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• FĀRS v. Monuments

  Dietrich Huff

  The founder of the Sasanian empire, Ardašīr I (224-40), shifted the seat of power to the newly founded Ardašīr Ḵorra (Fīrūzābād), a circular city with palaces that are still preserved. His successor, Šāpūr I, built Bīšāpūr as his capital. Nevertheless, Eṣṭaḵr remained the most important city of Fārs until Shiraz surpassed it after the Islamic conquest in the 7th century.

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• ḠAFFĀRĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN ḠAFFĀRĪ.

• HORMOZD IV

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  Sasanian great king (r. 579-90 CE). He succeeded Ḵosrow I Anōširavān just as the latter was negotiating a peace treaty with the Byzantine empire.

• WEIGHTS AND MEASURES i. PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  A. D. H. Bivar

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• INDIA iv. RELATIONS: SELEUCID, PARTHIAN, SASANIAN PERIODS

  Pierfrancesco Callieri

  Seleucus I (d. 281 BCE) led an expedition to India (Matelli, 1987) ca. 305 B.C.E. It ended, however, with the cession of  territories to a new Indian king, Candragupta Maurya.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES i. INTRODUCTION

  Houman Sarshar

  Jewish communities have been living upon the Persian plateau since ca. 721 BCE, when King Sargon II (r. 721-705 BCE) relocated large communities of conquered Israelites.

• IRAN i. LANDS OF IRAN

  Xavier de Planhol

  This article intends to examine the relationship between Iranian culture and its natural environment.

• ʿEBRAT, Sayyed MOḤAMMAD-QĀSEM

  Munibur Rahman

  author of ʿEbrat-nāma, a history of the reigns of Awrangzēb’s successors to 1723.

• CERAMICS iv. The Chalcolithic Period in the Zagros Highlands

  Elizabeth F. Henrickson

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• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (9) Arabic

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Most extensive was the Arab settlement in eastern Iran and Greater Khorasan (including northwestern Afghanistan, and Central Asia, including Marv and Bukhara).

• EDUCATION x. MIDDLE AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk

  Modern secondary education in Persia was originally based on the 19th-century European humanistic system, focused on general knowledge and building character rather than on professional or vocational training. This philosophy dominated the Persian system until the 1960s, when reforms were introduced by American advisers.

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• GEORGIA i. The land and the people

  Keith Hitchins

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• AFGHANISTAN xiii. FORESTS AND FORESTRY

  Xavier de Planhol

• FRANCE iv. RELATIONS WITH PERSIA SINCE 1918

  Marie-Louise Chaumont

• CLOTHING v. In Pre-Islamic Eastern Iran

  Gerd Gropp

• Isfahan xviii. JEWISH COMMUNITY

  Amnon Netzer

  The beginning of the Jewish settlement in Isfahan is mixed with legends, but there are fragmentary source materials that enable us to reconstruct the major historical events concerning it.

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• CENTRAL ASIA ii. Demography

  Richard H. Rowland

• Great Britain v. British influence during the Reżā Shah period, 1921-41

  Stephanie Cronin

• CERAMICS xiii. The Early Islamic Period, 7th-11th Centuries

  David Whitehouse

• HORMOZD (1)

  cross-reference

  See AHURA MAZDĀ.

• HADITH iii. IN ISMAʿILISM

  Ismail K. Poonawala

  Ismaʿilis had neither a Hadith collection of their own nor a distinct Ismaʿili law before the establishment of the Fatimid dynasty in North Africa in 297/909.

• BAHMAN (3)

  cross-reference

  author of Qeṣṣa-ye Sanjān, q.v.

• TURKIC LANGUAGES OF PERSIA: AN OVERVIEW

  Michael Knüppel

  Only in few other regions (Caucasus and Southern Siberia) one can find a nearly comparable diversity of Turkic languages as in Persia. The number of their speakers varies from several thousands to several millions.

• KASHAN v. ARCHITECTURE (3) TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE

  Mohammad- Reza Haeri and EIr.

  In line with the trend towards modernization in Iran’s recent history, most residential houses built by the middle classes in Kashan since 1950 comprise all or some of the following units: entrance, courtyard, living room, reception room, kitchen, lavatory, bath, bedroom, storage, staircase, and hall.

