

  Democratic Party of Azerbaijan; the dominant political party in Azarbayjan during the Pīšavarī period. See Supplement.

• ŠĀH-NĀMA TRANSLATIONS xiv. INTO RUSSIAN

  Natalia Chalisova

  The first translation of the Šāh-nāma into Russian dates from 1849, when V. Zhukovski (d. 1852) wrote his poem Rustem and Zorab.

• KASMĀʾI, MIRZĀ ḤOSAYN

  Pezhmann Dailami

  (1862-1921), a constitutionalist active in the revolutionary movement in Gilan (1915-20).

• GARMSĪR AND SARDSĪR

  Xavier de Planhol

  lit. "warm zones and cold zones"; two terms identifying regional entities that form a major geographical contrast deeply affecting the popular conscience in Persia.

• HORSE RACING

  Azartash Azarnoush

  The history of horse racing in Iran can be traced back to the Achaemenid period. Xenophon refers to a race set up by Cyrus II.

• ʿABDALLĀH ḤOSAYNĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Scribe and poet in the service of the Mughal emperors Akbar and Jahāngīr (17th century).

• AMR BE MAʿRŪF

  W. Madelung

  Arabic al-amr be’l-maʿrūf wa’l-nahy ʿan al-monkar “enjoining what is proper or good and forbidding what is reprehensible or evil,” one of the principle religious duties in Islam.  

• BAHAISM

  Multiple Authors

  or BAHAI faith, a religion founded in the nineteenth century by Bahāʾ-Allāh that grew out of the Iranian messianic movement of Babism and developed into a world religion with internationalist and pacifist emphases.

• ČEHEL SOTŪN, QAZVIN

  Wolfram Kleiss

  a Safavid pavilion that stands amid gardens in the central meydān (square) of the old city and in which the Qazvīn museum is installed.

• DŪNQEŠLĀQ

  Klaus Fischer

  or Dong Qešlaq; group of pre-Islamic and Islamic archeological sites on the Emām Ṣāḥeb plain in the Qondūz province of Afghanistan, about 10 km south of the Oxus.

• JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ iv. And Esoteric sciences

  Daniel De Smet

• MILĀN

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe in western Persian Azerbaijan.

• Jāmāsp ii. Coinage

  NIKOLAUS SCHINDEL

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḤMAD ṢĀḠĀNĪ

  D. Pingree

  one of the many astronomers who worked for the Buyids in Baghdad in the 4th/10th century.

• ʿASKARĪ

  W. M. Watt

  philologist and poet born about the middle of the 4th/10th century.

• BHAIṢAJYAGURUVAIḌŪRYAPRABHARĀJASŪTRA

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  the name of a Buddhist Mahayanist text of which a number of fragments in Old Khotanese and Sogdian are extant.

• DARB -E EMĀM

  Parvīz Varjāvand

  large shrine complex in the old Sonbolestān quarter of Isfahan. The main structure, consisting of entrance portal (sar-dar), vestibule, and tomb, was built in 1453 and expanded and modified several times during the Safavid period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ESFANDĪĀR KHAN BAḴTĪĀRĪ, ṢAMṢĀM-AL-SALṬANA, SARDĀR(-E) ASʿAD

  G. R. Garthwaite

  (1844-1902), important leader of the Baḵtīārī tribe in southwestern Persia and grandfather of Queen Ṯorayyā.

• FIGUEROA, GARCÍA DE SILVA Y

  Michele Bernardini

  (b. Zafra, 1550; d. at sea returning from Persia, 1624), Spanish diplomat and traveler.

• KIĀNI, Sayyed NĀDERŠĀH

  S. J. Badakhchani

  (d. 1970), Ismaʿili poet and writer of Afghanistan.

• KASRAVI, AḤMAD iv. AS LINGUIST

  Forthcoming online.

• ḠAŻĀYERĪ RĀZĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠAŻĀʾERĪ RĀZĪ.

• HOSSEIN, ANDRÉ

  Iraj Khademi

  French composer (1905-1983).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABIRĀDŪŠ

  M. Dandamayev

  a village in Elam.

• ʿANBARĪ, ABU’L-ʿABBĀS

  C. E. Bosworth

  4th-5th/10th-11th century poet and prose stylist of Khorasan and statesman in the service of the Qarakhanids.

• BAḤR-E ḴᵛĀRAZM

  cross-reference

  See ARAL SEA.

• ČERĪK

  Willem Floor

  (also jerīk, from Mongol tserig “warrior[s]”), originally troops sent by an individual or camp (yort) to serve in the royal army.

• EBER-NĀRI

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  the Akkadian name used in Assyrian and Babylonian records of the 8th-5th centuries B.C.E. for the lands to the west of the Euphrates—i.e., Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine.

• MAMIKONEAN

  Nina Garsoian

  the most distinguished family in Early Christian Armenia after the ruling Arsacid house. Their power survived the fall of the dynasty in 428 and began to wane only from the end of the 6th century.

• TURFAN EXPEDITIONS

  Werner Sundermann

  Turfan (also Uigur Turpan, Chin. Tulufan) in Xinjiang (Chinese Turkestan) is the largest oasis (ca. 170 square kilometers) on the ancient northern Silk Road.

• ḤĀJI ĀQĀ

  F. Farzaneh

  a satirical novella by Ṣādeq Hedāyat, published in the journal Soḵan in 1945, followed by a second edition in 1952.

• AHVĀZĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-ḤASAN AHWĀZĪ.

• ʿAṢR-E ENQELĀB

  N. Parvīn

  a journal of news and political comment published at Tehran in 1333-1915.

• BĪḠAMĪ

  William L. Hanaway

  , MAWLĀNĀ SHAIKH ḤĀJĪ MOḤAMMAD, oral storyteller of the 8th/14th century, narrator of the romance Dārāb-nāma.

• DARRAGAZ

  Massoud Kheirabadi, Philip Kohl

  or DARGAZ (Valley of the tamarisks), a fertile valley about 50-55 km east-west and 30-35 km north-south in the Kopet Dagh range in northern Khorasan, at about 450 m above sea level, in which are located a šahrestān (subprovince) and a town of the same name.

• EṢLĀḤĀT-E ARŻĪ

  See LAND REFORM.

• ĀB ii. Water in Muslim Iranian culture

  I. K. Poonawala

• BYRON, ROBERT

  Robert Irwin

  (1905-1941), British travel writer and amateur historian of architecture. 

• GEOLOGY

  Eckart Ehlers

  This article is concerned with those aspects of the geology of Persia that are of immediate economic and cultural significance for the country and its inhabitants, primarily (1) geological structure and orohydrographic differentiation of Persia, (2) geology and natural hazards, and (3) geology and natural resources.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HVARCIERA

  cross-reference

  See XWARČIHR.

• ABU’L-ʿALĀʾ HAMADĀNĪ

  L. A. Giffen

  saintly specialist in the science of Koran readings (qerāʾāt) and Tradition, born in Hamadān in 488/1090 and died in 569/1173.

• ANGLO-RUSSIAN AGREEMENT OF 1873

  J. A. Norris

  English interest in Persia during this period is almost exclusively concerned with trade and has almost nothing to do with political relations.

• BĀJALĀN

  P. Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe in the dehestāns of Qūratū, Ḏohāb and Jagarlū in the šahrestān of Qaṣr-e Šīrīn, on the Iraqi border.

• CHILDREN

  Multiple Authors

  This series of articles covers children and child-rearing in Iran and Iranian lands.

• EBN BOḴTĪŠŪʿ

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  prominent family of physicians of Gondēšāpūr at court during the early ʿAbbasid period.

• ECKMANN, János

  ANDRÁS BODROGLIGETI

  (1905-1971), a Hungarian Professor of Chaghatay.

• MARRIAGE CONTRACT IN THE PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Ilya Yakubovich

  a formal, written agreement, documented in both eastern and western Iranian practice.

• ḤALIMI, LOṬF-ALLĀH

  Tahsin Yazici

  b. Abi Yusof, an Ottoman poet and lexicographer of Persian origin (d. 1516).

• JAWĀLIQI, HEŠĀM

  Abbas Kadhim

  b. Sālem, an Imami jurist and theologian of the 8th century. He was a close associate of the Imams Jaʿfar al-Ṣādeq and Musā al-Kāẓem.

• AḴBĀRĪ, MĪRZĀ MOḤAMMAD

  H. Algar

  A leading exponent of the Aḵbārī school of Islamic jurisprudence (feqh) and a violent polemicist against its opponents (1178-1233/1765-1818).

• ĀSTARKĪ

  J. Qāʾem-Maqāmī

  (or AŠTARKĪ), one sub-tribe of the six which presently constitute the Dūrkī tribe of the Haft Lang confederation of the Baḵtīārī people.

• BĪṬARAF

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (The impartial), a news and political affairs journal published in Persian and French in Tehran (1913-14).

• DAŠLĪ

  Pierre Amiet

  or Dashly; oasis situated south of the Āmū Daryā, on the desert plain of northern Afghanistan, ancient Bactria, now in the province of Jūzjān ca 35 km northeast of Āqča.

• ʿEŠQĪ BELGRĀMĪ, SHAH BARKAT-ALLĀH

  Asifa Zamani

  (1659?-1729), Indo-Persian poet and author.

• ARCHEOLOGY v. Pre-Islamic Central Asia

  V. M. Masson

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SANGLĀḴ, MOḤAMMAD-ʿALI

  Maryam Ekhtiar

  (b. Qučān, Khorasan, date unknown; d. Tabriz, 3 March 1877), celebrated calligrapher and stone carver, as well as poet and author. He lived as a dervish and spent much of his time traveling, with long sojourns in the Ottoman empire and Egypt. He also traveled to Central Asia, Afghanistan and India, where he met with and instructed many calligraphers.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ILBĀRS KHAN

  Yuri Bregel

  name of two rulers of Ḵᵛārazm in the 16th and 18th centuries.

• ABŪ DOLAF ʿEJLĪ

  F. M. Donner

  Arab military chieftain, author, poet, governor, and boon companion for several ʿAbbasid caliphs, and most important member of the ʿEǰlī dynasty of western Iran, flourished in the early 3rd/9th century.

• ʿANNAZIDS

  K. M. Aḥmad

  (BANŪ ʿANNĀZ), a Kurdish dynasty (r. ca. 380-510/990-1117).

• BALĀḠAT

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (Ar. balāḡa), one of the most general terms to denote eloquence in speech and writing. The branches of literary criticism which developed within Muslim civilization became known collectively as the science (ʿelm) or art (ṣenāʿa) of balāḡat.

• CIA

  Cross-Reference

  See CENTRAL INTELLIGENCE AGENCY (CIA) IN PERSIA.

• EBN ḴĀZEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDALLĀH B. ḴĀZEM.

• GREAT BRITAIN

  Multiple Authors

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Introduction, ii. An Overview of Relations: Safavid to the Present, iii. British influence in Persia in the 19th century, iv. British influence in Persia, 1900-21, v. British influence during the Reżā Shah period, 1921-41, vi. British influence in Persia, 1941-79, vii. British Travelers to Persia, viii. British Archeological Excavations, ix. Iranian Studies in Britian, Pre-Islamic, x. Iranian Studies in Britain, the Islamic Period, xi. Persian Art Collections in Britain, xii. The Persian Community in Britain, xiii. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), xiv. The British Institute of Persian Studies, xv. British Schools in Persia.

• CHORASMIAN COINAGE

  B. I. Vainberg

  issued by the rulers of Chorasmia between the 2nd century BCE and the 8th century CE, Chorasmian coins are important primary evidence for the Old Chorasmian language and the region’s post-Achaemenid history because of the paucity of preserved sources for this period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤAMIDI ŠIRĀZI

  Jafar Moayyad Shirazi

  poet, man of letters, literary scholar and critic, translator, journalist, and university professor (1914-1986).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JIHOṆIKA

  O. Bopearachchi

  a ruler in northwestern India known to us from his coins and an inscription (1st cent. CE).

• ĀL-E AḤMAD, JALĀL

  J. W. Clinton

  (1923-69), well-known writer and social critic.

• ĀṮĀR AL-WOZARĀʾ

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  a biographical work on ministers and other officials, their policies and literary works, by Sayf al-dīn Ḥāǰǰī b. Neẓām ʿAqīlī, written at Herat between 1470-71 and 1486-87.

• BOḴTĪŠŪʿ

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  the name of the eponymous ancestor of a Syro-Persian Nestorian family of physicians from Gondēšāpūr, Ḵūzestān, 8th-11th centuries, and of several of its members.

• DATIS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Iranian personal name.

• EṬṬELĀʿĀT

  Nasserddin Parvin

  lit. “information, knowledge”; the oldest running Tehran afternoon daily newspaper and the oldest running Persian daily in the world. It was first published on 10 July 1926 as the organ of Markaz-e Eṭṭelāʿāt-e Īrān, the first Persian news agency.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AVICENNA iii. Logic

  Sh. B. Abed

• PALEOLITHIC AGE IN IRAN

  Frank Hole

  The Paleolithic or ‘Old Stone Age’ begins with the first stone tools some 2.5million years ago in Africa, and it ends with the Neolithic or ‘New Stone Age,’ essentially at the beginnings of agriculture.

• GIFT GIVING i, ii, iii

  EIr, Josef Wiesehöfer

  in Persia. The following articles constitute a preliminary attempt at studying various aspects of gift giving in a chronological and historical framework, from the pre-Islamic era to the early modern period.

• ABU’L-FOTŪḤ RĀZĪ

  M. J. McDermott

  Shiʿite commentator on the Koran who lived in the first half of the 6th/12th century.

• APĄM NAPĀT

  M. Boyce

  (Son of the Waters), Zoroastrian divinity of mysterious character whose true identity, like that of his Vedic counterpart, Apām Napāt, has been much debated.

• BĀMĪA

  H. Aʿlam, N. Ramazani

  (or bāmīā), okra, the edible unripe seed-pods of Hibiscus esculentus of the Malvaceae or mallows. i. The plant. ii. In cooking. iii. The sweet.  It was introduced into the culinary art of Persians by Arabs from Baghdad in the 19th century.

• CITY COUNCILS

  Ḥosayn Farhūdī

  (anjoman-e šahr) in Persia.

• EBN RŪḤ, ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤOSAYN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤOSAYN B. RŪḤ.

• KĀKĀVAND

  Pierre Oberling

  a Lor tribe of the Delfān group, settled in the Piškuh region of Luristan (Lorestān), as well as west of Qazvin and in the Ṭārom region.

• SHAMANISM

  Philippe Gignoux

  AND ITS CONNECTION TO IRAN. Archeological and ethnological sources in Iran do not lead to confirmation of the existence of shamanic practices there, whether ancient or modern. Yet some scholars have tried to find traces of them.

• HARDINGE, CHARLES

  Denis Wright

  , Lord, First Baron Hardinge of Penshurst (1858-1944), British diplomat.

• JOURNALISM i. Qajar Period

  Negin Nabavi

  For much of the Qajar period, journalism was a state-run domain. In the second half of the period,  newspapers began to appear increasingly.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA ḎUʾL-QADAR

  R. M. Savory

  early 9th/15th century ruler of Maṛʿaš and Albestān in the kingdom of Little Armenia, east of the Taurus mountains. 

• AUGUSTINE

  G. Widengren

  prominent Christian theologian and philosopher, born 354 in Thagaste, Numidia.

• BORHĀN BALḴĪ

  Zabihollah Safa

  , BORHĀN-AL-DĪN MOẒAFFAR b. Šams b. ʿAlī b. Ḥamīd-al-Dīn, a poet of the 14th century from Balḵ. He was descended from Ebrāhīm b. Adham, the renowned Iranian Sufi of

• DĀWŪD

  Fatḥ-Allāh Mojtabāʾī

  or DĀʾŪD; the biblical David, mentioned in a number of passages in the Koran as the hero who fought with and killed Jālūt, the prophet who received the Book of Psalms (Zabūr) from God, and the king who was given the power to rule, enforce justice, and distinguish between truth and falsehood.

• EYES and EARS of KING

  Cross-Reference

  See COURTS AND COURTIERS.

• BAHAISM xi. Bahai Conventions

  M. Momen

  The first Bahai convention in the world was probably the meeting convened by the Chicago Spiritual Assembly on 26 November 1907 for the purpose of choosing a site for the House of Worship that was to be built.

• SASANIAN TEXTILES

  Matteo Compareti

  Classical, Islamic, and Chinese sources celebrate Sasanian textiles as a very precious commodity, but no specific descriptions of them are given. Most studies of Sasanian textile art are originally based on these sources and on examining the reliefs of the larger grotto at Tāq-e Bostān, which, although extremely interesting, present too many external influences.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOAT

  Cross-Reference

  See BOZ.

• INJU

  Cross-Reference

  See ḴĀLEṢA.

• ABU’L-ḤOSAYN KĀTEB

  C. E. Bosworth

  official of the Buyids and writer in Arabic of the 4th/10th century. 

• ʿAQDĀ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a small settlement and subdistrict (dehestān) in the district (baḵš) of Ardakān-e Yazd.

• BANĪ ḤARDĀN

  J. Perry

  a Shiʿite Arab tribe of Howayza (Ḥawīza) district in Ḵūzestān.

• CODICES HAFNIENSES

  Jes P. Asmussen

  forty-three Avestan and Pahlavi codices acquired by Rasmus Kristian Rask (1787-1832) in Bombay, India, and Niels Ludvig Westergaard (1815-1878) in Persia, all originally de­posited in the library of the University of Copenhagen but later transferred to the Royal Library.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR ŠĪRĀZĪ, Ḥājī Mīrzā MOḤAMMAD Kalāntar

  Abbas Amanat

  (b. 1745, d. 1800/1801), lord mayor (kalāntar) of Shiraz during the late Zand era, the first grand vizier (ṣadr-e aʿẓam), and a major political figure of the Qajar period.

• MOTʿA

  Shahla Haeri

  in Islamic law, the word (lit. “pleasure”) used as a technical term for a marriage contracted for a definite period of time.

• ḤASAN B.TIMURTAŠ B. ČUBĀN KUČAK

  Cross-Reference

  See CHOBANIDS.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES xi. MUSIC (2)

  Houman Sarshar

  This section is divided into: moṭrebs (hired popular musicians), Persian classical music, instrument makers, and popular music. Existing scholarship and historical documents suggest that Jews were the most prevalent minority engaged as moṭrebs.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĀMĀT-E ŻOHŪR

  Cross-Reference

  See APOCALYPTIC.

• AWRANGĀBĀDĪ, SHAH NEẒĀM-AL-DĪN

  M. L. Siddiqui

  the celebrated Češtī saint said to be a descendant of Abū Bakr, the first caliph, in the line of Šehāb-al-dīn Sohravardī.

• BOWAYHIDS

  cross-reference

  See BUYIDS.

• DEH MORĀSĪ ḠONDAY

  Jim G. Shaffer

  a Bronze Age archeological site located at 34° 90’ N, 65° 30’ E, adjacent to the village of Deh Morāsī, approximately 27 km southwest of Qandahār and 6.5 km east-southeast of Pahjwāʾī in southeastern Afghanistan.

• FAḴR-al-DĪNZARRĀDĪ, MAWLĀNĀ

  Sharif Husain Qasemi

  a 14th century spiritual leader of the Češtī Sufi order in India.

• BUKHARA vi. Bukharan School of Miniature Painting

  Barbara Schmitz

  As far as is known, illustrated manuscripts were produced in Bukhara only under the Shaibanid (1500-98) and Janid (also known as Tughay -Timurid; 1599-1785) dynasties. Partly as a result of frequent raids on Herat by ʿObayd-Allāh Khan (918-46/1512-39) Persian manuscripts, artists, and calligraphers were brought to Bukhara.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FRYER, JOHN

  Michael J. Franklin

  (b. ca. 1650; d. 1733), British travel-writer and doctor. His writings  display a lively curiosity, which, sharpened by his scientific training, produces accurate observations in geology, meteorology, and all aspects of natural history.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠOLĀM SARVAR

  Arif Naushahi

  b. Mofti Ḡolām Moḥammad LĀHURI (b. Lahore, 1828; d. near Medina, 1890), historian, hagiographer, and poet in Persian and Urdu.

• ABŪ NAṢR AL-ESMĀʿĪLĪ

  W. M. Watt

  an alleged teacher of Abū Ḥāmed Ḡazālī (450-505/1058-1111).

• ARĀN (2)

  cross-reference

  See ḤOLVĀN.

• BAR KŌNAY, THEODORE

  J. P. Asmussen

  8th-9th-century Nestorian teacher and writer from Kaškar in Mesopotamia. His The Book of Scholiais notable for its sections on Zarathustra and Mani.

• CONSERVATION

  Cross-Reference

  See ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION.

• MAJLESI, Moḥammad-Bāqer

  Rainer Brunner

  (b. 1627; d. 1699 or 1700), an eminent Twelver Shiʿite jurist in Safavid Iran (1501-1722) and one of the most important hadith scholars of Twelver Shiʿism.

• FLORA IRANICA

  Wolfgang Frey

  a monumental work on the plants of Persia. Edited by Karl Heinz Rechinger of Vienna since 1963, Flora Iranica now consists of some 172 fascicles and is nearly complete. Only two spermatophyte families, the Cyperaceae and the Rubiaceae, are as yet lacking

• ḤĀWI, AL-

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  (i.e., al-Ketāb al-ḥāwi fi’l-ṭebb “Comprehensive book on medicine”), the title of a major Arabic work on medicine in twenty-five volumes by Abu Bakr Moḥammad.

• KABUL MUSEUM

  Carla Grissmann

  popular name of the National Museum of Afghanistan. A modest collection of artifacts and manuscripts already existed in the time of King Ḥabib-Allāh (r. 1901–19). In 1931 the collection was finally installed in a building in rural Darulaman (Dār-al-amān), eight kilometers south of Kabul City.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĪ B. ʿABBĀS MAJŪSĪ

  L. Richter-Bernburg

  physician from Fārs and author of an Arabic work on medicine (d. /994 [?]); probably the most important medical writer between Rāzī and Ebn Sīnā.

• AYRARAT

  R. H. Hewsen

  region of central Armenia in the broad plain of the upper Araxes.

• BRITISH PETROLEUM

  cross-reference

  See ANGLO-PERSIAN OIL COMPANY.

• DEMETRIUS

  A. D. H. Bivar

  name of two Greco-Bactrian kings.

• FĀNŪS

  Cross-reference

  lanterns. See ČERĀḠ.

• CHILDREN ii. In Modern Persian Folklore

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

• LAHUTI, Abu’l-Qasem

  Kāmyār ʿĀbedi

  (1887-1957), Marxist poet, political activist, and an important contributor to the modern of poetry of Tajikistan.

• GOLKONDA

  Cross-Reference

  See HYDERABAD.

• IRĀN newspapers

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of five newspapers, of which four were published in Persia and one in Baghdad, Iraq.

• ABŪ SAʿD TOSTARĪ

  S. D. Goitein

  businessman and quasi-vizier in Fatimid Egypt, d. 439/1047.

• ARDABĪLĪ

  W. Madelung

  known as MOQADDAS and MOḤAQQEQ ARDABĪLĪ, Imamite theologian and jurist of the early Safavid age. 

• BARƎSMAN

  Cross-Reference

  See BARSOM.

• CORMICK, WILLIAM

  Moojan Momen

  (b. Tabrīz 1822, d. Tabrīz 25 Ḏu’l-ḥejja 1294/30 December 1877), a British physician in Tabrīz.

• EDUCATION xxii. PHYSICAL EDUCATION

  Cross-Reference

  See PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

• FARĀHĪ, ABŪ NAṢR BADR-al-DĪN MASʿŪD

  Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī

  or Moḥammad, Maḥmūd; b. Abī Bakr b. Ḥosayn b. Jaʿfar Farāhī (fl. 13th century), poet and litterateur.

• NOMADISM

  Eckart Ehlers

  a way of life and human existence that is connected with permanent and more or less regular movements of people between different locations. The migrational movements of nomads are connected with clearly defined routes and destinations where the nomads spend equally clearly defined periods of time with the ultimate goal of pursuing economic activities and ensuring their livelihood.
  

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FORŪGĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ʿALĪ ḎOKĀʾ-AL-MOLK

  Fakhreddin Azimi, Iraj Afshar

  (1877-1942), statesman, scholar, and man of letters. Forūḡī’s personal integrity and honesty have rarely been disputed, even by his critics. Others have blamed him for helping to bring about Reżā Shah’s regime and continuing to serve it despite its blatant misdeeds.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HEAD GEAR

  cross-reference

  See CLOTHING.

• ABĀLIŠ

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  Zoroastrian of the 9th century A.D. who apostatized to Islam.

• ʿALĪ AKBAR

  J. Calmard

  Imam Ḥosayn’s eldest son, killed at the age of 18, 19, or 25 at the battle of Karbalā on the day of ʿĀšūrā (10 Moḥarram 61/10 October 680).

• ĀẔAR KAYVĀN

  H. Corbin

  (ĀḎAR KAYVĀN;  d. between 1609 and 1618), a Zoroastrian high priest and native of Fārs who emigrated to India and became the founder of the Zoroastrian Ešrāqī or Illuminative School.

• BŪRĀNĪ

  Mohammad R. Ghanoonparvar

  (rarely būlānī), generic term for a category of Iranian dishes, now usually prepared with yogurt and cooked vegetables and served either hot or cold.

• DĒW

  A. V. Williams

  lit. "demon" in the Pahlavi books.

• CINEMA i. History of Cinema in Persia

  Farrokh Gaffary

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GONBAD-E QĀBUS

  E. Ehlers, M. Momeni, and EIr, Habib-Allāh Zanjāni, Sheila S. Blair

  (now referred to officially as Gonbad-e Kāvus) is the administrative center of the sub-province (šahrestān) of the same name and the urban center of the Turkman tribal area in northern Persia. It is the named after its major monument, a tall tower that marks the grave of the Ziyarid ruler Qābus b. Vošmgir (r. 978-1012).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRANSHENASI

  Abbas Milani

  a journal of Iranian studies, founded 1989.

• ABU’L-ṬAYYEB ṬĀHER

  M. Forstner

  founder of the Taherid dynasty of Khorasan; born 139/775-76 in Pūšang (Būšang), died 207/822 in Marv.

• ʿĀREŻ

  C. E. Bosworth

  the official in medieval eastern Islamic states had charge of the administrative side of the military forces, being especially concerned with payment, recruitment, training, and inspection.

• BARSḴĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  or Barsḡān, a place in Central Asia, on the southern shores of the Ïsïq-Göl, in the region known as Semirechye or Yeti-su “the land of the seven rivers,” in what is now the Kyrgyz Republic.

• CROCODILE

  S. C. Anderson

  (nahang, Baluchi gandū), Croco­dylus palustris, the marsh crocodile. It inhabits fresh-water marshes, pools, and rivers, and probably the only suitable croco­dile habitat in Persian Baluchistan is along the Sarbāz river. The present intermittent distribution of this species in Pakistan and Persian Baluchistan represents a fragmentation of a once more continuous range during moister climatic regimes in the recent past.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EKSĪR

  Cross-Reference

  See KĪMĪĀ.

• FARHANG-E EBRĀHĪMĪ

  Solomon Bayevsky

  Persian-language dictionary compiled by the well-known fifteenth century poet Ebrāhīm Qewām-al-Dīn Fārūqī.

• ANTHROPOMORPHISM

  J. Duchesne-Guillemin

• ḴĀLKUBI

  Willem Floor

  making a permanent mark on the skin by inserting a pigment, is one of the oldest methods of body ornamentation. 

• HEKMAT, ŠAMSI MORĀDPUR

  Houman Sarshar

  educator and philanthropist (1917-1997).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABBĀSĀBĀD Caravan Station

  W. Kleiss

  Flourishing caravan station of the Safavid period.

• ʿĀLĪ QĀPŪ

  P. P. Soucek

  a five-storied building overlooking the Maydān-e Šāh of Isfahan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿAŻOD-AL-MOLK, ʿALĪ REŻĀ KHAN

  Ḥ. Maḥbūbī Ardakānī

  during the Tobacco protest of 1891-92, ʿone of the chief mediators between the shah and the ʿolamāʾ of Tehran; regent of Iran in 1909-10.

• CADUSII

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  an Iranian tribe settled between the Caspian and the Black sea.

• DĪA

  Khalid Abu El Fadl

  the prescribed blood money or wergild paid in compensation for a wrongful death or certain other physical injuries.

• CLOTHING xxi. Turkic and Kurdish clothing of Azerbaijan

  P. A. Andrews And M. Andrews

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ṬAHMĀSP I

  Colin P. Mitchell

  (1514-1576), second ruler of the Safavid dynasty. His 52-year reign was the longest of all Safavid rulers.

• GORUH-E FARHANGI-E HADAF

  Cross-Reference

  See HADAF EDUCATIONAL GROUP.

• ACHMA

  R. E. Emmerick

  (a Turkish word meaning “opening”), a town in the Domoko (Dumaqu) oasis near Khotan, so named with reference to the local springs.

• ARMENIA AND IRAN

  Multiple Authors

  This series of articles covers Irano-Armenian relations in pre-modern times. 

• BĀṬĀS

  R. M. Boehmer

  a village in Iraq,   Arbīl province. The nearby rock relief, no longer in good preservation, may  depict Izates II, the king of Adiabene (ca. 36-62 A.D.), who was converted to Judaism. He is likely to have ordered the carving after the unexpected retreat of the Parthian king of kings, Vologases I.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CYAXARES

  I. M. Diakonoff

  (Gk. Kyaxárēs) king of Media in the 6th century B.C.E.

• ʿELM O HONAR

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of two Persian magazines.

• FARḴĀR

  Erwin F. Grötzbach

  river, valley, and administrative district (woloswālī), in Taḵār province, northeastern Afghanistan.

• DĀNEŠKADA

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a monthly literary journal published from April 1918 to April 1919 in Tehran by the distinguished poet, literary critic, and scholar Moḥammad-Taqi Malek-al-Šoʿarāʾ Bahār, considered the leading Persian literary figure of his time.

• KĀRIZ i. Terminology

  Xavier de Planhol

  underground irrigation canals, also called qanāt.

• FŪMAN

  Marcel Bazin

  town and district in western Gīlān, 21 km west-southwest of Rašt, on the left bank of Gāzrūdbār river. An important town in medieval times, Fūman is again a commercial and administrative center, with a very active Tuesday market and a large tea-processing factory.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HERAT ii. HISTORY, PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  W. J. Vogelsang

  The present town of Herat dates back to ancient times, but its exact age remains unknown. In Achaemenid times (ca. 550-330 BCE), the surrounding district was known as Haraiva.

• ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD LĀHŪRĪ

  R. M. Eaton

  17th-century Indo-Persian historian and author of the Pādšāh-nāma, the official account of the reign of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahān (1037-67/1628-57).

• ALLĀHYĀR KHAN ĀṢAF-AL-DAWLA

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀṢAF-AL-DAWLA.

• BĀBAK

  R. N. Frye

  (Mid. Pers. Pāpak, Pābag), a ruler of Fārs at the beginning of the third century, father of Ardašīr, the founder of the Sasanian dynasty.  

• ČĀH-BAHĀR

  Eckart Ehlers

  Name of a town and bay on the Makrān coast of Persian Baluchistan facing the coast of Oman.

• DĪNŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See IRANI, DINSHAH JIJIBHOY.

• NAḴJAVĀNI, ḤĀJJ MOḤAMMAD

  Hushang Ettehad and EIr

  (1880-1962), businessman, scholar, and collector of manuscripts.

• GŌZIHR

  D. N. Mackenzie

  the Middle Persian development of an old Iranian compound adjective *gau-čiθra-, recorded in the Younger Avesta in the form gaočiθra-, as an epithet of the moon, “bearing the seed, having the origin of cattle” (or, “the ox”).

• ADĪB NAṬANZĪ

  ʿA. N. Monzawī

  poet and linguist of the 5th/11th century, from Naṭanz, near Isfahan.

• BĀYJŪ

  P. Jackson

  Mongol general and military governor in northwestern Iran (fl. 1228-1259). He belonged to the Besüt tribe and was a kinsman of Jengiz Khan’s general Jebe (Jaba).

• DADA ʿOMAR ROŠENĪ

  cofounder of the Ḵalwatī Sufi order. See DEDE ÖMER RUŞENĪ

• EMĀMVERDĪ MĪRZĀ ĪL-ḴĀNĪ

  ḥosayn Maḥbūbī Ardakānī

  (b. 9 March 1796), the twelfth son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah Qajar; his mother was Begom Jān Qazvīnī.

• FARSANG

  Cross-Reference

  See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

• ʿABD-AL-MALEK ŠĪRĀZĪ

  D. Pingree

  astronomer, fl. ca. 600/1203-04; there is a manuscript dated in that year of his revision of Helāl b. Abū Helāl and Ṯābet b. Qorra’s translation of the Conica of Appolonius.

• ʿAMʿAQ BOḴARĀʾĪ

  J. Matīnī

  Persian poet of the 5th-6th/11th-12th centuries.

• BACTRIA

  P. Leriche, F. Grenet

  Bactria, the territory of which Bactra was the capital, originally consisted of the plain between the Hindu Kush and the Āmū Daryā with its string of agricultural oases dependent on water taken from the rivers of Balḵ (Bactra), Tashkurgan, Kondūz, Sar-e Pol, and Šīrīn Tagāō.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CAMA ORIENTAL INSTITUTE

  M. F. Kanga, Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa

  (K. R. Cama Oriental Institute), a research institute in Bombay established in memory of the Parsi orientalist, teacher, and social reformer Kharshedji Rustomji Cama, inaugurated 18 December 1916.

• DO-PAYKAR

  Cross-Reference

  See NOJŪM.

• SUSA iii. THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Remy Boucharlat

  The history of Persia before Cyrus and at the beginning of his reignindicate that Persian elements were present in the plain not far from Susa in the first decades of the 6th century.

• Greece

  Multiple Authors

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Greco-Persian Political Relations, ii. Greco-Persian Cultural Relations, iii. Persian Influence on Greek Thought, iv. Greek Influence on Persian Thought, v. Greek Influence on Philosophy, vi. The Image of Persia and Persians in Greek Literature, vii. Greek Art and Architecture in Iran, viii. Greek Art in Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Northwest India, ix. Greek and Persian Romances, x. Greek Medecine in Persia, xi. Greek Inscriptions in Iran, xii. Persian Loanwords and Names in Greek, xiii. Greek Loanwords in Middle Iranian Languages, xiv. Greek Loanwords in Medieval New Persian, xv. Ancient Greek borrowings of Perisan herbs and plants of medicinal value.

• ITALY

  Multiple Authors

  : relations with Iran. Overview of the entry. i. Introduction. ii. Diplomatic and commercial relations. iii. Cultural relations. iv. Travel accounts. v. Iranian Studies, pre-Islamic. vi. Excavations in Iran. vii. Iranian Studies, Islamic period. viii. Persian manuscripts. ix. Persian art collections. x. Lirica Persica. xi. Translations of Persian works into Italian. xii. Translations of Italian works into Persian. xiii. Iranians in Italy. xiv. Current centers of Iranian Studies in Italy. xv. IsMEO

• AFGHAN

  Ch. M. Kieffer

  (afḡān), in current political usage, any citizen of Afghanistan, whatever his ethnic, tribal, or religious affiliation. According to the 1977 constitution of the Republic of Afghanistan (1973-78), all Afghans are equal in rights and obligations before the law.

• ARTAXATA

  R. H. Hewsen

  a city of ancient Armenia founded ca. 176 B.C. by King Artaxias I.A

• BDEAXŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See BIDAXŠ.

• DAHAN-E ḠOLĀMĀN

  Gherardo Gnoli

   “Gateway of the slaves,” site  ca. 30 km southeast of Zābol in Sīstān. It is the sole large provincial capital surviving from the Achaemenid empire; excavations there have brought to light a combination of “imperial” elements, identified in the public buildings, and local elements.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ENJAVĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ, SAYYED ABU’L-QĀSEM

  Ulrich Marzolph

  (b. Shiraz, 1921; d. Tehran, 16 September 1993), eminent Persian folklorist.

• FĀṬEMA-SOLṬĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ANĪS-AL-DAWLA.

• ORONTES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Old Iranian name, attested only in Greek forms, carried by several personages of the Achaemenid period.

• CHORASMIA i. Archeology and pre-Islamic history

  Yuri Aleksandrovich Rapoport

• GAFUROV, BOBODZHAN GAFUROVICH

  Boris A. Litvinsky

  (1908-1977), Tajik statesman, academician, and historian. His energy and administrative skills were instrumental in establishing Tajikistan’s first State University in 1948, and in inaugurating its national Academy of Sciences in 1951. In spite of his many administrative duties, he published more than 500 works in Russian, Tajik, and other languages.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY

  Multiple Authors

  This entry is concerned with the historiography of the Iranian and Persephone world from the pre-Islamic period through the 20th century in Persian and other Iranian languages. The periods and their subdivisions of this historiography are covered in 14 articles.

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN KᵛĀRAZMĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Calligrapher specializing in nastaʿlīq, active during the middle decades of the 9th/15th century.

• AMĪN-AL-DAWLA, ʿABDALLĀH KHAN

  A. Amanat

  ṢADR EṢFAHĀNĪ (1779-1847), chief revenue accountant and later prime minister under Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah (1797-1834).

• BADĪʿ KĀTEB JOVAYNĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See KĀTEB JOVAYNĪ.

• CARAKA

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  the name of an Indian physician associated with one of the major works on Indian medicine (the Carakasaṃhitā), as well as the name of King Kaniṣka’s physician.

• DONBOLĪ, AMĪR BEHRŪZ

  See Supplement.

• EXCAVATIONS iii. In Central Asia

  B. A. LitvinskiĬ

  Archeological and architectural monuments of Central Asia are mentioned in reports from the 18th and early 19th centuries by European and Russian travelers, merchants, and diplomats. Major archaeological work began, however, only after the Russian conquest of the region; at first it was done by amateurs, especially military officers.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FERRIER, JOSEPH PHILIPPE

  Jacqueline Calmard-Compas

  (1811-1886), French soldier in the Persian service (1839-42, 1846-50).

• GUKLĀN

  Pierre Oberling

  Turkmen tribal confederacy of the Gorgān region in northeastern Persia, the district of Qara Qalʿa in Turkmenistan, and the Ḵiva region in Uzbekistan.

• JAF (JĀF)

  M. Reza Fariborz Hamzeh’ee

  a once large Kurdish nomadic confederation living in south Iraqi Kurdistan and in the Sanandaj area of Iranian Kurdistan.

• ĀFURIŠN

  W. Sundermann

  “blessing, praise,” a technical, literary term for a category of Manichean hymns. 

• ʿARŻ, DĪVĀN-E

  C. E. Bosworth

  the department of the administration which, in the successor states to the ʿAbbasid caliphate in the Islamic East, looked after military affairs, such as the recruitment and discharge of soldiers, their pay allotments, etc.

• BEHDĀRĪ

  Mohammad Ali Faghih

  (“maintaining health”), Persian term for the entire health care system provided by government or other agencies.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĀM PEZEŠKĪ

  Mansour Shaki, Ḥasan Tājbaḵš, and Ṣādeq Sajjādī

  veterinary medicine.

• EQBĀL LĀHŪRĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See IQBAL, MUHAMMAD.

• FAŻL, b. SAHL b. Zādānfarrūḵ

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (d. 818), high official of the early ʿAbbasids and vizier to the caliph al-Maʾmūn (r. 813-33).

• YAʿQUB b. LAYṮ b. MOʿADDAL

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (r. 247-65/861-79), founder of what may be distinguished as the Laythids, or the “first line” within the Saffarid dynasty.

• QĀSEMLU

  Carol Prunhuber

  Kurdish political leader, whoas secretary general of the Kurdistan Democratic Party of Iran (KDPI), led the Kurdish nationalist struggle for autonomy and democracy in Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠANĪ

  G. L. Tikku and EIr

  Pen name of Mollā MOḤAMMAD-ṬĀHER KAŠMĪRĪ (1630-69), one of the most celebrated poets of Kashmir who wrote in the Indian Style (sabk-e hendī).

• HOMĀM-AL-DIN

  William L. Hanaway and Leonard Lewisohn

  13th-century Persian poet, best known for his ḡazals, which follow those of Saʿdi in style and tone.

• ʿABD-AL-VĀḤED HAMADĀNĪ

  T. Yazici

  Son of a Naqšbandī shaikh, author (d. 1547).

• AMĪR MOFAḴḴAM BAḴTĪĀRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See BAḴTĪĀRĪ.

• BAGARAN

  R. H. Hewsen

  (lit. “the god’s place”; Turk. Pakran), a town founded by the Armenian King Orontes (Eruand) II (ca. 212-ca. 200 B.C.) to house the images of the gods and the royal ancestors.

• ČAŠMA

  Eckart Ehlers

  “spring.”  Iran and Afghanistan, as well as wide parts of Central Asia, have a great variety of natural springs, especially in mountainous areas and along tectonic thrusts. A very general classification divides all springs into (1) those produced by gravity acting on the groundwater and (2) those that have their origins in tectonic volcanic forces within the earth’s crust.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DREAMS AND DREAM INTERPRETATION

  Hossein Ziai

  i. In pre-Islamic Persia. ii. In the Persian tradition.

• BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI iv. From the Mongols to the abolition of slavery

  Willem Floor

  After the Mongol period, the manner in which white slaves were obtained basically remained unchanged, that is, warfare and raids continued to be the main slave-producing activities.

• SAQQĀ-ḴĀNA i. HISTORY

  Willem Floor

  Saqqā-ḵāna is a term referring to public water dispensers, which were, and in some places still are, a feature of some large institutional buildings in Iran, typically mosques, shrines, and bazaars.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤABAQUQ, TOMB OF

  S. Soroudi

  a monument in western Persia, according to local traditions, the tomb of the prophet Ḥabaquq.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĀJARMI

  Anna Livia Beelaert

  , MOḤAMMAD B. BADR, 14th-century Persian poet and anthologist.

• AHARĪ

  İ. Aka

  (8th/14th cent.), author of Tārīḵ-eŠāh Oways, dedicated to the Jalayerid ruler Oways (757-76/1356-74).

• ASĀS

  H. Halm

  “foundation, basis,” a degree of the Ismaʿili daʿwa hierarchy.

• BERENJ “brass”

  A. Souren Melikian-Chirvani, James W. Allan

  (Mid. Pers. brinǰ and bring) “brass,” an alloy of copper and zinc. i. General. ii. In the Islamic period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĀNEŠMAND

  Tahsin Yazici

  , Amir Ḡāzī Taylu Gümüš tigin Aḥmad (or Moḥammad) (d. 1104), founder of a Turkman dynasty in northern Cappadocia toward the end of the 11th century.

• ʿERFĀN, ḤASAN

  Habib Borjian

  Hasan Aliḵonovič Mamadḵonov (b. Samarkand, 3 March 1900; d. 22 June 1973), Tajik translator and writer.

• FEREŠTA, MOḤAMMAD-QĀSEM

  Cross-Reference

  See FEREŠTA, TĀRĪḴ-E.

• PEUCESTAS

  Ernst Badian

  officer under Alexander the Great on his campaign in Asia.

• EDMONDS, C. J

  Yann RICHARD

  British political officer and orientalist.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GARDĪZĪ, ABŪ SAʿĪD ʿABD-al-ḤAYY

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Żaḥḥāk b. Maḥmūd, Persian historian of the early 5th/11th century. He was clearly connected with the Ghaznavid court and administration and close to the sultans.

• HORMUZ ii. ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Willem Floor

  Hormuz fell to the Arabs in 650-51. In the 10th century, the town of Hormuz was the chief port for Kermān and Sistān, although the main Persian Gulf port was Jannāba. It was known for its cultivation of a variety of millet (ḏorra), indigo, cumin, and sugarcane, while it allegedly supplied all of Persia with dates. Irrigation was by subterranean channels (qanāt).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABDALLĀH ANṢĀRĪ

  S. de Laugier de Beaureceuil

  Outstanding commentator of the Koran, traditionist, polemicist, and spiritual master (5th/11th century).

• AMORGES

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  Greek form of the name of several notable Iranians of the Achaemenid period.

• FOLKLORE STUDIES

  Multiple Authors

  The term folklore denotes, in a very broad sense, the traditional cultural expression of any notable group of people, not necessarily belonging to a specific social stratum. It encompasses a wide field of varying notions, ranging from popular beliefs and customs to myths, legends and other genres of oral literature.

• CEDRENUS, GEORGIUS

  James R. Russell

  twelfth-century Byzantine historian who edited the Synopsis Historiōn of John Skylitzēs.

• DŪḠ-E WAḤDAT

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  lit. “beverage of unity”; concoction made from adding hashish extract (jowhar-e ḥaīš) to diluted yogurt.

• NOWRUZ iii. In the Iranian Calendar

  Simone Cristoforetti

• MAHĀRLU LAKE

  Karāmat-Allāh Afsar

  a picturesque, rather extensive body of water to the southeast of Shiraz.

• JAMĀLI, ḤĀMED B. FAŻL-ALLĀH

  A. A. Seyed-Gohrab

  Persian-speaking Indian poet (b. Delhi, ca. 862/1457; d. Gujarat, 942/1535).

• AḤMAD MAYMANDĪ

  Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī

  (d. 424/1032), Ghaznavid vizier, statesman, and foster brother and schoolfellow of Sultan Maḥmūd of Ḡazna (r. 388-421/998-1030).

• ʿASJADĪ

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

   a poet of the first half of the 5th/11th century.

• BHADRA

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  a magician, who according to Buddhist legend tried to deceive the Buddha by means of his magic powers in order to disprove the Buddha’s claim to omniscience.

• DARAFŠ -E KĀVĪĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See DERĀFŠ-E KĀVĪĀN.

• EṢFAHĀNĪ, ABU’L-ŠAYḴ ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH

  Martin McDermott

  b. Moḥammad b. Jaʿfar b. Ḥayyān ḤĀFEẒ ANṢĀRĪ (887-979), traditionist and Koran commentator, important principally for his Ṭabaqāt al-moḥaddeṯīn.

• FICTION, ii(g)

  Shahwali Ahmadi

  ii(g). IN AFGHANISTAN. The introduction of modern fiction in Afghanistan was concomitant with the institution of new educational and literary organizations, namely the Ḥabībīya School (q.v.) and Anjoman-e adabī, and the publication of the bi-weekly Serāj al-aḵbār-e afḡānīya, edited by Maḥmūd Ṭarzī, in the early twentieth century.

• ḴĀKI ḴORĀSĀNI, EMĀMQOLI

  S. J. Badakhchani

  Ismaʿili poet and preacher of 17th-century Persia (d. after 1646).

• V~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the V entries

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD, vii, viii

  Wilferd Madelung

  vii. Ḡazālī and the Bāṭenīs, viii. Impact on Islamic thought.

• ḤOSAYNQOLI, ĀQĀ

  Ameneh Youssefzadeh

  noted tār player and teacher (1853-1916). His performances were considered both technically brilliant and artistically exquisite. The regularity and force of the down and up strokes (rāst and čap) of his plectrum were much admired. He used a five-string tār and disapproved of the addition of the sixth string.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABHARĪ, MAḴDŪM

  Hameed ud-Din

  16th-century traditionist.

• ANAW

  T. C. Young, Jr., G. A. Pugachenkova

  village and archeological site at the foot of the Kopet-Dag mountains east of Ashkhabad in Soviet Turkestan.

• BAHMANŠĪR

  X. de Planhol

  the name of the distributary which branches off the left bank of the Kārūn river in the Ḵūzestān plain a short distance above Ḵorramšahr, and of a dehestān near this town.

• CEREALS

  Cross-Reference

  See under individual cereals.

• EAST INDIA COMPANY (DUTCH)

  Cross-Reference

  See DUTCH-PERSIAN RELATIONS.

• KAYKĀVUS B. ESKANDAR

  J.T.P. de Bruijn

  author of a famous Mirror for Princes, best known as the Qābus-nāma, although other, more general titles such as Naṣiḥat-nāma, or Pand-nāma, also occur in the sources. 

• SPĀHBED

  Rika Gyselen

   Sasanian title that denoted a high military rank and meant  ‘chief of an army, general.’

• HAJĀR

  cross-reference

  See ŠARAFKANDI, ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN.

• JANNĀBA

  Cross-Reference

  term used by early Muslim geographers to refer to the county (šahrestān) and port city on the Persian Gulf in the province of Būšehr. See GANĀVA.

• AHURA MAZDĀ

  M. Boyce

  the Avestan name with title of a great divinity of the Old Iranian religion, who was subsequently proclaimed by Zoroaster as God.

• ĀŠPAZ, ʿABDALLĀH HERAVĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDALLĀH HERAVĪ.

• BĪDEL, ʿABD-AL-QĀDER

  Moazzam Siddiqi

  (BĒDIL), the fore­most representative of the later phase of the “Indian style” (sabk-e hendī) of Persian poetry and the most difficult and challenging poet of that school (1644-1721).

• DARIUS vii. Parthian Princes

  Rudiger Schmitt

• ESKANDAR-NĀMA OF NEŻĀMĪ

  François de Blois

  the poetical version of the life of Alexander by the great 12th century narrative poet Neẓāmī Ganjavī (1141-1209).

• AVIATION

  Abbas Atrvash

  history of civil aviation since 1927.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GENOA

  Michele Bernardini

  an important port city in Liguria, in northwestern Italy, which during the Middle Ages played a significant role between Europe and the East, including Persia. Genoa was sacked by Muslim raiders from North Africa in 935 but became an economic and commercial power during the First Crusade (1096-1101).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HUŠYĀR ŠIRĀZI

  DARYOUSH ASHOURI

  MOḤAMMAD-BĀQER, university professor and author (1904-1957).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ ʿABDALLĀH YAʿQŪB

  D. Sourdel

  vizier of the ʿAbbasid caliph Mahdī (r. 158-69/775-85).

• ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS

  Multiple Authors

  This series of articles covers relations between England and Iran from the Safavid to the Pahlavi periods. 

• BAḤRĪ, MAḤMŪD

  R. M. Eaton

  Sufi and poet of the Deccan (fl. late 17th century).

• CHEMISTRY

  Cross-Reference

  See KĪMĪĀ.

• EBN AL-BAYṬĀR, ŻĪĀʾ-AL-DĪN ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  b. Aḥmad (?-1248), Andalusian botanist and pharmacologist.

• DA’TID BAHRANA

  Eden Naby

  (with the Persian title Āyanda-ye rowšan “Bright future”), Assyrian bilingual periodical published in Tehran in 1951.

• LITERACY CORPS

  Farian Sabahi

  (Sepāh-e dāneš), educational program implemented in Iran in the framework of the White Revolution (1963-79) during the reign of Muhammad-Reza Pahlavi (1941-79). With the Literacy Corps, education to some extent escaped the control of the ʿolamāʾ, who used to shape the younger generation along traditional lines.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤĀLAT, ABU’L-QĀSEM

  Hušang Etteḥād

  (1919-1992), poet, writer, translator, songwriter, and scholar.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĀVDĀN-NĀMA

  Orkhan Mir-Kasimov

  the major work of Fażl-Allāh Astarābādi (d. 1394), the founder of the Ḥorufi movement.

• AḴBĀR AL-DAWLAT AL-SALJŪQĪYA

  C. E. Bosworth

  An Arabic chronicle on the history of the Great Saljuq dynasty in Iran and Iraq.

• ASTARĀBĀDĪ, ʿABD-AL-JABBĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-JABBĀR ASTARĀBĀDĪ.

• BĪSTGĀNĪ

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  Persian term for pay and rations of troops used in classical texts, corresponding to Arabic ʿešrīnīya.

• DĀRZĪN

  Mehrdad Shokoohy

  village on the road between Kermān and Bam on the site of a large, early medieval town. Ruins of  buildings of different periods still stand. The earliest are probably three small forts of similar form, built of straw-tempered rectangular mud bricks, which may date from the 8th or 9th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EŠQ O RŪḤ

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤOSN O RŪḤ.

• ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS iii. Pahlavi period

  R. W. Ferrier

  For most of the 20th century relations have been dominated politically by the modernization and revival of Iran under the stimulus of Reżā Shah and his son and successor Moḥammad Reżā Shah, strategically by Iran’s proximity to the Soviet Union, and economically by Iranian oil.

• Railroads i. The First Railroad Built and Operated in Persia

  Soli Shahvar

  During the three decades between the 1850s and the 1880s various foreign concerns attempted to introduce railways to Persia, but these did not materialize.

• GERMANIKEIA

  Erich Kettenhofen

  city in the ancient country of Commagene in the Roman province of Syria, present-day Maraş in southeast Turkey.

• ILĀM i. GEOGRAPHY - ii.

  M. Rezazadeh Shafarudi

  a province, sub-province, and town in western Iran. OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Geography.  ii. History: see LORESTĀN ii.  iii. Population.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU’L-BAQĀʾ

  H. Algar

  author of Jāmeʿ al-maqāmāt on the life of the Naqšbandī saint, Mawlānā Ḵᵛāǰagī Kāsānī (d. 949/1542), written in 1028/1618.

• ANJOMANĀRĀ, FARHANG-E

  R. ʿAfīfī

  Persian-language dictionary compiled by Reżā-qolī Khan Hedāyat (1215-88/1800-71) known as Lala-bāšī.

• WOMEN i. In Pre-Islamic Persia

  Maria Brosius

• CHRONOLOGY

  Cross-Reference

  See CALENDARS.

• EBN ḴALLĀD, ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD BAṢRĪ

  Daniel Gimaret

  (d. 2nd half of 10th century), Muʿtazilite theologian of the so-called “school of Baṣra,” partisan of the ideas of Abū Hāšem Jobbāʾī.

• TANG-E SARVAK

  Ernie Haerinck

  (Gorge of the cypresses), an archeological site in eastern Ḵuzestān province, southwestern Iran. It is located in a gorge in the mountainous area approx. 50 km north of Behbahān. At an altitude of ca. 1200 m, it is only reached after a long climb. The site consists of four freestanding blocks, with rock reliefs consisting of thirteen panels and several inscriptions carved in the stone.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAMGAR, MAJDE

  Dabiḥ-Allāh Safā

  , Majd-al-Din b. Aḥmad, known also as Ebn-e Hamgar (hamgar means “weaver”), an important poet of the 7th/13th century (1210-1287).

• JEVRI, EBRĀHIM ČELEBI

  Osman G.

  (d. 1654), Ottoman poet and calligrapher.

• AḴYĀR

  H. Algar

  “the chosen” (Persian, bargozīdagān), a category sometimes encountered in accounts given by Sufi writers of the unseen hierarchy known as reǰāl al-ḡayb (“men of the unseen”).

• ʿATABĀT

  H. Algar

  “thresholds,” more fully, ʿatabāt-e ʿalīyāt or ʿatabāt-e (or aʿtāb-e) moqaddasa
  “the lofty or sacred thresholds,” the Shiʿite shrine cities of Iraq

• BOḴĀRĪ, JALĀL-AL-DĪN

  Richard M. Eaton

  , SHAIKH, popularly known as Maḵdūm-e Jahānīān and Jahāngašt, a celebrated Indo-Persian Sufi of Uch in the southern Punjab (1308-84).

• DATAMES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Iranian personal name, reflecting Old Iranian *Dātama- or *Dātāma-, either a two-stem shortened form *Dāta-m-a- from a compound name like *Dātamiθra- or an unabridged compound *Dātāma-from *Dāta-ama-“to whom force is given.”

• ETTEFĀQ-E KĀRGARĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a daily newspaper published by the striking print-workers union in Tehran in 1910, one of the first labor or socialist newspaper published in Persia.

• ARMY iii. Safavid Period

  M. Haneda

• MASʿUD-E SAʿD-E SALMĀN

  Sunil Sharma

  (b. Lahore 1046-49?; d. 1121-22), Persian poet of the later Ghaznavid period. The first major Indo-Persian poet, Masʿud-e Saʿd-e Salmān is best known for the poetry he wrote in prison and in exile.

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Lisa Golombek

  master architect in Khorasan during the reign of the Timurid Šāhroḵ (1405-47).

• ABU’L-FAŻL MĪKĀL

  S. ʿA. Anwār

  author and poet, d. 436/1045.

• ANWARI

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  , AWḤAD-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD (or ʿALĪ), poet at the court of the Saljuqs in the 12th century.

• CITIZENSHIP

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Mansour Shaki, Qajar and Pahlavi Periods, Naser Yeganeh

  the legal, political, and social status of every person who belongs to a state.

• EBN RABBAN ṬABARĪ

  See Supplement.

• ḴALILI, ḴALIL-ALLĀH

  Wali Ahmadi

  renowned 20th-century Afghan poet in Dari (Persian), literary historian, scholar, and high-ranking official. Ḵalili is regarded as one of the last great vestiges of the traditional Persianate culture in Afghanistan, where erudition and classical training were particularly valued.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• PERSONAL NAMES, IRANIAN v. SASANIAN PERiOD

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  For Sasanian times, priority treatment must be given to the names attested in non-literary, that is, epigraphic sources (in the broadest sense of the word).

• HARAIVA

  cross-reference

  See HERAT i.

• JOSEPH i. IN PERSIAN LITERATURE

  Asghar Dadbeh

  As a love story with religious overtones, the romance of Yusof and Zolayḵā has always been among the very favorite themes of Persian poets.

• ĀLĀ DĀḠ

  E. Ehlers

  name of a number of mountains in Iran; of Turkish origin, the words mean “colored mountain.”

• ATTAŠAMA

  M. Mayrhofer

  personal name in the Nuzi texts.

• BŌRĀN

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  (Pers. Pōrān, Pūrān), Sasanian queen ca. 630-31, daughter of Ḵosrow II (r. 590, 591-628). There are extant coins of Bōrān dated from the first, second, and third years of her reign.

• DAWR (1)

  Farhad Daftary

  (Ar. and Pers.), period, era, or cycle of history, a term used by Ismaʿilis in connection with their conceptions of time and the religious history of mankind.

• EXEGESIS

  Multiple Authors

  (Ar. tafsīr), commentary on or interpretation of sacred texts.

• POLAK, Jakob Eduard

  Christoph Werner

  (1818-1891), Austrian physician and writer who was instrumental in establishing modern medicine in Iran. From 1851 to 1860, he taught medicine at the Dār al-fonun, and from 1855 to 1860, he served as personal physician of Nāṣer-al-Din Shah (r. 1848-96). His study Persien: Das Land und seine Bewohner (1865) belongs to the outstanding ethnographic works about 19th-century Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GLACIERS

  Eckart Ehlers

  and ice fields in Persia. Due to Persia’s location in the very center of the arid dry belt, stretching from North Africa in the west to Central Asia in the east, and also due to its very specific topography, glaciers and/or permanent ice fields are restricted and concentrated in a very few locations.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INDUSTRIALIZATION iii. THE POST-REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD, 1979-2000

  Parvin Alizadeh

  The first phase spans the 1980s covering the period from the 1979 Revolution to the end of the 1980s (including the war with Iraq during 1980-88).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU’L-HAYJĀ NAJMĪ

  Ḏ. Ṣafā

  Persian poet of the 5th-6th/11th-12th centuries.

• ĀQĀ TABRĪZĪ

  Hasan Javadi and Farrokh Gaffary

  , MĪRZĀ, 19th-century civil servant and writer.

• BANG

  G. Gnoli, ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  a kind of narcotic plant. In older Arabic and Persian sources banj is applied to three different plants: hemp (Cannabis sativa or indica), henbane (Hyoseyamus niger, etc.), and jimsonweed (Datura stramonium). i. In ancient Iran.  ii. In modern Iran.

• COCK

  James R. Russell, Mahmoud Omidsalar

  the male of the subfamily Phasianinae (pheasants), usually having a long, often tectiform tail with fourteen to thirty-two feathers.

• EBRĀHĪM BEG

  Cross-Reference

  See ZAYN-AL-ʿĀBEDĪN MARĀḠAʾĪ.

• MANICHEAN SCRIPT

  Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst

  a right-to-left Semitic script, used by adherents of Manicheism to write texts in Middle Persian, Parthian, Sogdian, Early New Persian, Bactrian, and Uighur (Old Turkish). It is closely related to the Palmyrene script of Aramaic and the Estrangelo script of Syriac; some of its orthographical conventions are also to be found in the Mandaean script.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤASAN B. ʿALI AL-ʿASKARI

  cross-reference

  See ʿASKARI, ḤASAN B. ʿALI.

• ʿALAM-AL-HODĀ

  W. Madelung

  leading Imamite scholar, man of letters, and naqīb (syndic) of the Talibids in Baghdad.

• AWLĪĀʾ

  H. Algar

  a term commonly translated in European languages as “saints” or the equivalent.

• BOSTĪ, ABU’L-QĀSEM

  Wilferd Madelung

  ESMĀʿĪL b. Aḥmad JĪLĪ, Muʿtazilite and Zaydī author of the late 10th and early 11th century.

• DĒDMARĪ, ḴᵛĀJA MOḤAMMAD-AʿẒAM

  Shamsuddin Ahmad

  (1691-1765), historian, poet, and Sufi of Kashmir.

• FAḴR-AL-DĪN ĀḎARĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See under BAHMANID DYNASTY.

• BUDDHISM iii. Buddhist Literature in Khotanese and Tumshuqese

  Ronald F. Emmerick and Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  Khotan played an important role in the transmission of Buddhism during the period represented by the extant material (probably from around 700 to the end of the kingdom of Khotan ca. 1000). 

• DAVID OF ASHBY

  Peter Jackson

  (fl. 1260-75), Dominican friar and visitor to Il-khanid Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLĀBI

  Cross-Reference

  See PEAR.

• ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR ḴᵛĀFĪ

  H. Halm

  Shafeʿite jurist and traditionist (d. in Ṭūs in 500/1106) . He was one of the most important students of Emām-al-ḥaramayn Jovaynī.

• AṘAKʿEL OF TABRĪZ

  A. K. Sanjian

   Armenian historian, born at Tabrīz in the 1590s, died at Etchmiadzin in Armenia in 1670.

• BĀQLAVĀ

  W. Eilers, N. Ramazani

  i. The word. ii. The sweet. Bāqlavā is a sweet pastry known throughout the Middle East, in Iran commonly made with almonds (bādām), less frequently with pistachios (pesta).

• CONFESSIONS

  Jes P. Asmussen

  i. In the Zoroastrian faith. ii. In Manicheism.

• ZAYN AL-AḴBĀR

  Cross-Reference

  a history written in 11th century by Gardizi. See GARDIZI. 

• FLAGS i. Of Persia

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  The earliest-known representation of lion and sun as a banner device is a miniature painting illustrating a copy, dated 1423, of the Šāh-nāma of Šams-al-Dīn Kāšānī—an epic composition on the Mongol conquest. A similar early depiction is on a large, double-paged miniature dated ca. 1460.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤĀTEM ṬĀʾI

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  the epitome of generosity and munificence in Arabic and Persian anecdotal traditions.

• KABUL

  Multiple Authors

  (Kābol), capital of Afghanistan, also the name of its province and a river.

• ALFARIC, PROSPER

  H. C. Puech

  (1876-1955), French historian of religions.  

• ʿAYN-AL-DAWLA, ʿABD-AL-MAJĪD

  J. Calmard

  ATĀBAK-E AʿẒAM (1261-1345/1845-1926) son of Solṭān Aḥmad Mīrzā ʿAżod-al-dawla, Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah’s forty-eighth son and a prominent political figure of Moẓaffar-al-dīn Shah’s reign (1313-24/1896-1907).

• BRIDGES

  Dietrich Huff, Wolfram Kleiss

  (Pers. pol, Mid. Pers. pohl, Av. pərətu-). i. Pre-Islamic bridges. ii. Bridges in the Islamic period. Bridges may have existed in the Iranian highlands as monuments of vernacular architecture since prehistoric times.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DELLA VALLE, PIETRO

  John Gurney

  (b. Rome, 11 April 1586, d. Rome, 21 April 1652), one of the most remarkable travelers of the Renaissance, whose Viaggi is the best contemporary account of the lands between Istanbul and Goa in the early 17th century.

• FAMINES

  Xavier de Planhol

  in Persia.

• KHUJAND

  Keith Hitchins

  (Ḵojand), city in northwestern Tajikistan on the middle course of the Syr Daryā River, about 150 km south of Tashkent and near the entrance to the Farḡāna valley.

• GOL-GOLĀB, ḤOSAYN

  H. Ettehad Baboli

  (b. Tehran, 1895; d. Tehran, 1985), botanist, musician, poet, scholar, and member of the Farhangestān.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ RAJĀʾ ḠAZNAVĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠAZNAVĪ, ABŪ RAJĀʾ.

• ARD

  Cross-Reference

  (Pahlavi; Manichean Middle Persian ʾyrd). See AHRIŠWANG, AŠI. 

• JAMŠID i. Myth of Jamšid

  PRODS OKTOR SKJÆRVØ

• ČORĀS, ŠĀH-MAḤMŪD

  Robert D. McChesney

  b. Mīrzā Fāżel, historian of the 17th-century Chaghatay khanate (see chinese turkestan v) in Moḡūlestān and hagiographer and staunch supporter of the “Black Mountain” khojas.

• WOMEN iii. in the works of the Bab and in the Babi Movement

  Moojan Momen

  The Bab elevated the status of women in his writings and confirmed this in his actions. The Babi community reflected this change in the actions of the Babi women.

• FORTIFICATIONS

  Wolfram Kleiss

  The present article deals with the fortified passages and defenses that are implied under the term bārū. Certain passes in Persia still feature barriers going back to the Achaemenid period. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAZELNUT

  H. Aʿlam

  (fandoq), the hard-shelled fruit of the shrub (or small tree) Corylus avellana L. (fam. Corylaceae), containing an edible kernel of high nutritious value.

• ʿABĀʾ

  H. Algar

  (in Arabic, also ʿabāʾa and ʿabāya), a loose outer garment, generally for men, worn widely throughout the Middle East, particularly by Arab nomads. 

• ʿALĪ B. ŠOJĀʿ-AL-DĪN

  cross-reference

  See ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ.

• AʿẒAM KHAN

  ʿA. Ḥabībī

  the fifth son of Amir Dōst Moḥammad Khan and the third amir of the Moḥammadzay line, ruler of Afghanistan in 1284/1867-1285/1868.

• BUNDAHIŠN

  D. Neil MacKenzie

  “Primal creation,” traditional name of a major Pahlavi work of compilation, mainly a detailed cosmogony and cosmography based on the Zoroastrian scriptures.

• DESERT

  Brian Spooner

  The general Persian word for desert is bīābān. As throughout most of the arid zone agriculture and settlement depend upon sustained investment, Persians generally expect to find bīābān where ābādī (settled, irrigated agriculture) ends. The term bīābān covers a broad range of different types of desert, from completely barren expanses to plains with significant percentages of vegetation cover.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CHRISTIANITY iv. Christian Literature in Middle Iranian Languages

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

• KANGARLU

  P. OBERLING

  a Turkic tribe of Azerbaijan and the Qom-Verāmin region of central Persia. 

• GONĀBĀDI, MOḤAMMAD PARVIN

  Cross-Reference

  Persian scholar and translator. See PARVIN GONĀBĀDI.

• IRĀNŠAHR (3)

  Manouchehr Kasheff

  an encyclopedic collection of articles published under the auspices of the UNESCO National Commission in Iran. The ambitious idea, as presented in the preface of the first volume, was to produce a highly reliable condensed, but comprehensive, sourcebook covering every aspect of the history, culture, and civilization of Iran from ancient times to 1960.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ ṬĀLEB KALĪM

  Cross-Reference

  (b. ca. 1581-85; d. 1651), Persian poet and one of the leading exponents of the “Indian style” (sabk-e hendi). See KALĪM KĀŠĀNI.

• ARƎDVĪ SŪRĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See ANĀHĪD.

• BARRA

  G. Cardascia

  or bāru, an Iranian loanword designating a tax in Babylonian texts. The word appears nearly seventy times between 442 and 417 B.C. almost exclusively in tax receipts.

• CREATION

  Cross-Reference

  See COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY.

• EKBĀTĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ECBATANA.

• FARHĀD MĪRZĀ MOʿTAMAD-AL-DAWLA

  Kambiz Eslami

  (1818-1888), Qajar prince-governor and bibliophile. Holding highly conservative religious views on the administration of Persia, he viewed Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah's reformist vizier as an obliterator of the “foundation of the Muslim šarīʿa,” who was guilty of spreading the word “liberty” among the people.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AMIR-AʿLAM

  Bāqer ʿĀqeli

  (1861-1961), university professor, representative and deputy speaker of the Majles, Dean of the Faculty of Medicine, senator, minister, and founder of the Red Lion and Sun, an organization corresponding to the Red Cross.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• QANĀT

  Cross-Reference

  earliest irrigation system in Iran. See KĀRIZ.

• FRANCE xii(b). IRANIAN STUDIES IN FRANCE: PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Philippe Gignoux

• ḤEJLA

  Jean Calmard

  a bridal chamber (ḥejla-ye ʿarusi), generally in the shape of a curtained canopy, built by a ḥejla-sāz.

• ʿABBĀS EFFENDI

  Cross-Reference

  The eldest son of Bahāʾallāh and founder of the Bahaʾi movement. See ʿABD-AL-BAHĀʾ.

• ʿALĪ MOTTAQĪ

  M. Baqir

  Saint and Hadith scholar of India (885-975/1481-1567).

• ʿAZĪZ-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ EBRĀHĪM KHAN.

• CADMAN, JOHN

  Kamran Eqbal

  Director and later chairman of the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC) during the reign of Reżā Shah (b. Silverdale, Staffordshire, England, 7 September 1877, d. Bletchley, Buckingham, 31 May 1941).

• DHĀRAṆĪ

  Hiroshi Kumamoto, Yutaka Yoshida

  magic spells in the Buddhist Mahāyānist and Tantric (esoteric) traditions.

• SĀQI-NĀMA

  Paul Losensky

  (Book of the Cupbearer), a poetic genre in which the speaker, seeking relief from his hardships, losses, and disappointments, repeatedly summons the sāqi or cupbearer to bring him wine.

• GORGĀNI DIALECT

  Cross-Reference

  See MĀZANDARĀNI.

• AČAṘEAN, HRAČʾEAY YAKOBI

  J. R. Russell

  Armenian linguist, born 8 March 1876 (O. S.; 20 March N. S.) at Constantinople. 

• ARMAḠĀN

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  a monthly literary magazine founded in 1919.

• BAŠŠĀR-E MARḠAZĪ

  Z. Safa

  a Persian poet of the 10th century, apparently from Marv in Khorasan.

• CUPPING

  Cross-Reference

  See BLOODLETTING.

• ELIŠĒ

  Robert W. Thomson

  or Elisaeus, fifth century author of the History of Vardan and the Armenian War, a detailed account of the Armenian rebellion against Yazdegerd II in 450, which was prompted by his persecution of their Christian faith.

• CLOTHING xxiii. Clothing of the Persian Gulf area

  R. Shahnaz Nadjmabadi

  The people on the shores of the Persian Gulf are divided among three provinces, each with a distinctive style of dress: Ḵūzestān, Būšehr, and Hormozgān. The last is the main focus here. Women’s clothing consists of four basic parts: head covering, dress, trousers, and shoes. The normal head covering is a rectangular black scarf of thin silk (maknā) wrapped round the head and fastened on top with a metal pin (čollāba).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BOROWSKY, ISIDORE

  Bo Utas

  (ca. 1770-ca. 1838), Polish officer in the Persian army, said to have been fatally injured by a bullet in the abdomen during the second siege of Herat in 1837-38.

• FRIT WARES

  Cross-reference

  See CERAMICS xiv.

• HERACLEITUS OF EPHESUS

  J. Wiesehöfer

  (fl. ca. 500 BCE), Greek philosopher traditionally credited as the first to have written on the magi.

• ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. ABUʾL-ḤADĪD

  W. Madelung

  Muʿtazilite scholar and man of letters (13th century).

• ALLĀHVERDĪ KHAN (1)

  R. M. Savory

  (d.1022/1613), a Georgian ḡolām who rose to high office in the Safavid state. 

• BĀBĀ ṬĀHER ʿORYĀN

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  medieval dervish poet from the area of Hamadān, best known for his do-baytīs, quatrains composed  in a simpler meter still widely used for popular verse.

• ČAHĀRJŪY

  Cross-reference

  See ĀMOL.

• DĪNAVARĪ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH

  Josef van Ess

  b. Ḥamdān b. Wahb b. Bešr (d. 902), traditionist and ḥāfeẓ (preserver of the Koranic text).

• CONVERSION iv. Of Persian Jews to other religions

  Amnon Netzer

• MANI

  Werner Sundermann

  the founder of the religion of Manicheism in the 3rd century CE.

• IŠKATA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  in the Avesta the name of a mountain and of the land (situated in the Hindu Kush region) which is dominated by this mountain.

• ADERGOUDOUNBADES

  R. N. Frye

  a kanārang (eastern border margrave) appointed by the Sasanian king Kavād (r. 488-531 A.D.).

• ARSLĀNŠAH B. TOḠRELŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See SALJUQS OF KERMĀN.

• BAYHAQ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a rural area (rostāq) of medieval Khorasan, between the district of Nīšāpūr and the eastern borders of Qūmes, and its town, also known as Sabzavār.

• DABUYIDS

  Wilfred Madelung

  the dynasty of espahbads ruling Ṭabarestān until its conquest by the Muslims in 144/761.

• EMĀMĪ, Sayyed ḤASAN

  Cyrus Mir

  (1903-1981), Friday prayer leader of Tehran from 1947 to 1978. He studied traditional Islamic sciences in Tehran and continental law in Lausanne, Switzerland. Upon completing his doctorate, he returned to Iran and worked as a judge in the Ministry of Justice. He was regarded as a member of the shah’s inner circle. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FĀRS NEWSPAPER

  Nassereddin Parvin

  name of two newspapers published in Shiraz.

• MAJD-AL-MOLK II

  M. Dabirsiāqi

  , Mirzā Taqi Khan Monši-e Hożur (b. 1278/1861) a high ranking Qajar official and poet with the pen name ʿAbqari.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• test cjb

  EIr

• SEBEOS

  James Howard-Johnston

  a seventh-century Armenian historian. The Armenian history traditionally attributed to Sebeos is an important source for the history of the Sasanian empire from the last years of Hormozd IV to the death of Yazdegerd III. 

• DIVORCE

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev, Mansour Shaki, Sachiko Murata, Akbar Aghajanian, Jenny Rose, Mujan Momen

  legal termination of marriage. In the following series of articles only those communities are taken into consideration which are either Iranian or are focused in Persia. For this reason Jewish and Christian practices have not been included.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SCERIMAN FAMILY

  Sebouh Aslanian and Houri Berberian

  a wealthy Persian-Armenian merchant family.

• Great Britain xii. The Persian Community in Britain (1)

  Kathryn Spellman

  This entry will be treated in two separate articles: (1) Persian Community and (2) The Library for Iranian Studies.

• ISRAEL i. RELATIONS WITH IRAN

  David Menashri, Trita Parsi

  The relationship between Israel and Iran has, since the very inception of the Jewish state in 1948, been a complex function of Iran’s geo-strategic imperatives as a non-Arab, non-Sunni state.

• ĀDURFRĀZGIRD

  C. J. Brunner

  a brother of the Sasanian king Šāpūr II (309-79 CE) who is mentioned in the Syriac Acts of the Persian Martyrs.

• ARTAŠŠUMARA

  M. Mayrhofer

  a Mitannian king.

• BĀZĪ

  Fereydūn Vahman

  (games). The growing interest in Iranian folklore in recent decades has resulted in the publication of descriptions of many games played in various parts of Iran, often to be found in dialect glossaries.

• DĀḠESTĀN

  Gadzhi Gamzatovich Gamzatov, Fridrik Thordarson

  (Daghestan). The many-faceted relationship between Dāḡestān (ancient Albania), a region in the eastern Caucasus, and Persia since antiquity has yet to be studied as a whole, though there is considerable historical, linguis­tic, folkloric, literary, and art-historical evidence bear­ing on it.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF TAJIKISTAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ĖNTSIKLOPEDIYAI SOVETII TOJIK.

• FATALISM

  Based on a longer article by ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Zarrīnkūb

  in the Islamic period. The concept of fatalism as commonly used in Islamic philosophy and Persian literature denotes the belief in the pre-ordained Decree of God (qażā wa qadar), according to which whatever happens to human beings or in the whole universe has been pre-determined by the will and knowledge of the Almighty, and that no changes or transformations in it can be made through the agency of the human will.

• OBOLLA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a port of Lower Iraq during the classical and medieval Islamic periods.

• ḤĀTEM-NĀMA

  Pegah Shahbaz

  a popular prose romance by an unknown author, consisting of the imaginary adventures of Ḥātem Ṭāʾi, the pre-Islamic Arab noble, renowned for his boundless generosity and graceful hospitality.

• ḠAFFĀRĪ, FARROḴ KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪN-AL-DAWLA, ABŪ ṬĀLEB FARROḴ KHAN ḠAFFĀRĪ.

• HINDU KUSH

  Ervin Grötzbach

  the name given to the southwest range of the massive middle and south Asiatic mountain complex lying partly in Afghanistan and partly in Pakistan.

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  Emir or ruler of Afghanistan, and member of the Bārakzay tribe of the Dorrāni tribal confederation, who unified the kingdom after the second Anglo-Afghan war (r. 1297-1319/1880-1901). See AFGHANISTAN x. Political History, BĀRAKZI, and DORRĀNI.

• AMĪN AḤMAD RĀZĪ

  M. U. Memon

  better known as AMĪN RĀZĪ, 10th-11th/16th-17th century author of the Haft eqlīm, a famous geographical and biographical encyclopedia.

• BADĪʿ BALḴĪ

  Z. Safa

  Persian poet of the 10th century.

• CAPPADOCIA

  Michael Weiskopf

  Anatolian Achaemenid satrapy, Hellenistic-era Iranian kingdom, and imperial Roman province. A rolling plateau cut by mountains, Cappadocia in the east contains bare central highlands, in the west a nearly treeless land­scape, and in the north mountainous tracts marked by fertile valleys, especially on the lower Halys river.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DONBA

  M. R. Ghanoonparvar

  the fatty part of the sheep’s tail, traditionally used as a cooking fat, sometimes in melted form, or as an inexpensive meat substitute.

• EXEGESIS iii. In Persian

  Annabel Keeler

• BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

  Hamid Algar

  : Persian Influence in Ottoman and post-Ottoman times. The Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina came to assimilate virtually all the cultural habits and interests of the Ottoman Turks. For the learned elite, this included an acquaintance with Persian language and literature.

• GUILDS

  Cross-Reference

  See AṢNĀF; CHAMBER OF GUILDS; CHAMBER OF COMMERCE; BĀZĀR iii.

• JABḠUYA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Arabo-Persian form of the Central Asian title yabḡu. Although it is best known as a Turkish title of nobility, it was in use many centuries before the Turks appear in the historical record.

• AFŠĪN B. DĪVDĀD

  ʿA. Kārang and F. R. C. Bagley

  founder of the semi-independent Sajid dynasty in Azerbaijan (r. 276/889-90-317/929).

• ĀRYĀMEHR

  Cross-Reference

  See MOḤAMMAD REŻA SHAH PAHLAVI.

• BEHBAHĀNĪ, ʿABD-ALLĀH

  cross-reference

  See ʿABD-ALLĀH BEHBAHĀNĪ.

• DALQAK

  Farrokh Gaffary

  buffoon, court jester, also sometimes known as masḵara.

• EPʿREM KHAN

  Aram Arkun

  Pers. Yeprem/Efrem (1868-1912), Armenian revolutionary and important military leader of the Constitutional Revolution. He uneasily reconciled his beliefs with his position as police chief of Tehran, resigning and returning to office several times.  On 24 December 1911, he shut down the parliament to comply with a Russian ultimatum, and this marked the close of Persia’s Constitutional Revolution.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FĀŻEL MĀZANDARĀNĪ, MĪRZĀ ASAD-ALLĀH

  Moojan Momen

  (b. Bābol, 1881; d. Ḵorramšahr, 1957), Bahai scholar and missionary.

• SIRĀFI, ABU SAʿID ḤASAN

  David Pingree

  10th-century polymath known best for his work as a grammarian.

• OTANES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Greek form (Otánēs) of the name OPers. Utāna(DB IV 83 u-t-a-n, rendered as Elam. Hu-ud-da-na, Bab. Ú-mi-it-ta-na-na-ʾ), which often is interpreted as “having good descendants”.

• GANDHĀRA

  Willem Vogelsang

  (OPers. Gandāra), a province of the Persian empire under the Achaemenids. The name of Gandhāra or Gandhārī occurs in ancient Indian texts as the name of a people.

• HOJVIRI, ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALI

  Gerhard Böwering

  B. ʿOṮMĀN B. ʿALI AL-ḠAZNAVI AL-JOLLĀBI (d. ca. 1071-72), author of the Kašf al-maḥjub, the most celebrated early Persian Sufi treatise.

• ʿABD-AL-VĀḤED

  D. Pingree

  8th/14th century author.

• AMĪR ḤASAN DEHLAVĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See INDIA xiv. Persian Literature in India.

• BĀḠ-E ŠĀH

  ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  (the king’s garden). In the mid-Qajar period, the site was a broad, circular field about 1,000 m in diameter situated on the outskirts of the city and devoted to horseback riding and racing.

• CARTER ADMINISTRATION

  Richard W. Cottam

  (1977-81): POLICY TOWARD PERSIA. When the administration of President Jimmy Carter took office in January 1977, United States foreign relations overall were remarkably stable. A modus vivendi had been established with the Soviet Union, and the Soviet-American cold war, the primary source of disturbance of world tranquility, was on what would prove to be a temporary hold.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DRANGIANA

  R. Schmitt

  or Zarangiana; territory around Lake Hāmūn and the Helmand river in modern Sīstān.

• JĀMI ii. And Sufism

  Hamid Algar

• MARITIME TRADE i. PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Daniel T. Potts

  In comparison with Mesopotamia, Persia has far less proof that maritime trade was an important factor in her ancient economy.

• GYMNASTICS IN PERSIA

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• JĀḤEẒ

  Michael Cooperson

  , ABU ʿOṮMĀN ʿAMR B. BAḤR (b. ca. 776; d. 868-9), the leading Arabic prose writer of the 9th century.

• ĀHAK

  E. Ehlers, T. S. Kawami

  “lime,” a solid, white substance consisting essentially of calcium oxide.

• ĀŠAQLŪN

  Cross-Reference

  Manichean demon. See ĀSRĒŠTĀR.

• BELTS

  Peter Calmeyer, Elsie H. Peck

  (Mid. Pets, kamar, NPers. kamar-band). Investigation of representations of belts in Iran between the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty in the 4th century BC and the coming of Islam reveals that they were almost exclusively male accessories. Depictions of females wearing belts are rare, and most are heavily influenced by Hellenistic and Roman styles.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĀNEŠGĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See EDUCATION; entries on indi­vidual universities.

• ƎRƎTI

  William W. Malandra

  the name of a minor goddess, one of a number of abstract deities who appear in the Avesta only in formulaic invocations of divinities.

• FERDOWSI, ABU’L-QĀSEM v. HOMAGES TO FERDOWSI

  EIr

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MITHRA ii. ICONOGRAPHY IN IRAN AND CENTRAL ASIA

  Franz Grenet

  There is no known iconography of Mithra in the Achaemenid period. On coins of the Arsacids the seated archer dressed as a Parthian horseman has been interpreted as Mithra. In the Kushan empire Mithra is among the deities most frequently depicted on the coinage, always as a young solar god.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Šeydā

  Margaret Caton

  the pen name of Mirzā ʿAli-Akbar Širāzi (b. Shiraz, 1259/1843; d. Tehran at the Ṣafi ʿAlišāh ḵānaqāh, 1324/1906), a Persian musician regarded as the most important composer of the lyrical popular song (taṣnif) in the late Qajar period.

• GARDEN ii. ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Lisa Golombek

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HORMOZD KUŠĀNŠĀH

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  Sasanian prince governor of Kušān. He is known from his coins minted in eastern Iran and references in three Latin sources. His coins are gold scyphate (cup-shaped) and light bronze issues; rare heavy copper and silver coins also occur.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABDALLĀH B. MOBĀRAK

  P. Nwyia

  Traditionist (736-97).

• ĀMOL

  C. E. Bosworth

   town situated three miles from the left bank of the Oxus river (Āmū Daryā).

• FISH iv. FISH AS FOOD

  NAJMIEH BATMANGLIJ

• CAVIAR

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  ḵāvīar in Persian, the processed non-fertilized roe of sturgeons and some other large fishes, highly valued as a gourmet delicacy.  In Iran the roe for caviar is obtained mainly from three species of sturgeon (family Acipenseridae) caught in the southern littoral or fluvial waters of the Caspian Sea.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DUALISM

  Gherardo Gnoli

  feature peculiar to Iranian religion in ancient and medieval times.

• CROWN ii. From the Seleucids to the Islamic conquest

  Elsie H. Peck

  It was under the Sasanian mon­archs that the crown, quintessential symbol of royal power, received its most elaborate and varied forms. From the earliest representations it is clear that new shapes were not adopted immediately; rather, the royal headgear of the conquered enemy was at first contin­ued.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KORK

  Rudi Matthee

  soft wool, also called Kermān wool, used for the manufacture of fine clothing and felt hats.

• JĀM MINARET

  F. B. Flood

  pre-eminent 12th-century monument of the Šansabāni sultans of Ḡur in central Afghanistan. The minaret stands 65 meters high near the confluence of the Harirud and Jāmrud rivers in a remote mountain valley once protected by a series of defensive towers.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḤMAD INALTIGIN

  C. E. Bosworth

  Turkish commander and rebel under the early Ghaznavid sultan Masʿūd I (421-32/1030-41), d. 426/1035.

• ASIA MINOR

  M. Weiskopf

  IRANO-ANATOLIAN RELATIONS.

• BĒṮ LAPAṬ

  Michael Morony

  the Syriac name for Vēh Antiōk Šāpūr (Gondēšāpūr), founded in ca. 260 by Šāpūr I in Ḵūzestān with the Roman captives from Valerian’s army.

• DĀRĀB-NĀMA

  William L. Hanaway

  prose romance of the 12th century, by Abū Ṭāher Moḥammad b. Ḥasan b. ʿAlī b. Mūsā Ṭārsūsī (or Ṭarṭūsī), in which the adventures of the legendary Kayanid king Dārāb, son of Bahman (also called Ardašīr) and Homāy, variously identified as the daughter of king Sām Čāraš of Egypt or of Ardašīr (=Bahman), are recounted.

• EṢFAHĀN and EṢFAHĀNĀT

  Cross-Reference

  See BAYĀT-E EṢFAHĀN.

• FICTION, ii(b)

  Houra Yavari

  ii(b). THE NOVEL.

• HOTZ, ALBERT PAUL HERMAN

  Cyrus Ala’i

  a Dutch trader, collector of artifacts, and author on Iran (1855-1930).

• Y~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the Y entries

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD i

  Gerhard BÖWERING

  A man of Persian descent, Ḡazālī (variant name Ḡazzālī; Med. Latin form, Algazel; honorific title, Ḥojjat-al-Eslām"The Proof of Islam”), was born at Ṭūs in Khorasan in 450/1058 and grew up as an orphan together with his younger brother Aḥmad Ḡazālī (d. 520/1126; q.v.).

• ḤOSAYNI

  Bruno Nettl

  a guša (significant melodic unit) of the canonic repertory of Persian classical music (radif).

• ʿABHAR AL-ʿĀŠEQĪN

  H. Corbin

  work of the Persian mystic Rūzbehān Baqlī Šīrāzī (1128-1209).

• ANANTAMUKHANIRHĀRADHĀRAṆĪ

  R. E. Emmerick

  the name of a Buddhist text belonging to the Mahayanist Tantric tradition. 

• BAHMANAGĀN

  cross-reference

  See BAHMANJANA.

• ČERĀḠ KHAN ZĀHEDĪ

  Roger M. Savory

  b. Shaikh Šarīf, a descendant of Shaikh Zāhed Gīlānī, the celebrated moršed (spiritual director) of Shaikh Ṣafī-al-Dīn, the eponymous founder of the Safavid order (Ṣafawīya); hence Čerāḡ Khan was also known as Pīrzāda.

• EAGLES

  Steven C. Anderson, William L. Hanaway, Jr.

  Ten species of eagles occur at least seasonally in Persia, nine of which also occur in Afghanistan. Pallas’s fish eagle, Haliaeetus leucoryphus, ranges throughout Asia, is vagrant in Persia, eastern Arabia, and Oman, and is probably a winter visitor in western Afghanistan. It breeds from the Caspian to central China and Mongolia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• RAʿD

  Nasreddin Parvin

  (Thunder), the name of a newspaper published by Sayyed Żiyāʾ-al-Din Ṭabāṭabāʾi in Tehran, 1913-1921, with interruptions.

• HAIFA

  Hossein Amanat

  a port city in northwestern Israel and the site of a number of significant Bahai holy places, administrative buildings, and historical monuments.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JANĀB

  cross-reference

  See ALQĀB VA ʿANĀWIN.

• AḤSAN AL-TAWĀRĪḴ

  ʿA. Navāʾī

  a chronological history of Iran and the neighboring countries written by Ḥasan Beg Rūmlū (b. 937/1530-31), a qūṛčī in the service of the Safavid Shah Ṭahmāsb.

• ASPAND

  Cross-Reference

  See ESFAND.

• BĪDĀR

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (lit. awake) the name of three Persian periodicals, two of which were published in Tehran in 1923 and 1951 and the other in Mazār-e Šarīf in 1925.

• DARIUS ii. Darius the Mede

  Richard N. Frye

• ESKANDARĪ, ĪRAJ

  Cosroe Chaqueri

  (1907-1985), prominent leader of the Tudeh Party. He was an architect of the coalition of the Tudeh party with prime minister Aḥmad Qawām in 1946. From 1948 he worked for the Tudeh party in Paris, Vienna, Budapest, Moscow, and finally Leipzig. His lukewarm attitude toward the Islamic Revolution and refusal of a Soviet offer to help turn Persia into another Afghanistan cost him his leadership position in 1979.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FĪRŪZŠĀH-NĀMA

  William L. Hanaway

  pre-Safavid prose romance, the hero of which is Fīrūzšāh, son of Dārāb of the Kayanid house. 

• WAR KABUD

  Bruno Overlaet

  an archeological site to the north of Čavār in Ilām Province (Pošt-e kuh, Lorestān). Two hundred and three individual tombs of a large plundered graveyard (more than 1,000 tombs estimated to have been plundered) were excavated in 1965 and 1966. They all date to the Iron Age III (ca. 800/750-600 BCE).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KASHMIR iii. PERSIAN LANGUAGE IN THE STATE ADMINISTRATION

  Siegfried Weber

  Officially Persian became the court language in Kashmir during the 14th and 15th centuries.