• MANDAEANS ii. THE MANDAEAN RELIGION

  Kurt Rudolph

  A major characteristic of the Mandaeans is the frequent ritual use of (running) water (for baptisms and ritual purifications); another is the possession of a rich literature

• GEORGIA v. LINGUISTIC CONTACTS WITH IRANIAN LANGUAGES

  Thea Chkeidze

• AZERBAIJAN vi. Population and its Occupations and Culture

  R. Tapper

• KANDAHAR iii. Early Islamic Period

  Minoru Inaba

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (6) in Islamic Iran

  Gernot Windfuhr

  The non-Iranian languages spoken today in Iran include members of the following language families: (1) Altaic, (2) Afro-Asiatic Semitic, (3) Indo-European, (4) Caucasian (5) Dravidian.

• EDUCATION ix. PRIMARY SCHOOLS

  Sayyed ʿAlī Āl-e Dāwūd

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• HEDAYAT, SADEQ i. LIFE AND WORK

  Homa Katouzian and EIr

  Sadeq Hedayat was the youngest child of Hedā-yatqoli Khan Eʿteżād-al-Molk, the notable literary historian, the dean of the Military Academy.

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• ʿALĪ TABRĪZĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  (or MĪR ʿALĪ TABRĪZĪ), 8th/14th century calligrapher who is often credited with the invention of the nastaʿlīq script.

• Isfahan xiv. MODERN ECONOMY AND INDUSTRIES (2) Isfahan City

  Habib Borjian

  The stagnation experienced after the fall of the Safavids was even more marked in the 19th century, owing to European competition that had rendered many local industries practically extinct.

• ARMENIA i. IMAGE OF PERSIANS IN

  Robert Thomson

  In the Sasanian period Armenians developed a self-awareness as Christians against the background of their earlier Iranian social and religious culture.

• FEMINIST MOVEMENTS iii. IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD

  Hamideh Sedghi

  The fundamental political, socio-cultural, and economic changes which Persia underwent in the Pahlavi era (1921-78) had drastic repercussions on the women’s rights movement and the condition of women.

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• GILAN xviii. Rural Production Techniques

  Christian Bromberger

  A considerable range of techniques is used to produce such diversified commodities as rice, silk, tea, tobacco, vegetables, olives, and wheat. One can, however, speak of a distinctly Gilāni technical system.

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• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 3)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

• KASHAN ii. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

  Geographic foundations and the origins of the urban area. To the northeast of the well-watered mountain ranges of western and southern Iran, a line of bountiful oases which have given rise to important urban areas stretches along the piedmont bordering the desert basins of central and southeastern Iran.

• BAHRĀM (3)

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  son of GŌDARZ, in the Šāh-nāma a hero in the reigns of Kay Kāōs and Kay Ḵosrow, renowned for his valiant service in all the wars.

• AFGHANISTAN ix. Pre-Islamic Art

  F. Tissot

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• BĀḴTAR (1)

  A. Tafażżolī

  designation of the geographical “west” in Modern Persian, but its Pahlavi equivalent abāxtar means “north,” probably borrowed from Parthian.

• HAMADĀN vii. MONUMENTS

  Ali Mousavi and EIr

  The city of Hamadān, besides its pre-Islamic remains, comprises some important monuments belonging to the Islamic period. The most significant of these is the mausoleum called Gonbad-e ʿAlawiān. It is a square, relatively massive monument, almost entirely of baked brick. Its façade was once covered with opulent stucco decoration.

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• ʿARAB i. Arabs and Iran in the pre-Islamic period

  C. E. Bosworth

• GĪLĀN v. History under the Safavids

  Manouchehr Kasheff

• INDIA xxviii. IRANIAN IMMIGRANTS IN INDIA

  Masashi Haneda

  Although emigration from the Iranian plateau to the Indian subcontinent is not a phenomenon specific to any particular period, the trend does seem to have grown after the foundation of Muslim governments on the subcontinent.

• BAZAR v. Temporary Bazars in Iran and Afghanistan

  M. Bazin

  Periodic markets, and especially weekly markets, are generally presented as an intermediate stage between a subsistence economy and net­works of permanent trading centers.

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• CENTRAL ASIA x. Economy Before the Timurids

  Peter B. Golden

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vi. Relations with Afghanistan in the Modern Period

  Daniel Balland

• Isfahan xi. SCHOOL OF PAINTING AND CALLIGRAPHY

  Massumeh Farhad

  The “Isfahan” school of painting and calligraphy generally refers to works of art associated with the city from about 1597-98, when it was chosen as the Safavid capital, until the Afghan invasion of 1722. In the second half of the 17th century, many Isfahani artists  began experimenting with Europeanized pictorial concepts, such as modeling and shading—the second phase of the “Isfahan” school of painting.

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• CYRUS iv. The Cyrus cylinder

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev