Search Results

• BAHRĀM (2)

  A. Sh. Shahbazi, O. Klíma, W. L. Hanaway, Jr.

  the name of six Sasanian kings and of several notables of the Sasanian and later periods.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAMADĀN iv. URBAN PLAN

  Abdolhamid Eshragh

  Hamadān is the only city in Persia which has a star-shaped urban design, with six boulevards and a network of avenues autonomously branching out in various directions from the circular city center. In 1928, German architects were given the task of designing a plan for the city which would modernize its urban infrastructure and be suitable for motor traffic. The resultant project was eventually implemented in 1933.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ANṢARĪ, ʿALĪ-QOLĪ KHAN

  M. Kasheff

  MOŠĀWER-AL-MAMĀLEK (1868-1940), a career diplomat under the late Qajars. 

• GĪLĀN iii. Archeology

  Ezat O. Negahban

  The archeology of Gīlān, particularly in the pre-Islamic period, is usually studied in the wider context of the entire south Caspian region, including Mazandarān and Gorgān. Articles on three important locations, Marlik Tepe, Amlaš, and Deylamān, illustrate the perennial difficulties faced by archeological research in Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFGHANISTAN xi. Administration

  A. Ghani

• ʿARAB iii. Arab settlements in Iran

  E. L. Daniel

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (1) Overview

  Gernot Windfuhr

  This entry will discuss the non-Iranian languages spoken in Iran in the course of its history as the result of various peoples settling in parts of Iran and interacting with Iranian-speaking peoples who began to migrate to Iranian territories at the beginning of second millennium BCE. The entry includes linguistic sketches of languages or dialects.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AZERBAIJAN ii. Archeology

  W. Kleiss

• ŠĀH-NĀMA iv. Illustrations

  Marianna Shreve Simpson

  Among the many works of classical literature that form the extensive corpus of Persian manuscript illustration, Ferdowsi’s Šāh-nāma occupies pride of place. Hundreds of illustrated volumes survive today, doubtless only a fraction of the actual artistic production.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CLOTHING vii. Of the Iranian Tribes on the Pontic Steppes and in the Caucaus

  S. A. Yatsenko

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KANDAHAR ii. Pre-Islamic Monuments and Remains

  Gérard Fussman

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• IRAQ vii. IRAN-IRAQ WAR

  Saskia M. Gieling

  The war between Iran and Iraq commenced with the Iraqi invasion of Iran on 22 September 1980, and ended with the bilateral acceptance of the UN Security Council Resolution 598 on 20 July 1988.

• CENTRAL ASIA xii. Economy in the 19th-20th Centuries

  Ian Matley

• Isfahan x. Monuments (4) Madrasas

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

  In Isfahan, as elsewhere in Persia, the earliest madrasas were established to spread and solidify Sunni orthodoxy.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS viii. Persian Language and Literature in China

  EIr

• JAPAN v. ARCHEOLOGICAL MISSIONS TO PERSIA

  Toh Sugimura

  After World War II Japanese archeologists could not continue their work on sites in Korea and China, and their expertise became available for research in the Middle East and Persia.

• CARPETS ix. Safavid Period

  Daniel Walker

  The high point in Persian carpet design and manufacture was attained under the Safavid dynasty (1501-1739). It was the result of a unique conjunction of historical factors—royal patronage, the influence of court designers at all levels of artistic production, the wide availability of locally produced and imported materials and dyes, and commercial acceptance, particularly in foreign markets.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FESTIVALS vi, vii, viii

  Moojan Momen, Amnon Netzer, A. Arkun

  vi. BAHAI, vii. JEWISH, viii. ARMENIAN.

• GERMANY vii, viii. German cultural influence in Persia

  Christl Catanzaro

  German culture was and is very highly appreciated in Persia, but its influence on Persian culture is usually overrated. A lasting influence was mainly exercised on Persians who either attended a German school in Persia, had other personal contacts with Germans, studied in Germany, or worked there.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INDIA xxi. INDIAN INFLUENCES ON PERSIAN PAINTING

  Barbara Schmitz

  During the 17th century, the flow of artistic influences between Persia and India reversed. Paintings and drawings in the developed Mughal style of the first quarter of the century were imported to the courts and bazaars of Isfahan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFGHANISTAN vi. Paṧto

  G. Morgenstierne

• IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (3). Islamic Period

  cross-reference

  See Supplement.

• ECONOMY viii. IN THE QAJAR PERIOD

  Hassan Hakimian

• FLOYER, ERNEST AYSCOGHE

  Josef Elfenbein

  (1852-1903) explorer, writer, and the first station chief of the Indo-European Telegraph Line at Jāsk.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KABUL v. MONUMENTS OF KABUL CITY

  Jonathan Lee

  This article focuses on the major monuments in and around the Old City of Kabul and the most significant Dorrāni dynastic monuments and mausolea.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAQ i. IN THE LATE SASANID AND EARLY ISLAMIC ERAS

  Michael Morony

  The southern part of Mesopotamia, known in the early Islamic period as del-e Irānšahr (lit. “the heart of the kingdom of Iran”), served as the central province of the Sasanian empire as well as that of the ʿAbbasid caliphate. As such, it played a significant part in the transmission of administrative and cultural elements from Sasanian Iran to the Islamic world.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CENTRAL ASIA vii. In the 18th-19th Centuries

  Yuri Bregel

• Isfahan ix. THE PAHLAVI PERIOD AND THE POST-REVOLUTION ERA

  Habib Borjian

  In the process of consolidating his power in Isfahan, Reza Shah managed to constrain two powerful social groups: the Shiʿite clergy and the Baḵtiāri tribesmen.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS ii. Islamic Period to the Mongols

  J. M. Rogers

• ISLAM IN IRAN viii. THE OCCULTATION OF MAHDI

  cross-reference

  See ḠAYBA.

• Italy vi. ITALIAN EXCAVATIONS IN IRAN

  Pierfrancesco Callieri, Bruno Genito

  From the early 20th century on, Italians participated in the scholarly investigation of ancient Iran, but direct involvement in field archeology dates from relatively recent times.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY viii. QAJAR PERIOD

  Abbas Amanat

  In the century and a half that constituted the Qajar period (1786-1925), writing of history evolved from production of annalistic court chronicles and other traditional genres into the earliest experimentations in modern historiography.

• HAFEZ x. TRANSLATIONS OF HAFEZ IN ENGLISH

  Parvin Loloi

  The first poem by Hafez to appear in English was the work of Sir William Jones (1746-94).

• GILĀN xix. Landholding and Social Stratification

  Christian Bromberger

  Prior to the Land Reform of 1962 that began the process of land redistribution, the dominant production system in Gilān, as in the majority of Persianprovinces, was of a feudal nature.

• JAPAN i. Introduction

  C. J. Brunner

  Direct contact and observation of each other by Persians and Japanese would wait for the establishment of Japan’s relations with the world by the modernizing administration of the Meiji period (1868-1912).

• GEOGRAPHY iii. Political Geography

  Xavier de Planhol

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CARPETS iv. Knotted-pile carpets: Designs, motifs, and patterns

  Annette Ittig

  In this discussion “design” refers to the overall composition of decorative elements on a carpet; the simplest elements in designs are single motifs, which are most frequently combined in more complex units; these units in turn may be arranged in various combinations and sequences to form patterns.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GERMANY ii. Archeological excavations and studies

  Dietrich Huff

  The first Germans who reported on the historical and archeological monuments of the ancient Persian world, were, as in other nations, adventurers and travelers of a different kind. Their reports can be significant as contemporary descriptions of the condition of monuments in late medieval times, particularly those which have vanished or are seriously altered nowadays.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INDIA xv. Persian Correspondence Literature

  cross-reference

  See CORRESPONDENCE iv.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES viii. JUDEO-PERSIAN LANGUAGE

  Thamar E. Gindin

  a group of very similar, usually mutually comprehensible, dialects of Persian, spoken or written by Jews in greater Iran over a period of more than a millennium.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (4) Index of Proper Names

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Index of proper names that occur in the chronological table.

• ECONOMY iv. IN THE SASANIAN PERIOD

  Ryka Gyselen

• GILĀN xii. Rural Housing

  Christian Bromberger

  There are considerable differences among settlement and building styles according to geographic location. Roughly, one can isolate four geographic areas, each with a distinctive type of rural dwelling: the Gilān plain; the low foothills of the Alborz range; the mountains, covered with forest and capped by alpine meadows; and finally the arid slopes of the Alborz.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KABUL iii. HISTORY FROM THE 16TH CENTURY TO THE ACCESSION OF MOḤAMMAD ẒĀHER SHAH

  May Schinasi

  Kabul was a small town until the 16th century, when Ẓahir-al-Din Bābor (1483-1530), the first of the Great Mughals, made it his capital.

• IRAN ix. RELIGIONS IN IRAN (2) Islam in Iran (2.2) Mongol and Timurid Periods

  Hamid Algar

  It is sometimes assumed that the general predominance of Sunnism in Persia was significantly weakened by the destruction of the ʿAbbasid caliphate by the Mongols in 1258.

• EDUCATION xvii. HIGHER EDUCATION

  David Menashri

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISFAHAN viii. QAJAR PERIOD

  Heidi Walcher

  The historical changes affecting the Isfahan of this period included loss of its status as the royal capital and its transformation into a major provincial city.

• ISLAM IN IRAN i - iv

  various authors

  The following series of articles provide an overview of some historical, contemporary, and especially political aspects of the topic that are of special interest and relevance in the world today.

• ART IN IRAN i. NEOLITHIC TO MEDIAN

  E. Porada

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HERODOTUS vii. XERXES ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS

  Robert Rollinger

  The young king inherited a solid empire, which was greater than any before in history. The subsequent great war of the years 480 and 479 Herodotus describes as an immense struggle, to which he devotes a third of his work.

• Greece iii. Persian Influence on Greek Thought

  Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin

• Italy ii. DIPLOMATIC AND COMMERCIAL RELATIONS

  Mario Casari

  A privileged relationship between Iran and Italy dates back to the age of the ancient Roman and Persian empires. Despite their ever-changing internal affairs, the two political centers of Europe and Asia, throughout the entire ancient time, experienced long lasting contacts.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY iii. EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Elton L. Daniel

  It might be questioned whether there is, strictly speaking, any “historiography of Persia in the early Islamic period” at all, since it is by no means clear that there was an Islamic “Persia” prior to the rise of the Safavids.

• BADĪLĪ, AḤMAD

  H. Algar

  , SHAIKH, a Sufi shaikh in 12th-century Sabzavār, renowned for his mastery of the exoteric as well as the esoteric science. 

• HAFEZ iv. LEXICAL STRUCTURE OF HAFEZ’S GHAZALS

  D. Meneghini Correale

  Despite limitations, it is nevertheless necessary to base textual criticism on complete and reliable lexico-statistical inventories of Hafez’s ghazals.

• INDIA vii. RELATIONS: THE AFSHARID AND ZAND PERIODS

  Mansour Bonakdarian

   The invasion of the Persian capital (Isfahan) by Ḡilzai Afghan forces in 1722 and the collapse of Safavid central authority had a marked impact on Indo-Persian relations,

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES v. QAJAR PERIOD (1)

  Daniel Tsadik

  The socio-economic and legal status of the Jews of Iran in early Qajar times was, to an extent, a continuation of the legacy of Safavid times. With the passage of time, however, and largely due to the increasing intervention of the great powers and foreign Jews, certain changes started to be seen.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 3)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  The Saljuqids (1040-1194). The plains of Central Asia, northwestern China, and western Siberia were breeding grounds for nomadic people, who kept multiplying and searching for new pastures.

• IRAN viii. PERSIAN LITERATURE (2) Classical

  CHARLES-HENRI DE FOUCHÉCOUR

  We will pay special attention to the early formation and origins of different literary genres in Persian works, even though the very notion of literary genres is somewhat arbitrary and a subject of continuing debate.

• EDUCATION xiii. RURAL AND TRIBAL SCHOOLS

  Moḥammad Bahmanbeygī, Nāṣer Mīr, Moḥammad Pūrsartīp, and EIr

  Compulsory-education laws enacted in 1911 and 1943 provided the legal framework for the extension of modern education into rural and tribal areas. Until the 1950s, however, the Persian government did not possess the resources  to implement these laws; in addition, landowners and tribal khans resisted such efforts.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAHAISM viii. Bahai Shrines

  J. Walbridge

  Of the Bahai sites of pilgrimage and visitation, the most important are the tombs of Bahāʾ-Allāh and the Bāb in Israel and the houses of the Bāb and Bahāʾ-Allāh in Shiraz and Baghdad.

• ISFAHAN ii. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

  The Isfahan oasis, as a prosperous area of agricultural life, eventually fostered the foundation of a major city—one whose strategic location helped it to dominate the entire area of Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BRONZE i. In pre-Islamic Iran

  Vincent C. Pigott

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xxii. GAZI DIALECT

  Donald Stilo

  spoken in the city of Gaz in the district of Borḵᵛār, belonging to the Central Plateau Dialect group ( of Northwestern Iranian languages.

• HERODOTUS ii. THE HISTORIES AS A SOURCE FOR PERSIA AND PERSIANS

  Robert Rollinger

  An evaluation of Herodotus’s treatment of Persia and the Persians is a difficult task. The subject is not limited to a specific logos but is ubiquitous in the Histories.

• CENTRAL ASIA v. In the Mongol and Timurid Periods

  Bertold Spuler

• CLOTHING xvi. Kurdish clothing in Persia

  Shirin Mohseni and Peter Andrews

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GYPSY i. Gypies of Persia

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  Almost everywhere in Persia there are groups with characteristics similar to those of the Gypsies, but they are called by different names, sometimes designating their geographic or ethnic origin, sometimes their social status, and sometimes their profession.

• FĀRS ii. History in the Pre-Islamic Period

  Josef Wiesehöfer

  The history of early pre-Islamic Fārs is most closely interwoven with that of its eastern and western neighbors. Agrarian settlements had been established (by immigrants?) in the Muški phase in the Kor basin, a widely and well researched area, before 5,500 B.C.E.

• EGYPT iv. Relations in the Sasanian period

  Ruth Altheim-Stiehl

• ḎARĪʿA elā TAṢĀNĪF al-ŠĪʿA

  Etan Kohlberg

  a comprehensive bibliography of Imami Shiʿite works in twenty-five volumes compiled by Shaikh Moḥammad-Moḥsen Āqā Bozorg Ṭehrānī (1876-1970); it contains about 55,000 entries for works written up to 1950-51.

• SALJUQS vi. ART AND ARCHITECTURE

  Lorenz Korn

  The naming of an art-historical period for the Saljuq dynasty, and its demarcation according to dynastic terms, has justly been debated. Nevertheless, a notion of Saljuq art has been shaped by the constant use of this term in the literature of the past decades

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 2)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (8) Semitic Languages

  Gernot Windfuhr

   First Aramaic and then Arabic had considerable contact with Iranian languages. Their impact differs.

• EDUCATION vii. GENERAL SURVEY OF MODERN EDUCATION

  Ahmad Ashraf

  A modern system of national education emerged in Persia in the 1920s and 1930s, after the Pahlavi state had been founded; during this period the influence of the religious establishment was minimized, and the government gained control over schools, expanding enrollment at all levels.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAHAISM iii. Bahai and Babi Schisms

  D. M. MacEoin

  Although it never developed much beyond the stage of a sectarian movement within Shiʿite Islam, Babism experienced a number of minor but interesting divisions, particularly in its early phase.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN v. Film Production: 1970-77

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  Kanun productions were the first experience of film direction for a number of today’s best-known Iranian directors.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFGHANISTAN xiii. FORESTS AND FORESTRY

  Xavier de Planhol

• FRANCE iv. RELATIONS WITH PERSIA SINCE 1918

  Marie-Louise Chaumont

• CERAMICS viii. The Early Bronze Age in Southwestern and Southern Persia

  Elizabeth Carter

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS v. Diplomatic and Commercial Relations, 1949-90

  Parviz Mohajer

• ḠAFFĀRĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN ḠAFFĀRĪ.

• CLOTHING x. In the Safavid and Qajar periods

  Layla S. Diba

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CARPETS iii. Knotted-pile carpets: Techniques and structures

  Annette Ittig

  The techniques of carpet making are the processes of weaving, knotting, and finishing; structure is the complex of interrelations among the elements of the finished carpet. One of the major problems in carpet studies is the lack of a standard terminology to describe specific techniques, structures, and designs.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ŠĀH-NĀMA — EXCURSUS

  Amin Banani

  Essay: “Reflections on Re-reading the Iliad and the Shahnameh” by Amin Banani.

• HORMOZD IV

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  Sasanian great king (r. 579-90 CE). He succeeded Ḵosrow I Anōširavān just as the latter was negotiating a peace treaty with the Byzantine empire.

• MANDAEANS ii. THE MANDAEAN RELIGION

  Kurt Rudolph

  A major characteristic of the Mandaeans is the frequent ritual use of (running) water (for baptisms and ritual purifications); another is the possession of a rich literature

• GEORGIA v. LINGUISTIC CONTACTS WITH IRANIAN LANGUAGES

  Thea Chkeidze

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (5) Kassite

  Gernot Windfuhr

  The Kassites, Akkadian Kaššu, were mountain tribes probably somewhere in the central Zagros who ruled Babylon from the sixteenth to the middle of the twelfth century BCE.

• EDUCATION iii. THE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

  Jalīl Dūstḵᵛāh and Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī

  Before the establishment of a modern educational system in Persia in the early 20th century children received their early and intermediate education in the maktab (or maktab-ḵāna, lit., “place of writing”) under the tutelage of an āḵūnd (q.v.), mulla (clerical teacher), or moʿallem (teacher), who worked alone or occasionally with one or two assistants.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HEDAYAT, SADEQ i. LIFE AND WORK

  Homa Katouzian and EIr

  Sadeq Hedayat was the youngest child of Hedā-yatqoli Khan Eʿteżād-al-Molk, the notable literary historian, the dean of the Military Academy.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CERAMICS iii. The Neolithic Period in Central and Western Persia

  Peder Mortensen

  Present knowledge of the development of Neolithic ceramics in Luristan and Kurdistan, covering a period from the late 8th millennium to the middle of the 6th millennium B.C.E. is based primarily on evidence from three excavated sites and from surveys carried out southwest of Harsīn, on the Māhī­dašt plain, and in the Holaylān valley.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xiv. MODERN ECONOMY AND INDUSTRIES (1) The Province

  Habib Borjian

  On the whole Isfahan is an average province within Persia in terms of general economic indices.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Great Britain v. British influence during the Reżā Shah period, 1921-41

  Stephanie Cronin

• CLOTHING iv. In the Sasanian period

  Elsie H. Peck

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HORMOZD (1)

  cross-reference

  See AHURA MAZDĀ.

• FĀRS iv. History in the Qajar and Pahlavi Periods

  Ahmad Ashraf

  The Qajar period (1794-1921) was marked in Fārs by developments such as the rule of dozens of prince-governors; Britain’s influence, with domination of the Persian Gulf; division of the Qašqāʾī and Ḵamsa tribal confederacies; continued local autonomy of tribal khans and influential landowners; and the increasing political role of the ʿolamāʾ.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HADITH iii. IN ISMAʿILISM

  Ismail K. Poonawala

  Ismaʿilis had neither a Hadith collection of their own nor a distinct Ismaʿili law before the establishment of the Fatimid dynasty in North Africa in 297/909.

• HAMADĀN vii. MONUMENTS

  Ali Mousavi and EIr

  The city of Hamadān, besides its pre-Islamic remains, comprises some important monuments belonging to the Islamic period. The most significant of these is the mausoleum called Gonbad-e ʿAlawiān. It is a square, relatively massive monument, almost entirely of baked brick. Its façade was once covered with opulent stucco decoration.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GĪLĀN v. History under the Safavids

  Manouchehr Kasheff

• INDIA xxvi. MUTUAL MUSICAL INFLUENCES

  cross-reference

    See under MUSIC.

• ADAB ii. Adab in Arabic Literature

  Ch. Pellat

  In modern Arabic usage the term adab (plur. ādāb) denotes “literature,” but in classical Islam it was applied only to a limited range of literary works.

• ʿARAB v. Arab-Iranian relations in modern times

  R. K. Ramazani

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (3) Elamite

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Elamite was spoken in the southern Zagros regions, which correspond to the ancient cultural-political entities of Elam and Anshan, and expanded into Akkadian-speaking Susiana.

• AZERBAIJAN v. History from 1941 to 1947

  B. Kuniholm

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KANDAHAR iv. From The Mongol Invasion Through the Safavid Era

  Rudi Matthee and Hiroyuki Mashita

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• Isfahan x. Monuments (6) Bibliography

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

• ADAB i. Adab in Iran

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  Apart from a genre of literature (see section ii), adab in Persian means education, culture, good behavior, politeness, proper demeanor; thus it is closely linked with the concept of ethics.

• ISMAʿILISM i. ISMAʿILI STUDIES

  Farhad Daftary

  In its modern and scientific form, dating to the 1930s, Ismaʿili studies represents one of the newest fields of Islamic studies.

• ARMENIA i. IMAGE OF PERSIANS IN

  Robert Thomson

  In the Sasanian period Armenians developed a self-awareness as Christians against the background of their earlier Iranian social and religious culture.

• TABRIZ x. MONUMENTS x(1). The Blue Mosque

  Sandra Aube

  (Pers. Masjed-e kabud), also known as Masjed-e moẓaffariya, built during the rule of the Qarā Qoyunlu dynasty (1351-1469) and completed in 1465. The extant tilework documents artistic connections with contemporary architecture in Timurid Khorasan and in the Ottoman Empire.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAPAN vii. IRANIAN STUDIES, ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Cross-Reference

   Forthcoming, Online.

• FEMINIST MOVEMENTS i. INTRODUCTION, ii. IN THE LATE QAJAR PERIOD

  EIr, Janet Afary

  The struggle for women’s rights that began in the mid-19th century and, more specifically, on the eve of the 1905-09 Constitutional Revolution and continued to the present time has been one of the main forces for democratic change in the 20th century Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAMADĀN i. GEOGRAPHY

  Parviz Aḏkāʾi and EIr

  Hamadān is one of the western provinces of Persia, situated to the southwest of Tehran between latitudes 33°59′ and 35°48′ N and longitudes 47°34′ and 49°36′ E. The city of Hamadān is located at an altitude of 1,645 m on the eastern slope of the Alvand massif. In the National Physical Plan (Ṭarḥ-e kālbodi-e melli), which divides the country into 10 regions, the province is identified as a part of the central Zagros sub-region.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INDIA xxiii. INDIAN INFLUENCE ON PERSIAN CINEMA

  cross-reference

  See x, above.

• AFGHANISTAN viii. Archeology

  N. H. Dupree

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (1) Earliest Evidence

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  The Indo-Aryan and Iranian tribes separated about 2000 BCE., but attempts to correlate the proto-Indo-Iranians with archeological sites are all problematic.

• IRAQ iv. RELATIONS IN THE SAFAVID PERIOD

  Rudi Matthee

  Iraq was frequently the scene and the object of the intermittent wars the Ottomans and the Safavids fought in the 16th and early 17nth century.

• CENTRAL ASIA ix. In the 20th Century

  Edward Allworth

• Isfahan x. MONUMENTS (1) A Historical Survey

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

   Isfahan’s monuments developed, in the Islamic era: first, in the early medieval period under the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate and Buyid patronage. Many of the extant monuments of Isfahan, however, date to two periods in history when the city served as the capital of the ruling dynasties of the Great Saljuqs (1040-1194) and the Safavids (1501-1722).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FRANCE vii. FRENCH TRAVELERS IN PERSIA, 1600-1730

  Anne-Marie Touzard

  While the Italian cities and Spain entered into diplomatic relations with Persia at an early date, this was not true of France, despite an abortive attempt—the dispatch in 1626 of Louis Deshayes de Courmenin to the court of Shah ʿAbbās I. The early 17th century also witnessed the great missionary upsurge in France.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS iv. The Safavid Period, 1501-1732

  J. M. Rogers

• ART IN IRAN vi. PRE-ISLAMIC EASTERN IRAN AND CENTRAL ASIA

  G. Azarpay

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Italy viii. PERSIAN MANUSCRIPTS

  Paola Orsatti

  Italy houses 439 Persian manuscripts in two public archives and thirty public libraries located in fifteen different cities.

• DĀMḠĀNĪ (1)

  EIr

  nesba of a leading family of jurists of Persian origin, descendants of Abū ʿAbd-Allāh Moḥammad Kabīr (b. Dāmḡān 1007, d. Baghdad 1085), a well-known exponent of Hanafite law, who served as the chief magistrate (qāżī al-qożāt) of Baghdad.

• HAFEZ xii. HAFEZ AND THE VISUAL ARTS

  Priscilla Soucek

  The 16th century constitutes the apex in production for illustrated copies of Hafez’s Divān; they were made in several places for a range of patrons. The largest group of the illustrated Hafez manuscripts was produced in Shiraz, the most impressive among them dating to the 1580s.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Japan iii. Japanese Travelers to Persia

  Tadahiko Ohtsu and Hashem Rajabzadeh

  It was only in 1854 that relations with foreign countries were resumed. This process gathered pace with the advent of the Meiji period (1868-1912), when the Japanese were allowed to go on official visits abroad.

• AZERBAIJAN iv. Islamic History to 1941

  C. E. Bosworth

• CARPETS vi. Pre-Islamic Carpets

  Karen S. Rubinson

  Evidence for textiles of all kinds in pre-Islamic Iran is very sparse. It is necessary to supplement the few remains of actual textiles with examination of representations in art and other kinds of indirect evidence of production, for example preserved impressions and pseudomorphs from excavations.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FESTIVALS i. ZOROASTRIAN

  Mary Boyce

• GERMANY iv. Iranian studies in German: Islamic Period

  Bert G. Fragner

  Until World War I, there were only a few scholars concentrating on subjects specifically Iranian, but many Orientalists did not refrain from dealing with Iranian, particularly Persian, affairs.

• INDIA xvii. PERSIAN PRESS IN

  cross-reference

  See INDIA viii and INDIA ix. See also CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION vi and ḤABL AL-MATIN.

• JOURNALISM IN IRAN

  Negin Nabavi, Hossein Shahidi

  the collection and editing of news for presentation through the public press during the Qajar, Pahlavi, and Post-Revolutionary periods.

• AFGHANISTAN iii. Fauna

  K. Habibi

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN iv. MYTHS AND LEGENDS

  John R. Hinnells

  In the study of religion, myths are seen as narratives which encapsulate fundamental truths about the nature of existence, god(s), God(s), the universe. They explain the origin of the world or of a tribe or of a ritual.

• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 1)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

• IRAN xi. MUSIC

  Bruno Nettl

• KARAJ ii. Population

  Habibollah Zanjani

  a town in Tehran province, located 36 km west of the city of Tehran on the western bank of the Karaj River (q.v.; lat 35° 46ʹ N, long 50° 49ʹ E; elev., 1,360 m).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FRANCE viii. TRAVELOGUES OF THE 18TH-20TH CENTURIES

  Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam

• TENTS in Iran

  Multiple Authors

  A portable dwelling characteristic of certain nomad groups. It consists of a canopy of cloth or skin supported by upright posts and anchored to the ground by means of pegs and ropes.

• ISFAHAN v. LOCAL HISTORIOGRAPHY

  JÜRGEN PAUL

  Isfahan is exceptional in the number and variety of works of local historiography; no other Persian city has attracted nearly as many such works.

• ISLAM IN IRAN v. MESSIANIC ISLAM IN IRAN

  Abbas Amanat

  Messianism is one of the most powerful, diverse and enduring expressions of Islam in Iran throughout its long history.

• Greece v - vi. The Image of Persia and Persians in Greek Literature

  Reinhold Bichler and Robert Rollinger

• Italy iv. TRAVEL ACCOUNTS

  Michele Bernardini, Anna Vanzan

  Italian travel accounts represent a major source for the history of Iran, especially that of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY v. TIMURID PERIOD

  Maria Szuppe

  Timurid historiography is firmly rooted within the Persian literary tradition of official court histories of the post-Mongol period.

• HAFEZ vi. PRINTED EDITIONS OF THE DIVĀN OF HAFEZ

  Bahaʾ-al-Din Khorramshahi and EIr

  Printed editions of Hafez’s poems include partial and complete collections, non-critical and critical editions, in lithographic, calligraphic, facsimile, and typeset formats. The earliest printed editions appeared outside of Persia. The first lithograph edition was commissioned by Richard Johnson of the East India Company and published by Upjohn’s Calcutta press in 1791.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EXEGESIS viii. Nishapuri School of Quranic Exegesis

  Walid A. Saleh

  A school of Quranic exegesis was established by three scholars from Nishapur in the 11th century which transformed the genre of tafsir and Quranic sciences and came to be known as the Nishapuri School.

• INDIA xiii. INDO-IRANIAN COMMERCIAL RELATIONS

  Scott C. Levi

  Since antiquity merchants have used both caravan and maritime routes to transport commodities between India and Persia.

• BAM (1)

  W. Eilers

  (also written bām) “bass,” the lowest-pitched string in music. The etymology is discussed.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES v. QAJAR PERIOD (2)

  Mehrdad Amanat

  In the latter part of the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries there occurred a relatively widespread mass movement of Persian Jews to the Bahai community.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 5)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  The Qajar dynasty (1779-1924). The Qajar were a Turkmen tribe who first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of Armenia and were among the seven Qezelbāš tribes that supported the Safavids.

• ECONOMY i. ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

• KABUL i. GEOGRAPHY OF THE PROVINCE

  Andreas Wilde

• IRAN ix. RELIGIONS IN IRAN (1) Pre-Islamic (1.1) Overview

  Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  From the 2nd millennium BCE until Islam became dominant in Iran, a remarkable number of religious traditions existed there.

• GILĀN xiv. Ethnic Groups

  Christian Bromberger

• ISFAHAN iii. POPULATION (1) The Qajar Period

  Heidi Walcher

  Population figures for the Qajar period diverge drastically and are largely based on conjecture by European diplomats.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GILAN xvi. FOLKLORE

  Christian Bromberger

  The folklore of Gilān is a striking example of the intricate ties between pre-Islamic practices and Islamic rituals.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HERODOTUS iv. CYRUS ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS

  Robert Rollinger

  The historical past takes on clearer outline beginning with the figure of Cyrus the Great. With him the Persians too are introduced into world history.

• AFGHANISTAN i. Geography

  J. F. Shroder, Jr.

• CLOTHING xviii. Clothing of the Baluch in Persia

  Iran Ala Firouz and Mehremonīr Jahānbānī

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EGYPT ii. Egyptian influence on Persia in the Pre-Islamic period

  Philip Huyse

• INDIA ix. RELATIONS: QAJAR PERIOD, EARLY 20TH CENTURY

  Mansour Bonakdarian

  The contributions made by various non-Iranian individuals and groups to the constitutional/ nationalist cause in Persia have long been acknowledged in the historiography of the revolution.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES ii. ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Mayer I. Gruber

  The most significant chapter in the story of Jews and Judaism in Persia began 15 March 597 BCE, when King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylonia conquered Jerusalem.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BOSḤĀQ AṬʿEMA

  Heshmat Moayyad

  , FAḴR-AL-DĪN ḤALLĀJ ŠĪRĀZĪ (d. 1420s), satirical poet who used Persian culinary vocabulary and imagery and kitchen terminology to create a novel style of poetry.

• ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS ii. Qajar period

  F. Kazemzadeh

  Before the 19th century Anglo-Iranian relations were sporadic. Periods of engagement alternated with decades of disengagement. After the death of Karīm Khan Zand (1193/1779) contacts between Britain and Iran diminished and were maintained with regularity only in the Persian Gulf as the center of government authority moved north.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (1) Pre-Islamic Times

  Ehsan Yarshater

  This section provides a concise introduction to the history of Iran from its beginnings to modern times. The generally recognized periods of the country’s history are reviewed, and some of the major motifs or themes in the politics or culture of the various periods are discussed.

• ʿEBRAT, Sayyed MOḤAMMAD-QĀSEM

  Munibur Rahman

  author of ʿEbrat-nāma, a history of the reigns of Awrangzēb’s successors to 1723.

• EDUCATION x. MIDDLE AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk

  Modern secondary education in Persia was originally based on the 19th-century European humanistic system, focused on general knowledge and building character rather than on professional or vocational training. This philosophy dominated the Persian system until the 1960s, when reforms were introduced by American advisers.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAHAISM v. The Bahai Community in Iran

  V. Rafati

  With the Declaration of the Bāb in 1844, followed by his being accepted as the promised Qāʾem (the Hidden Imam) by a handful of early believers, the first Babi community was born in the city of Shiraz.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN vii. Visual Arts Training Center

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  In the beginning, each artistic training program was independent, and the subjects were not coordinated under an overall artistic training management.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FRANCE vi. PERSIA AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

  Mohammad Tavakoli-Targhi

• CERAMICS x. The Iron Age

  Robert C. Henrickson

• Isfahan xix. JEWISH DIALECT

  Donald Stilo

  The dialect spoken by the Jews of Isfahan belongs to the Central Dialect group. The original speech form of the city of Isfahan was probably very similar to it.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CENTRAL ASIA ii. Demography

  Richard H. Rowland

• CLOTHING xiii. Clothing in Afghanistan

  Nancy Hatch Dupree

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EGYPT viii. Egyptian cultural influence in Persia, modern times

  E. Yarshater

• HAFEZ i. AN OVERVIEW

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Hafez is the most popular of Persian poets. Many of his lines have become proverbial sayings, and there are few who cannot recite some of his lyrics.

• BAHMAN (1)

  J. Narten, Ph. Gignoux

  the New Persian name of the Avestan Vohu Manah (Good Thought) and Pahlavi Wahman.

• BRONZE ii. In Islamic Iran

  James W. Allan

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GEORGIA vii. Georgians in the Safavid Administration

  Rudi Matthee

• INDIA i. Introduction

  Christopher J. Brunner

  This entry presents a series of survey articles on selected areas of interaction and mutual influence between the two culture areas, including overviews of the enormous body of literature produced in India in the Persian language.

• BORŪJERDĪ, ḤOSAYN ṬABĀṬABĀʾĪ

  Hamid Algar

  , AYATOLLAH ḤĀJJ ĀQĀ (1875-1961), director (zaʿīm) of the religious teaching institution (ḥawza) at Qom Qom for seventeen years and sole marjaʿ-e taqlīd of the Shiʿite world for fifteen years.

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (7) Turkic Languages

  Gernot Windfuhr

  In Iran, there are two distinct branches of Turkic: Oghuz Turkic languages and dialects that represent the southwestern branch of Turkic, and Khalaj, which presents a tiny branch of its own.

• EDUCATION ix. PRIMARY SCHOOLS

  Sayyed ʿAlī Āl-e Dāwūd

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KARABALGASUN i. The Site

  Toshio Hayashi

  archeological site of a capital of the Uighur Khaghanate (second half of the 8th century to first half of the 9th century).

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN ii. Libraries

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  an institute with a wide range of cultural, artistic, and educational activities for children and adolescents, founded under the patronage of Queen (Shahbanou) Farah Pahlavi in December 1965.

• FRANCE i. Introduction

  Jean Calmard

• CERAMICS v. The Chalcolithic Period in Southern Persia

  Thomas W. Beale

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xv. EDUCATION AND CULTURAL AFFAIRS

  Maryam Borjian and Habib Borjian

  Isfahan is distinguished among Persian cities not only for its size, centrality, position in a riverain plain, and numerous historical monuments, but also for the idiosyncratic characteristic of its inhabitants.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Great Britain vii. British Travelers to Persia

  Denis Wright

• CLOTHING vi. Of the Sogdians

  Aleksandr Naymark

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HORMOZD I

  M. RAHIM SHAYEGAN

  Sasanian great king (r. 272-73 CE), the throne name of Šāpur I’s son and and successor, Hormozd-Ardašēr.

• FĀRS vi. Population

  Habib Zanjani

  The province of Fārs is the largest and the most populous province in the south of Persia. In the  national census of 1996, it was composed of 16 counties (šahrestāns), comprising a total of 60 districts (baḵš), 48 towns (šahr), and 185 village clusters (dehestān).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GEORGIA ii. History of Iranian-Georgian Relations

  Keith Hitchins

  Between the Achaemenid era and the beginning of the 19th century, Persia played a significant and at times decisive role in the history of the Georgian people. The Persian presence helped to shape political institutions, modified social structure and land holding, and enriched literature and culture. Persians also acted as a counterweight to other powerful forces in the region.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BĀḴTAR (2)

  N. Parvīn

  name of an educational magazine (Isfahan, 1933-35) and a political newspaper (Isfahan and Tehran, 1935-45).

• GĪLĀN vii. History in the 19th century

  EIr and Reza Rezazadeh Langaroudi

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CYRUS v. The Tomb of Cyrus

  Antigoni Zournatzi

  The tomb of Cyrus is generally identified with a small stone monument approximately 1 km southwest of the palaces of Pasargadae, in the center of the Morḡāb plain. According to Greek sources, the tomb of Cyrus II 559-29 B.C.E.) was located in the royal park at Pasargadae.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (4) Urartian

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Urartian was most likely the dominant vernacular around Lake Van and the upper Zab valley. It was written from the late ninth to seventh century BCE in the empire of Urartu.

• AZERBAIJAN vii. The Iranian Language of Azerbaijan

  E. Yarshater

• ARDAŠĪR B. DAYLAMSOPĀR

  cross-reference

  See ABU’L-ḤAYJĀ NAJMĪ.

• KANDAHAR vi. 20th Century, 1901-73

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• Isfahan xii. BAZAAR: PLAN AND FUNCTION

  Willem Floor

  The bazaar of Isfahan is one of the best-preserved examples of the kind of large, enclosed, and covered bazaar complex that was typical of most cities in the Muslim world prior to the 20th century. The oldest areas of the present-day bazaar date from the early 17th century; its first stone was laid in 1603.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CYRUS iv. The Cyrus cylinder

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

• GREAT BRITAIN ii. An Overview of Relations: Safavid to the Present

  Denis Wright

• ISMAʿILISM iii. ISMAʿILI HISTORY

  Farhad Daftary

  On the death of Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādeq in 148/765 his followers from among the Imami Shiʿites split into six groups, of which two may be identified as proto-Ismaʿilis or earliest Ismaʿilis.

• CLOTHING i. General remarks

  EIr

• HELL ii. Islamic Period

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  Duzaḵ and jahannam are the terms commonly used in Persian for hell.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS vii. In the Qajar period

  Abbas Amanat

• BAHRĀM (1)

  G. Gnoli, P. Jamzadeh

  the Old Iranian god of victory, Avestan Vərəθraγna (“smiting of resistance”);  Middle Persian Warahrān, frequently used as a male proper name.

• FEMINIST MOVEMENTS iv. IN THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC

  Ziba Mir-Hosseini

  After the Revolution of 1978-79, “feminism,” because of its associations with the West and its appropriation by the previous regime, soon became viewed by the ruling clerics as synonymous with decadence.

• HAMADĀN iii. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

  The city of Hamadān lies at the extreme northwest of the series of major urban sites stretching along the line of contact between the Zagros range and the central plateau.

• GĪLĀN ii. Population

  Habibollah Zanjani

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFGHANISTAN x. Political History

  D. Balland

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿARAB ii. Arab conquest of Iran

  M. Morony

• IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (3) Writing Systems

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  Writing systems for Iranian languages include cuneiform (Old Persian); scripts descended from “imperial” Aramaic, two Syriac scripts, Hebrew, Arabic, Greek, Cyrillic, Georgian, and Latin.

• AZERBAIJAN i. Geography

  X. de Planhol

• KANDAHAR i. Historical Geography to 1979

  Xavier de Planhol

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAQ vi. PAHLAVI PERIOD, 1921-79

  Mohsen M. Milani

  Relations between Iran and Iraq underwent three different phases between 1921, when Britain installed Faysal Ibn Hossein as king of a newly formed nation-state of Iraq and 1979, when the Pahlavi dynasty was swept away by revolution.

• CENTRAL ASIA xi. Economy from the Timurids until the 18th Century

  Robert D. McChesney

• Isfahan x. Monuments (3) Mosques

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

  Isfahan is known historically for its large number of mosques. According to Abu Noʿaym of Isfahan, the first large mosque in Isfahan was built during the Caliphate of Imam ʿAli b. Abi Ṭāleb (r. 656-61). The French traveler Jean Chardin counted 162 mosques during his travels to Isfahan in the middle of the 17th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vii. Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T’ang, Sung, and Yuan Dynasties

  Chen Da-Sheng

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ART IN IRAN viii. ISLAMIC CENTRAL ASIA

  G. A. Pugachenkova

• BAMPUR ia. PREHISTORIC SITE (Continued)

  Daniel T. Potts

  Since Beatrice de Cardi’s excavations at Bampur in 1966 (de Cardi, 1968; idem, 1970) no new work has taken place there. Nevertheless, objects recovered at Bampur in the 1960s can now be better dated and understood, thanks to discoveries in recent

• CARPETS viii. The Il-khanid and Timurid Periods

  Eleanor Sims

  Persian carpets that can be indisputably identified a having been produced in the 8-9th/14-15th centuries are virtually nonexistent. That carpets were used and produced in Persia  has  been inferred from written sources, both contemporary and slightly earlier. The existence of carpets and weavings from contemporary Anatolia and the Turkman tribal confederations, and possibly also from Egypt and even Spain, also permits the inference.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FESTIVALS iii, iv, v

  Anne H. Betteridge and EIr, Philip G. Kreyenbroek, Keith Hitchins

  iii. SHI'ITE, iv. YAZIDI AND AHL-E HAQQ, v. KURDISH (SUNNI).

• GERMANY vi. Collections and Study of Persian Art in Germany

  Jens Kröger

  Until the 19th century, Persian works of art entered collections in Germany by mere chance. From then on, works of art from all periods of Persian history were collected systematically to acquire knowledge of the world and to educate and inspire artists and craftsmen. Collecting, exhibiting, and studying Persian art reached an unprecedented scale in the 20th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INDIA xx. PERSIAN INFLUENCES ON INDIAN PAINTING

  Barbara Schmitz

  Between about 1300 and 1600, Persian painting styles had a sustained impact on the Indian art at the Sultanate and Mughal courts as well as on Hindu painting styles. The earliest dated manuscripts from the subcontinent that rely on Persian models for some of their motifs are from the late 14th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFGHANISTAN v. Languages

  Ch. M. Kieffer

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (2) Pre-Islamic

  C. J. Brunner

  This survey focuses on the early phase of the Iranian-speaking peoples’ presence on the plateau, during the early state-building phase.

• ECONOMY vii. FROM THE SAFAVIDS THROUGH THE ZANDS

  Bert Fragner

• CENTRAL ASIA vi. In the 16th-18th Centuries

  Robert D. McChesney

  In the 16th-17th centuries Central Asia, includ­ing Transoxania, Greater Balḵ, and Ḵᵛārazm, witnessed a neo-Chingizid (Jochid) political revival, spearheaded by the ʿArabshahid/Shibanid (Shaibanid) lineage in Ḵᵛārazm and the Abulkhairid/Shibanid and Toqay-Timurid lines in Transoxania and Greater Balḵ. In the main, political life was shaped by the neo-Chingizid appanage system of state and its internal dynamic.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISFAHAN vii. SAFAVID PERIOD

  Masashi Haneda and Rudi Matthee

  Isfahan came under Safavid rule in 1503 following Shah Esmāʿil’s defeat of Solṭān Morād, the Āq Qoyunlu ruler of Erāq-e ʿAjam, near Hamadān.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS i. In Pre-Islamic Times

  Edwin G. Pulleyblank

• ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM

  Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi

  Mahdism in Twelver Shiʿism inherited many of its elements from previous religious trends.

• ART IN IRAN iv. PARTHIAN Art

  S. B. Downey

• Greece viii. Greek Art in Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Northwest India

  Claude Rapin

  The emergence of Greek art as a phenomenon following the expedition of Alexander the Great was a major cultural event in Central Asia and India. Its effects were felt for almost a thousand years, down to the early Islamic period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Italy v. IRANIAN STUDIES, PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Carlo G. Cereti

  Although Italian contacts with Iran date from ancient times, scientific interest in pre-Islamic Iran cannot be traced earlier than the second half of the eighteenth century.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY vii. AFSHARID AND ZAND PERIODS

  Ernest Tucker

  Persian historical writing in the 18th century reflected the profound changes that occurred in Iran after the1722 Afghan conquest of Isfahan.

• HAFEZ ix. HAFEZ AND MUSIC

  Franklin Lewis

  The poetics of Hafez, perhaps more so than many Persian poets, depends on a sensuality of language and imagery. Smell, taste, texture, color and certainly sound imagery abound.

• GILĀN xxi. Cooking

  Christian Bromberger

  Eating habits and culinary preparations in Gilān have several distinct characteristics. In this rice-producing region, the consumption of rice is much higher than elsewhere in Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GEOGRAPHY ii. Human geography

  Xavier de Planhol

• CARPETS i. Introductory survey

  Roger Savory

• MANDAEANS iv. COMMUNITY IN IRAN

  Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley

  According to the 15 September 2004 United States Department of State International Religious Freedom Report for Iran, Section 1, the current Mandaean population in Persia comprises between 5,000 and 10,000 persons.

• GERMANY i. German-Persian diplomatic relations

  Oliver Bast

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. German-Persian diplomatic relations, ii. Archeological excavations and studies, iii. Iranian studies in German: Pre-Islamic period, iv. Iranian studies in German: Islamic period, v. German travelers and explorers in Persia, vi. Collections and study of Persian art in Germany, vii. Persia in German literature, viii. German cultural influence in Persia, ix. Germans in Persia, x. The Persian community in Germany.

• INDIA xix. INDIAN LITERARY INFLUENCES ON PERSIAN LITERATURE

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES vii. THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC

  Cross-Reference

  See forthcoming online.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (3) Chronological Table

  Ehsan Yarshater

   A chronological table of events. This records major happenings of Iranian pre-history and history from the most ancient times to 2005.

• ABU MUSĀ i - ii

  E. Ehlers

  island in the Persian Gulf.

• ECONOMY iii. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

• KABUL ii. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

  Before the period of war and unrest in Afghanistan that started in 1978, almost all the functions concerned with governing the country and directing its international relations were concentrated in Kabul. This primacy among Afghan cities is due to an exceptionally favorable geographical site.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN ix. RELIGIONS IN IRAN (2) Islam in Iran (2.1) The Advent of Islam

  Hamid Algar

  Persian acquaintance with Islam began already in the time of the Prophet. Well known is the case of Salmān-e Fārsi, the Persian companion of the Prophet around whom many legends have been spun.

• EDUCATION xvi. SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk and EIr

• ḴĀQĀNI ŠERVĀNI i. Life

  Anna Livia Beelaert

  (1127-1186/1199), major Persian poet and prose writer.

• ISFAHAN iii. POPULATION (3) Isfahan City

  Habibollah Zanjani

  The city of Isfahan is the capital of Isfahan Province (ostān) and Sub-province (šahrestān) and the center of the Isfahan comprehensive regional planning complex.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HERODOTUS vi. DARIUS ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS

  Robert Rollinger

  Herodotus connects the beginning of Darius’s reign with a deep break in the history of Persian royalty. He describes the rule of the Magus and palace administrator Patizeithes as an attempt at usurpation.

• Greece ii. Greco-Persian Cultural Relations

  Margaret C. Miller

  This article is addresses the evidence for receptivity to Persian culture in Greece, the North Aegean, and West Anatolia, including receptivity on the part of the non-Greek peoples of these regions.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Italy i. INTRODUCTION

  Carlo G. Cereti

  Direct relations between the Italian peninsula and the Iranian plateau date at least from the Parthian period,  when the border between the Arsacids and the Roman Empire was set on the Euphrates.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY ii. PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  A. SH. Shahbazi

  Iranian historiography remained unaffected by the Herodotean school and developed from oral traditions and the Mesopotamian-style “quasi-history,” which embellished historical narratives.

• CLOTHING xxii. Clothing of the Caspian area

  Christian Bromberger

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAFEZ iii. HAFEZ’S POETIC ART

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  Perhaps the greatest progress in research on Hafez during the past century has been made in the domain of philology. Critical editions have been published which begin to provide a reliable basis for the study of Hafez’s poetry.

• AMLAŠ i. Geography

  Marcel Bazin

  small town and district in southeastern Gilān (q.v.)

• SACRIFICE i. IN ZOROASTRIANISM

  William W. Malandra

• MANDAEANS iii. INTERACTION WITH IRANIAN RELIGION

  Kurt Rudolph

  iii. INTERACTION WITH IRANIAN RELIGION

• INDIA vi. Political and Cultural Relations (13th-18th centuries)

  Richard M. Eaton

  Relations between peoples of the Iranian plateau and India were extensive and uninterrupted between the 13th and 18th centuries. Migration, commerce, and politics all led to a range of cross-regional influences.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES iv. MEDIEVAL TO LATE 18TH CENTURY

  Vera Basch Moreen

  The Arab conquest of Iran (636 CE) and the end of the 18th century are convenient, if artificial, dates to demarcate the “Middle Ages” in a diachronic approach to the history of the Jews in Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 2)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Formation of local dynasties. The Taherids (821-73). The first of these dynasties came into being when Ṭāher b. Ḥosayn was appointed the governor of Khorasan with full power.

• IRAN viii. PERSIAN LITERATURE (1) Pre-Islamic

  Philip Huyse

  Iranian “literature” was for a long time essentially of oral nature as far as composition, performance, and transmission are concerned.

• EDUCATION xii. VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

  Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAHAISM vii. Bahai Persecutions

  D. M. MacEoin

  Bahai persecutions were a pattern of continuing discriminatory measures against adherents and institutions of the Bahai religion, punctuated by outbreaks of both random and organized violence.

• ISFAHAN i. GEOGRAPHY

  EIr, Xavier de Planhol

  (1) Geography of the province. (2) Geography of the oasis. Isfahan Province is situated in central Persia between the massive central Zagros mountain range and the great desert.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CERAMICS xii. The Parthian and Sasanian Periods

  Remy Boucharlat and Ernie Haerinck

• Isfahan xxi. PROVINCIAL DIALECTS

  Donald Stilo

  The Iranian languages of Isfahan Province are of three basic types: Northwest Iranian dialects belonging to the Central Plateau Dialect group, and two different types of Southwest Iranian  languages: slightly divergent dialects of Persian, but intelligible to the standard language, and  large pockets of Lori.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HERODOTUS i. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORIES

  Robert Rollinger

  Philologists of Hellenistic times divided Herodotus’s opus magnuminto nine books and subdivided these into chapters.

• CENTRAL ASIA iv. In the Islamic Period up to the Mongols

  C. Edmund Bosworth

• CLOTHING xv. Clothing of Tajikistan

  Guzel’ Maĭtdinova

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FĀRS

  Multiple Authors

  province in southern Persia.

• EGYPT vi. Artistic relations with Persia in the Islamic period

  Jonathan M. Bloom

  Although direct evidence of artistic links between Persia and Egypt before the Mongol invasion of the Near East in the 13th century is limited, surviving works of art suggest that transfer of artistic ideas resulted from the movement of artisans and their works, rather than from the specific demand of patrons.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BESṬĀMĪ, ŠEHĀB-AL-DĪN

  Hamid Algar

  [Basṭāmī], SHAIKH (d. 1405), a Sufi of Herat during the Timurid period.

• INDIA iii. RELATIONS: ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Pierfrancesco Callieri

  The conquest by Darius I of the territories of the Indian subcontinent west of the Indus for the first time created a clear relationship between India and Iran.

• SALJUQS v. SALJUQID LITERATURE

  Daniela Meneghini

  The term ‘Saljuqid literature’is used here to refer to literary works in Persian produced between 432/1040 and 617/1220.

• EDUCATION vi. THE MADRASA IN SUNNI KURDISTAN

  ʿAbd-Allāh Mardūḵ

• BAHAISM ii. Bahai Calendar and Festivals

  A. Banani

  The notion of renewal of time, implicit in most religious dispensations, is made explicit in the writings of the Bāb and Bahāʾ-Allāh.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN iv. International Film Festivals

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  Kanun organized its first international film festival for children (Noḵostin festivāl-e bayn-al-melali-e filmhā-ye kudakān o nowjavānān) in 1966, its first official year.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FRANCE iii. RELATIONS WITH PERSIA 1789-1918

  Florence Hellot-Bellier

• CERAMICS vii. The Bronze Age in Northwestern, Western, and Southwestern Persia

  Robert C. Henrickson

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xvii. ARMENIAN COMMUNITY

  Cross-Reference

  See JULFA.

• CYRUS ii. Cyrus I

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

• CLOTHING ix. In the Mongol and Timurid periods

  Eleanor Sims

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HORMOZD III

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  Sasanian great king (r. 457-59 C.E.). He was the eldest son and heir of Yazdegerd II and “was king of Sejestān" (Ṭabari).

• FĀRS viii. Dialects

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Local variants of Persian are found in most cities and towns and their vicinities, and, rurally, mainly in the northeastern parts of the region, all of which tend to reflect a good deal of the vocabulary and idiomatic features of the earlier non-Persian dialects.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MANDAEANS i. HISTORY

  Edmondo F. Lupieri

  an ethnic group (also called Nasoreans or Ar. Ṣābeʾin) belonging to one of the less represented religions of the Near East.

• GEORGIA iv. Literary contacts with Persia

  Aleksandre Gvakharia

  The tribes of Georgia had a well-established and vast literary tradition and folklore long before the Christian era. None of the pre-Christian Georgian literary works have survived, however. Christianity became established in Georgia as an official religion at the beginning of the 4th century, and in the 5th century the first surviving literary work was created.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GĪLĀN x. LANGUAGES

  Donald Stilo

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EDUCATION ii. IN THE PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

• CERAMICS ii. The Neolithic Period in Northwestern Persia

  Mary M. Voigt

  The initial occupation of Persian Azerbaijan by farming groups took place in the second half of the 7th millennium B.C.E. The best known site of this period is Hajji Firuz (Ḥājī Fīrūz) Tepe, located in the Ošnū-­Soldūz valley and approximately contemporary with Hasanlu X (ca. 6000-5000 B.C.E.). 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xiv. MODERN ECONOMY AND INDUSTRIES

  Habib Borjian

  This sub-section is divided into the following parts: (1) Modern Economy of the Province; (2) Industries of Isfahan City.

• CYRUS i. The Name

  Rüdiger Schmitt

• GREAT BRITAIN iv. British influence in Persia, 1900-21

  Mansour Bonakdarian

• CLOTHING iii. In the Arsacid period

  Trudi Kawami

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AMLAŠ ii. Excavations

  R. H. Dyson

  small village in southeastern Gilān which, since 1959, has given its name to a large assortment of archeological artifacts derived from illegal, clandestine excavations in the nearby valleys of the Alborz range.

• HAJIABAD

  Philippe Gignoux, EIr

  (Ḥājiābād), site of bilingual inscription of Šāpur I on the wall of a cave near Persepolis. OVERVIEW of the entry: i. The Inscriptions. ii. The Texts.

• HAMADĀN v - vi. HISTORY, ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Parviz Aḏkāʾi

  Hamadān was captured by the Arabs after their victory at the battle of Nehāvand, which took place in 640 or 642. The Arab army besieged the town and eventually conquered it for the second time in 22/642.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GĪLĀN iv. History in the Early Islamic Period

  Wilferd Madelung

• INDIA xxv. MUTUAL MYSTICAL INFLUENCES

  cross-reference

  See under SUFISM.

• ʿARAB iv. Arab tribes of Iran

  P. Oberling and B. Hourcade

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (2) In Pre-Islamic Iran

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Of the three known pre-Islamic languages (Urartian, Kassite, and Elamite), only Urartian and Elamite are fairly well known.

• AZERBAIJAN iii. Pre-Islamic History

  K. Schippmann

• KANDAHAR iii. Early Islamic Period

  Minoru Inaba

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• IRAQ viii. THE SHIʿITE SHRINE CITIES OF IRAQ

  cross-reference

  See ʿATABĀT.

• CENTRAL ASIA xiii. Iranian Languages

  Ivan M. Steblin-Kamenskij

• Isfahan x. Monuments (5) Bridges

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

  On the southern edge of the city of Isfahan lies the Zāyandarud River, the unnavigable river that has been the major source of water in the region since the earliest settlements in its environs. Until the transfer of the Safavid capital to Isfahan in the late 16th century, the river was well outside the city walls.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAPAN vi. IRANIAN STUDIES IN JAPAN, PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Takeshi Aoki

  Ancient Iranian studies in Japan started at the beginning of the 20th century in Tokyo and Kyoto independently.

• HAMADĀN

  various authors

  province, governorship, and city located in the Zagros region of western Persia.

• INDIA xxii. PERSIAN INFLUENCE ON INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

  cross-reference

  See DECCAN ii; DELHI SULTANATE ii; GARDEN iii; HYDERABAD ii.

• AFGHANISTAN vii. Parāčī

  G. Morgenstierne

• IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  The term “Iranian language” is applied to any language which is descended from a proto-Iranian parent language (unattested by texts) spoken, presumably, in Central Asia in the late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BCE.

• IRAQ ii - iii. FROM THE MONGOLS TO THE SAFAVIDS

  ʿAbbās Zaryāb

  The Mongol capture of Baghdad in 1258 came at a time when Persian influence was on the rise but the city as a whole in decline.

• CENTRAL ASIA viii. Relations with Persia in the 19th Century

  Abbas Amanat

• ISFAHAN x. MONUMENTS

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

  According to the French traveler Jean Chardin, in the late 17th century Isfahan housed some 162 mosques, 48 theological colleges (madrasa), 1,802 caravansaries, and 273 bathhouses.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS iii. In the Mongol Period

  Liu Yingsheng and Peter Jackson

• ART IN IRAN v. SASANIAN ART

  P. O. Harper

• Italy vii. IRANIAN STUDIES, ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Mario Casari

  The earliest known references to Persia by Italian writers are gleaned from numerous notes in the oldest medieval travel accounts, dating from the 13th century onwards.

• GILAN xvii. Gender Relations

  Christian Bromberger

  The division of activities and spaces between the sexes is quite distinct in the province of Gilan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAFEZ xi. TRANSLATIONS OF HAFEZ IN GERMAN

  Hamid Tafazoli

  The name of Hafez is closely associated with that of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in German literature. This is directly attributable to the status Goethe accords Hafez in his West-West-östlicher Divan (1819).

• JAPAN ii. Diplomatic and Commercial Relations with Iran

  Nobuaki Kondo

  Although it is not clear when Iran initiated diplomatic contact with Japan, it is believed to have been in 1873, when Nāṣer-al-Din Shah, on his first trip to Europe, met Naonobu Sameshima of Satsuma, who was the then Japanese ambassador to Paris, France. The shah did not include many details about the meeting in his memoir.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GEOGRAPHY iv. Cartography of Persia

  CYRUS ALAI

  The world’s oldest known topographical map is a Babylonian clay tablet (ca. 2300 B.C.E.) found at Nuzi in northeastern Iraq. It is a relatively advanced picture map, showing two ranges of hills, as seen from the side, and the rivers they flank, by a series of parallel lines. The site covered by this map may have lain between the Zagros mountains and the hills running through Kirkuk.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BĀJ (1)

  A. V. Williams

  a principal Zoroastrian observance meaning primarily “utterance of consecration;” reference to bāj has been current in Mazdean literature since at least Sasanian times,

• CARPETS v. Flat-woven carpets: Techniques and structures

  Sarah B. Sherrill

  Most of the structures in Persian flat-woven carpets belong to the category called “interlacing” by textile specialists; the term designates the most straightforward way in which each thread of a fabric passes under or over threads that cross its path.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GERMANY iii. Iranian studies in German: Pre-Islamic period

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  This contribution aims at presenting an overview of the studies on all aspects of the culture of pre-Islamic Iran as conducted by German, Austrian, and Swiss scholars.

• INDIA xvi. INDO-PERSIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

  Stephen F. Dale

  Historical works in Persian began to appear in India in the era of the Delhi Sultanate during the late 13th to 14th centuries.

• AFGHANISTAN ii. Flora

  M. Šafīq Yūnos

• IRAN iii. TRADITIONAL HISTORY

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Before assimilating the results of European research on Persian history, the Iranians were in possession of a historical tradition that combined a mixture of myth, legend, and factual history.

• KABUL iv. URBAN POLITICS SINCE ẒĀHER SHAH

  Daniel E. Esser

  The first master plan marked an important attempt to reorganize the spatial structure of the city. A first revision was authorized in 1971.

• IRAN ix. RELIGIONS IN IRAN (2) Islam in Iran (2.3) Shiʿism in Iran Since the Safavids

  Hamid Algar

  The Safavids originated as a hereditary lineage of Sufi shaikhs centered on Ardabil, Shafeʿite in school and probably Kurdish in origin. Their immediate following was concentrated in Azerbaijan.

• EDUCATION xviii. TEACHERS’-TRAINING SCHOOLS

  Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾ ī

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KARAJ i. Modern City

  Bernard Hourcade

  a town in Tehran province, located 36 km west of the city of Tehran on the western bank of the Karaj River (q.v.; lat 35° 46ʹ N, long 50° 49ʹ E; elev., 1,360 m).

• ISFAHAN iv. PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  J. Hansman and EIr

  The Arab geographers  report that the Sasanian city of Isfahan comprised two adjoining towns: Jayy, the fortified town and province center and, two miles (mil) away, Yahudiya, a Jewish settlement.

• ART IN IRAN ii. Median Art and Architecture

  P. Calmeyer

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HERODOTUS viii. MARDONIUS ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS

  Robert Rollinger

  After Xerxes’ retreat, Mardonius prepared his offensive on land. He also wanted the higher powers to be on his side.

• Greece iv. Greek Influence on Persian Thought

  Mansour Shaki

• Italy iii. CULTURAL RELATIONS

  Mario Casari

  Italy and Persia have hardly ever had a direct and continuous cultural exchange.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY iv. MONGOL PERIOD

  Charles Melville

  Persian historiography reached its maturity during the period of 13th-15th centuries, which might broadly be described as the Turko-Mongol era.

• CLOTHING xxv. Clothing of the Baḵtīārīs and other Lori speaking tribes

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  Members of the Lori-speaking ethnic groups, including the Lors themselves, the Baḵtīārīs, and the Boīr-Aḥmadīs are characterized by similar styles of dress, with variations reflecting differences in tribe and social class of the wearer, variations that can have strong symbolic meaning, particularly among the Baḵtīārīs.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABU MUSĀ iii

  Guive Mirfendereski

  (Bu Musā), a small island in the eastern Persian Gulf (25°52′ N, 55°2′ E).

• HAFEZ v. MANUSCRIPTS OF HAFEZ

  Julie Scott Meisami

  A major concern of 20th-century Hafez scholarship has been the establishment of a reliable text of his poems.

• INDIA viii. RELATIONS: QAJAR PERIOD, THE 19TH CENTURY

  Mansour Bonakdarian

   By the time of Āqā Moḥammad Khan’s founding of the Qajar dynasty in 1796, Persia’s diplomatic relations with the Mughal empire and other territories in the Indian subcontinent were gradually passing under the supervision of British authorities in India.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 4)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  The Safavids (1501-1722). The advent of the Safavids constitutes one of the major turning points in Persian history.

• MEDICINE i. INTRODUCTION OF WESTERN MEDICINE TO IRAN

  Shireen Mahdavi

  Western medicine was introduced to Iran by European physicians who began to arrive there from early nineteenth century onwards.

• IRAN viii. PERSIAN LITERATURE (3) Modern

  Cross-Reference

  See FICTION.

• EDUCATION xiv. SPECIAL SCHOOLS

  Samineh Baghchehban-Pirnazar

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GILĀN xiii. Kinship and Marriage

  Christian Bromberger

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISFAHAN iii. POPULATION

  Heidi Walcher, Habibollah Zanjani

  Isfahan’s population size from the Safavid through the Qajar periods, as reported by European travelers and diplomats, remained largely a matter of speculation.

• HERODOTUS iii. DEFINING THE PERSIANS

  Robert Rollinger

  In the Histories the Persians are sometimes not exactly distinguishable from other peoples of their empire, especially when the Greeks’ opponents are simply qualified as “Persians.” The Persians generally are run together with the Medes.

• CLOTHING xvii. Clothing of the Kurdish Jews

  Ora Shwartz-Beeri

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GYPSY ii. Gypsy Dialects

  Gernot L. Windfuhr

  The languages and dialects popularly called “Gypsy” (< Egipcien < qebṭi “Coptic, Egyptian”) constitute three major groups: Asiatic or Middle Eastern Domari, Armenian Lomavren, and European Romani.

• FĀRS iii. History in the Islamic Period

  A. K. S. Lambton

  Although the Arabs did not take over the Sasanian system of quadrants, they kept the division of Fārs into five kūras, a division which continued until the 6th/12th century. Shiraz, a continuously inhabited site which may go back to Sasanian or even earlier times, became and has remained the provincial capital.

• EGYPT iii. Relations in the Seleucid and Parthian periods

  Heinz Heinen

• INDIA iv. RELATIONS: SELEUCID, PARTHIAN, SASANIAN PERIODS

  Pierfrancesco Callieri

  Seleucus I (d. 281 BCE) led an expedition to India (Matelli, 1987) ca. 305 B.C.E. It ended, however, with the cession of  territories to a new Indian king, Candragupta Maurya.

• EGYPT v. Political And Commercial Relations In The Islamic Period

  Cross-reference

  See under FATIMIDS,; AYYUBIDS; IL-KHANIDS DYNASTY.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES i. INTRODUCTION

  Houman Sarshar

  Jewish communities have been living upon the Persian plateau since ca. 721 BCE, when King Sargon II (r. 721-705 BCE) relocated large communities of conquered Israelites.

• ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS i. Safavid to Zand Periods

  R. W. Ferrier

  English interest in Persia during this period is almost exclusively concerned with trade and has almost nothing to do with political relations. Relations arose as the result of a failure to trade eastwards through Russia and Central Asia in the mid-16th century by merchants of the Russia Company, which, though formed in London on 26 February 1555, had already dispatched their first voyage of three ships by the northeastern route round Russia on 18 May 1553.

• IRAN i. LANDS OF IRAN

  Xavier de Planhol

  This article intends to examine the relationship between Iranian culture and its natural environment.

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (9) Arabic

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Most extensive was the Arab settlement in eastern Iran and Greater Khorasan (including northwestern Afghanistan, and Central Asia, including Marv and Bukhara).

• EDUCATION viii. NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS

  Tūrān Mīrhādī

  The beginnings of formalized preschool education in Persia can be traced back to ca. 1891, when Armenians in Jolfā, near Isfahan, founded a kindergarten, which continues to function today. By 1919 there were a few kindergartens in Tehran and other cities, primarily founded by missionaries and minority groups.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GEORGIA i. The land and the people

  Keith Hitchins

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAHAISM iv. The Bahai Communities

  P. Smith

  The development of the Bahai faith has been accompanied by a massive transformation of the religion’s social base. From being a religion predominantly composed of those of Iranian Shiʿite background, it has become a worldwide movement.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GILĀN xi. Irrigation

  Christian Bromberger

  In the rice-growing regions of the Caspian hinterland, water requirements are considerable and irrigation requires careful organization. It is estimated that one hectare of rice, on average,  requires 12,400 cubic meters of water. To meet this demand various techniques are used, depending on the micro climate of the area and the resources available.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN vi. Music and Sound Production

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  In 1967, Kanun produced only one storytelling phonograph record. Regular music and sound production did not begin until 1971.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FRANCE v. ADMINISTRATIVE AND MILITARY CONTACTS WITH PERSIA

  Massoud Farnoud

• CERAMICS ix. The Bronze Age in Northeastern Persia

  Serge Cleuziou

• Isfahan xviii. JEWISH COMMUNITY

  Amnon Netzer

  The beginning of the Jewish settlement in Isfahan is mixed with legends, but there are fragmentary source materials that enable us to reconstruct the major historical events concerning it.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CENTRAL ASIA i. Geographical Survey

  EIr

• CLOTHING xi. In the Pahlavi and post-Pahlavi periods

  ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN ii. Libraries

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  A children’s library, conceived by the founders of Kanun as a pilot project for future libraries, was approved, and construction began in 1965.

• HORMOZD V

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  Sasanian great king (r. 630-32 CE) in the turbulent years following the murder of Ḵosrow II Parvēz (628).

• BAHMAN (3)

  cross-reference

  author of Qeṣṣa-ye Sanjān, q.v.

• GEORGIA vi. Iranian studies and collections in Georgia

  Keith Hitchins

• WEIGHTS AND MEASURES i. PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  A. D. H. Bivar

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (6) in Islamic Iran

  Gernot Windfuhr

  The non-Iranian languages spoken today in Iran include members of the following language families: (1) Altaic, (2) Afro-Asiatic Semitic, (3) Indo-European, (4) Caucasian (5) Dravidian.

• EDUCATION iv. THE MEDIEVAL MADRASA

  Christopher Melchert

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN i. Establishment of Kanun

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  Kanun’s goal was to produce and offer support and services for children in better settings than the grim and austere school classrooms.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĪ TABRĪZĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  (or MĪR ʿALĪ TABRĪZĪ), 8th/14th century calligrapher who is often credited with the invention of the nastaʿlīq script.

• CERAMICS iv. The Chalcolithic Period in the Zagros Highlands

  Elizabeth F. Henrickson

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xiv. MODERN ECONOMY AND INDUSTRIES (2) Isfahan City

  Habib Borjian

  The stagnation experienced after the fall of the Safavids was even more marked in the 19th century, owing to European competition that had rendered many local industries practically extinct.

• Great Britain vi. British influence in Persia, 1941-79

  Fakhreddin Azimi

• CERAMICS xiii. The Early Islamic Period, 7th-11th Centuries

  David Whitehouse

• CLOTHING v. In Pre-Islamic Eastern Iran

  Gerd Gropp

• DĀNEŠ (1)

  ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  pen name of MOʿĪN-AL-WEZĀRA MĪRZĀ REŻĀ KHAN ARFAʿ (Arfaʿ-al-Dawla; ca. 1846-1937), also known as Prince Reżā Arfaʿ, diplomat and poet of the late Qajar period.

• HORMOZD (2)

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  (Ormisdas), a brother of the Sasanian great king Šāpur II (r. 307-79 CE), who participated on the Roman side in the emperor Julian’s Persian expedition of 363 CE.

• DU MANS, RAPHAEL

  Francis Richard

  , FATHER (b. Jacques Dutertre, Le Mans, France, d. Isfahan, 1 April 1696), author of important descriptions of Persia.

• FĀRS v. Monuments

  Dietrich Huff

  The founder of the Sasanian empire, Ardašīr I (224-40), shifted the seat of power to the newly founded Ardašīr Ḵorra (Fīrūzābād), a circular city with palaces that are still preserved. His successor, Šāpūr I, built Bīšāpūr as his capital. Nevertheless, Eṣṭaḵr remained the most important city of Fārs until Shiraz surpassed it after the Islamic conquest in the 7th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GILAN xviii. Rural Production Techniques

  Christian Bromberger

  A considerable range of techniques is used to produce such diversified commodities as rice, silk, tea, tobacco, vegetables, olives, and wheat. One can, however, speak of a distinctly Gilāni technical system.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAHRĀM (3)

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  son of GŌDARZ, in the Šāh-nāma a hero in the reigns of Kay Kāōs and Kay Ḵosrow, renowned for his valiant service in all the wars.

• BĀḴTAR (1)

  A. Tafażżolī

  designation of the geographical “west” in Modern Persian, but its Pahlavi equivalent abāxtar means “north,” probably borrowed from Parthian.

• HAMADĀN viii. JEWISH COMMUNITY

  Houman Sarshar

  The earliest reference to the Jews in Hamadān is in The Old Testament, according to which a group of Israelites were brought to the Persian plateau ca. 722 BCE (2 Kings 18.11).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• TURKIC LANGUAGES OF PERSIA: AN OVERVIEW

  Michael Knüppel

  Only in few other regions (Caucasus and Southern Siberia) one can find a nearly comparable diversity of Turkic languages as in Persia. The number of their speakers varies from several thousands to several millions.

• GĪLĀN vi. History in the 18th century

  EIr and Reza Rezazadeh Langaroudi

• INDIA xxviii. IRANIAN IMMIGRANTS IN INDIA

  Masashi Haneda

  Although emigration from the Iranian plateau to the Indian subcontinent is not a phenomenon specific to any particular period, the trend does seem to have grown after the foundation of Muslim governments on the subcontinent.

• AZERBAIJAN vi. Population and its Occupations and Culture

  R. Tapper

• KANDAHAR v. In the 19th Century

  Shah Mahmoud Hanifi

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• Isfahan xi. SCHOOL OF PAINTING AND CALLIGRAPHY

  Massumeh Farhad

  The “Isfahan” school of painting and calligraphy generally refers to works of art associated with the city from about 1597-98, when it was chosen as the Safavid capital, until the Afghan invasion of 1722. In the second half of the 17th century, many Isfahani artists  began experimenting with Europeanized pictorial concepts, such as modeling and shading—the second phase of the “Isfahan” school of painting.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CYRUS iii. Cyrus II The Great

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

• GREAT BRITAIN i. INTRODUCTION

  various authors

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Introduction, ii. An Overview of Relations: Safavid to the Present, iii. British influence in Persia in the 19th century, iv. British influence in Persia, 1900-21, v. British influence during the Reżā Shah period, 1921-41, vi. British influence in Persia, 1941-79, vii. British Travelers to Persia, viii. British Archeological Excavations, ix. Iranian Studies in Britian, Pre-Islamic, x. Iranian Studies in Britain, the Islamic Period, xi. Persian Art Collections in Britain, xii. The Persian Community in Britain, xiii. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), xiv. The British Institute of Persian Studies, xv. British Schools in Persia.

• ISMAʿILISM ii. ISMAʿILI HISTORIOGRAPHY

  Farhad Daftary

  The general lack of Ismaʿili interest in historiography is well attested by the fact that only a few works of historical nature have been found in the rich corpus of Ismaʿili literature.

• JAPAN viii. SAFAVID STUDIES IN JAPAN

  Masashi Haneda

  The genesis of Safavid studies in Japan was an outgrowth of the interest in the history of the Mongols and the Turkic people, which is a significant point characterizing Safavid studies there.

• FEMINIST MOVEMENTS iii. IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD

  Hamideh Sedghi

  The fundamental political, socio-cultural, and economic changes which Persia underwent in the Pahlavi era (1921-78) had drastic repercussions on the women’s rights movement and the condition of women.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAMADĀN ii. POPULATION

  Habibollah Zanjani

  This article is divided into two sections: (1) population of Hamadān province; and (2) population of Hamadān city.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 3)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

• BOLOD

  Bertold Spuler

  CHʿENG-HSIANG (Pers. Pūlād Čīnksāng; d. 1313), the representative of the Great Khan Qubilai at the court of the Il-khans of Iran.

• AFGHANISTAN xiv. AFGHAN REFUGEES IN IRAN

  Zuzanna Olszewska

  Afghan refugees make up a population of up to 3 million people of various ethnicities, who have settled in Iran since the communist coup of 1978 in Afghanistan.

• GĪLĀN i. GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

  Marcel Bazin

  Gīlān includes the northwestern end of the Alborz chain and the western part of the Caspian lowlands of Persia. The mountainous belt is cut through by the deep transversal valley of the Safīdrūd between Manjīl and Emāmzāda Hāšem near Rašt. To the northwest, the Ṭāleš highlands stretch a continuous watershed separating Gīlān and Azerbaijan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INDIA xxiv. PERSIAN CALLIGRAPHY IN

  Cross-Reference

  Forthcoming.

• AFGHANISTAN ix. Pre-Islamic Art

  F. Tissot

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿARAB i. Arabs and Iran in the pre-Islamic period

  C. E. Bosworth

• IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (2) Documentation

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  Iranian languages are known from roughly three periods, commonly termed Old, Middle, and New (Modern).

• BAZAR v. Temporary Bazars in Iran and Afghanistan

  M. Bazin

  Periodic markets, and especially weekly markets, are generally presented as an intermediate stage between a subsistence economy and net­works of permanent trading centers.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAQ v. AFSHARIDS TO THE END OF THE QAJARS

  Ernest Tucker

  The collapse of the Safavid dynasty in the 1720s ushered in a new round of conflict in Iraq that would continue through the first half of the 18th century.

• CENTRAL ASIA x. Economy Before the Timurids

  Peter B. Golden

• Isfahan x. Monuments (2) Palaces

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

  None of the royal palaces and pavilions of Isfahan built prior to the 17th century is extant. In contrast, of all the monuments of Isfahan, Safavid palaces represent the most coherent group of buildings to have survived from a single period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vi. Relations with Afghanistan in the Modern Period

  Daniel Balland

• ART IN IRAN vii. ISLAMIC PRE-SAFAVID

  P. Soucek

• DĀMḠĀNĪ (2)

  Sheila S. Blair

  nesba of a father and two sons from Dāmḡān who worked as engineers, builders, and stucco carvers in the early 14th century.

• CARPETS ii. Raw materials and dyes

  Jasleen Dhamija

• HAFEZ xiii. - xiv. HAFEZ’S TOMB (ḤĀFEẒIYA)

  Kuros Kamali Sarvestani

  The Hafeziya is located south of the Koran Gate (Darvāza-ye Qorʾān) on the northern edge of Shiraz. It is on the site of the famous Golgašt-e Moṣallā, the pleasure ground often mentioned in the poems of Hafez and occupies about 19,000 square meters, incorporating one of Shiraz’s most famous cemeteries, Ḵāk-e Moṣallā.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAPAN iv. Iranians in Japan

  Toyoko Morita

  Among the foreigners in Japan, Iranians total about 5,000 people, constituting a small minority group.

• CARPETS vii. Islamic Persia to the Mongols

  Barbara Schimtz

  Because of the scarcity of surviving materials it is difficult to separate the history of carpet making in Iran from that of the rest of the Islamic world before the Mongol invasion (656/1258). Furthermore, the kind of rigid distinction between carpet and other textile designs that characterizes later production probably did not exist in the early Islamic period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FESTIVALS ii. MANICHEAN

  Werner Sundermann

  The Manichean calendar of holidays proves independence from that of the Zoroastrians. Even if the heptavalent number of the Manichean Yimkis was correlated to the Zoroastrian gāhānbār and Nowrūz

• GERMANY v. German travelers and explorers in Persia

  Oliver Bast

  Hans Schiltberger, a Bavarian soldier, was the first German to give an eyewitness account of his travels in Persia. Initially captured by the Ottomans in 1396, he later became a prisoner of Tīmūr at the battle of Ankara (1402).

• INDIA xviii. PERSIAN ELEMENTS IN INDIAN LANGUAGES

  Christopher Shackle

  Some Persian elements are present in most of the modern languages of the subcontinent of South Asia, as a consequence of the prolonged cultivation of Persian associated with pre-modern Indo-Muslim culture.

• ŠĀH-NĀMA v. ARABIC WORDS

  John Perry

  Moïnfar calculates that the Šāh-nāma contains 706 words of Arabic origin, occurring a total of 8,938 times. The 100 words occurring most frequently account for 60 percent of all occurrences.

• AFGHANISTAN iv. Ethnography

  L. Dupree

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (1) A General Survey

  R. N. Frye

  The term “Iranian” may be understood in two ways. It is, first of all, a linguistic classification, intended to designate any society which inherited or adopted, and transmitted, an Iranian language.

• ECONOMY vi. IN THE TIMURID PERIOD

  Maria E. Subtelny

• ISFAHAN vi. MEDIEVAL PERIOD

  Hossein Kamaly

  The history of Isfahan prior to the city’s efflorescence in the 17th century often traced alternating cycles of urbanization and de-urbanization.

• ISLAM IN IRAN vi. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN SUNNI ISLAM

  Said Amir Arjomand

  The Savior is a descendant of the Prophet whose expected return to rule the world will restore justice, peace, and true religion.

• ART IN IRAN iii. Achaemenid Art and Architecture

  P. Calmeyer

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GREECE vii. GREEK ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN IRAN

  Rémy Boucharlat

• HISTORIOGRAPHY vi. SAFAVID PERIOD

  Sholeh Quinn

  Safavid historiography, although developing unique features of its own, had its origins in the eastern Timurid tradition that was centered in Herāt.

• HAFEZ viii. HAFEZ AND RENDI

  Franklin Lewis

  Rend, variously translated in English as “rake, ruffian, pious rogue, brigand, libertine, lout, debauchee,” is the very antithesis of establishment propriety.

• GEOGRAPHY i. Evolution of geographical knowledge

  Xavier de Planhol

  Geography of Persia and Afghanistan. OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Evolution of geographical knowledge, ii. Human geography, iii. Political geography, iv. Cartography of Persia.

• INDIA xiv. Persian Literature in India

  Mario Casari

  The amount of Persian literature composed in the Indian subcontinent up to the 19th century is larger than that produced in Iran proper during the same period.

• BAM (2)

  X. De Planhol, M.-E Bāstānī Pārīzī

  (in Arabic, Bamm), a town in southeastern Iran, located on the southwestern rim of the Dašt-e Lūt basin at an altitude of 1,100 m. i. History and modern town. ii. Ruins of the old town.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES vi. THE PAHLAVI ERA (1925-1979)

  Orly R. Rahimiyan

  Reza Shah (r. 1925-41) was not motivated by a positive attitude towards religious minorities (except Zoroastrians), but all minorities indirectly benefited from his reforms. He favored a modern Iran, free of foreign influence, united, and strong militarily. He opposed a nation of tribal groups and wanted one people, a people with a well-developed historical and national consciousness founded on a culture whose sources lay mainly in pre-Islamic Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 6)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Moḥammad Reza Shah (1941-79). The long history of Russian and British interventions in Persian affairs had fostered widespread resentment against the two great powers.

• ECONOMY ii. IN THE PRE-ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Robert C. Henrickson

• IRAN ix. RELIGIONS IN IRAN (1) Pre-Islamic (1.2) Manicheism

  Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst and Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  Called after the founding prophet Mani (216-74 or 277), Manicheism was a syncretistic religion that, combining elements of the various religions current in Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau at the time, claimed to be the ultimate religion.

• EDUCATION xv. FOREIGN AND MINORITY SCHOOLS IN PERSIA

  EIr

• ISFAHAN iii. POPULATION (2) Isfahan Province

  Habibollah Zanjani

  In 2001, the province (ostān) of Isfahan comprised 19 sub-provinces (šahrestāns), 83 towns in 43 districts (baḵš), and 2,514 rural settlements in 121 sub-districts (dehestāns).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MANICHEISM i. GENERAL SURVEY

  Werner Sundermann

  Manicheism is the only world religion that has become completely extinct. Its founder, Mani, lived in the third century CE. His religion spread over the continents from the Atlantic to the Chinese Sea.

• HERODOTUS v. CAMBYSES ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS

  Robert Rollinger

  Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, is first described by Herodotus at a time when his father’s reign was already about to end.

• Greece i. Greco-Persian Political Relations

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  After subjugating the Medes, Cyrus II started his first expedition westwards. In 547 B.C.E. he turned against Lydia and its king, Croesus.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY i. INTRODUCTION

  Elton Daniel

  Historiography, literally, is the study not of history but of the writing of history. In modern usage, this term covers a wide range of related but distinct areas of inquiry.

• CORRESPONDENCE iii. Forms of opening and closing, address, and signature

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

• EGYPT i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period

  Edda Bresciani

• INDIA v. RELATIONS: MEDIEVAL PERIOD TO THE 13TH CENTURY

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  The first political and military footholds of the Muslims in the subcontinent proper were in Sind, and at Multan in the middle Indus valley, secured in the early 8th century.

• FISCHEL, WALTER JOSEPH

  David Yeroushalmi

  (b. 12 November 1902; d. 14 July 1973), a scholar of Oriental Jewry and Islamic civilization.

• ḤASAN II

  Farhad Daftary

  , ʿALĀ ḎEKREHE’L-SALĀM, Nezāri Ismaʿili Imam and the fourth ruler of Alamut (1162-66). The most important event of his brief reign was his declaration of the qiāma (the Resurrection).

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES iii. PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS

  Jacob Neusner

  By the time the Parthians reached Babylonia, Jews had lived there, under Babylonian, Achaemenid, and Seleucid rule for more than four and a half centuries.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 1)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Iran in the Islamic Period (651-1980s). This section of Persian history begins with the conquest by Muslim Arabs and the introduction of Islam to Persia, the gradual conversion of the Persians to the faith of the conquerors, and some 200 years of Arab rule.

• ḴĀQĀNI ŠERVĀNI ii. Works

  Anna Livia Beelaert

  a major Persian poet and prose writer (b. Šervān, ca. 521/1127; d. Tabriz, between 582/1186-87 and 595/1199).

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (10). Aramaic

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Speakers of North-Eastern Aramaic have been in contact with Iranian languages in the western regions of the plateau and on the western side of the Zagros for some 3,000 years.

• EDUCATION xi. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL GROUPS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAHAISM vi. The Bahai Community of Ashkhabad

  V. Rafati

  Attracted by religious freedom and economic opportunities unavailable to them in Iran, Iranian Bahais began to settle in Ashkhabad around 1884; the community prospered and reached its peak during the period 1917-28.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN viii. The Pioneers and Promoters

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  Of the initial contributors to Kanun’s production activities, many artists and writers submitted only one or two works.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CERAMICS xi. The Achaemenid Period

  Remy Boucharlat and Ernie Haerinck

• Isfahan xx. GEOGRAPHY OF THE MEDIAN DIALECTS OF ISFAHAN

  Habib Borjian

  The continuum of Central Plateau Dialects appears along a northwest-souteast axis traversing the modern provinces of Hamadān, Markazi, Isfahan, and Yazd, that is, the area of Ancient Media Major.

• CENTRAL ASIA iii. In Pre-Islamic Times

  Richard N. Frye

• CLOTHING xiv. Clothing of the Hazāra tribes

  Klaus Ferdinand

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EGYPT vii. Political and religious relations with Persia in the modern period

  Shahrough Akhavi

• HAFEZ ii. HAFEZ’S LIFE AND TIMES

  Bahaʾ-al-Din Khorramshahi and EIr

  In spite of this enormous popularity and influence, details of his life are extremely sketchy, and the brief references in taḏkeras (anthologies with biographical sketches) are often unreliable or even purely fictitious.

• BESṬĀMĪ, BĀYAZĪD

  Hamid Algar

  [Basṭāmī], ABŪ MOḤAMMAD BĀYAZĪD b. ʿEnāyat-Allāh, a 16th-century faqīh and Sufi of Khorasan.

• BAHMAN (2)

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  son of ESFANDĪĀR, a Kayanian king of Iran in the national epic.  

• GEORGIA viii. Georgian communities in Persia

  Pierre Oberling

• INDIA ii. Historical Geography

  Pierfrancesco Callieri

  The geographical borders between the Iranian plateau and the Indian subcontinent are well defined by features, such as mountain ranges, which represent the western limits of the Indus River valley.

• SALJUQS iii. SALJUQS OF RUM

  Andrew Peacock

  dynasty of Turkish origin that ruled much of Anatolia (Rum), ca. 1081-1308.

• KURDISH LANGUAGE i. HISTORY OF THE KURDISH LANGUAGE

  Ludwig Paul

• EDUCATION v. THE MADRASA IN SHIʿITE PERSIA

  ʿAbbās Zaryāb

  After the introduction of the institutionalized madrasa by Neẓām-al-Molk in the late 11th century, above) Shiʿite madrasas were also founded in Persia and Iraq. These schools were local efforts, however, and did not constitute a unitary system of education.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KARABALGASUN ii. The Inscription

  Y. Yoshida

  archeological site of a capital of the Uighur Khaghanate (second half of the 8th century to first half of the 9th century).

• BAHAISM i. The Faith

  J. Cole

  Bahaism as a religion had as its background two earlier and much different movements in nineteenth-century Shiʿite Shaikhism (following Shaikh Aḥmad Aḥsāʾī) and Babism.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN iii. Book Publishing

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  When Kanun began producing children’s books, there were no specialized children’s book publishers in Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FRANCE ii. RELATIONS WITH PERSIA TO 1789

  Jean Calmard

• GILĀN xv. Popular and Literary Perceptions of Identity

  Christian Bromberger

• CERAMICS vi. Uruk, Proto-Elamite, and Early Bronze Age in Southern Persia

  William M. Sumner

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xvi. FOLKLORE AND LEGEND

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  Systematic collection of the folklore of Isfahan is mostly due to Amirqoli Amini, whose first publication was a collection of Persian dicta entitled hazār o yak soḵan.

• Great Britain viii. British Archeological Excavations

  St. J. Simpson

• CLOTHING viii. In Persia from the Arab conquest to the Mongol invasion

  Elsie H. Peck

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HORMOZD II

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  Sasanian great king (r. 303-09 CE). He assumed a crown very similar to that of Bahrām II,  representing the varəγna, the royal falcon.

• FĀRS vii. Ethnography

  Pierre Oberling

  The largest part of the population of Fārs is of Iranian stock, but since the rise of Islam in the 7th century there has been substantial immigration of peoples of other ethnic origins into the province.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GEORGIA iii. Iranian elements in Georgian art and archeology

  Gocha R. Tsetskhladze

  Ancient Georgian tribes had close cultural contacts with Near Eastern civilizations from the 18th century BCE. Iranian elements appeared from the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E., as they did in the art of the entire Caucasian region.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ARMENIA ii. ARMENIAN WOMEN IN THE LATE 19TH- AND EARLY 20TH-CENTURY PERSIA

  Houri Berberian

• GĪLĀN ix. Monuments

  Manouchehr Sotoudeh

  Most buildings of historical interest in Gilān have been repeatedly repaired and rebuilt throughout their history. Some have clear records of their history, but most of them lack reliable, primary documents, and one has to rely on a variety of indirect evidence, such as the dates engraved on entrance doors or tombstones to reconstruct part of the past of a given edifice.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CYRUS vi. Cyrus the Younger

  Rüdiger Schmitt

• EDUCATION i. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

• AZERBAIJAN viii. Azeri Turkish

  G. Doerfer

• KANDAHAR vii. From 1973 to the Present

  Antonio Giustozzi

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• CERAMICS i. The Neolithic Period through the Bronze Age in Northeastern and North-central Persia

  Robert H. Dyson

  The ceramic tradition of northeastern Persia devel­oped in parallel but distinct sequences in the Gorgān lowlands and the Dāmḡān highlands, including the parts of the Atrak (q.v.) region adjacent to both. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xiii. CRAFTS

  Habib Borjian and EIr

  Isfahan has maintained its position as a major center for traditional crafts in Persia. The crafts of Isfahan encompass textiles, carpets, metalwork, woodwork, ceramics, painting, and inlay works of various kind. The work is carried out in different settings including small industrial and bazaar workshops, in the homes of craftsmen and women, and in rural cottage industries.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GREAT BRITAIN iii. British influence in Persia in the 19th century

  Abbas Amanat

• ISMAʿILISM iv - x

  cross-reference

• CLOTHING ii. In the Median and Achaemenid periods

  Shapur Shahbazi

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FĀRS i. Geography

  Xavier de Planhol

  The heart of Fārs is comprised of the highland basins. East of the meridian of Bušehr and Isfahan, the Zagros mountain chains, which gradually decrease in altitude toward the southeast but still mostly remain above 2,000 and sometimes 3,000 m.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĀNEŠ (2)

  Nassereddin Parvin

  lit., “knowledge”; title of seven newspa­pers and journals published in Persia and the Indian subcontinent, presented here in chronological order.

• ḠAWṮĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  K. A. Nizami

  b. Ḥasan b. Mūsā Šaṭṭārī MANDOVĪ (b. Mandu, 1554), author of Golzār-e-abrār, a Persian hagiography of Indian saints.

• ḤOSAYN B. ʿALI

  Multiple Authors

  ḤOSAYN B. ʿALI B. ABI ṬĀLEB, ABU ʿABD-ALLĀH, the second surviving grandson of the Prophet Moḥammad through his daughter Fāṭema.

• ʿABDALLĀH MORVĀRĪD

  P. P. Soucek

  (d. 1516), Timurid court official, poet, scribe, and musician.

• ĀMŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀMOL.

• BAHĀRESTĀN (2)

  ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  the name of a garden, public square, and complex of buildings in central Tehran.

• ČELEBĪ, FATḤ-ALLĀH ʿĀREF

  Tahsin Yazici

  10th/16th-century poet and author of a Šāh-nāma (Solaymān-nāma) extolling the Ottoman rulers.

• DURIS OF SAMOS

  RÜDIGER SCHMITT

  (Gk. Doûris), (ca. 340-281/270 B.C.E.), Greek historiographer of the early Hellenistic period.

• EPIGRAPHY ii. Greek inscriptions from ancient Iran

  Philip Huyse

• MUSHFIQI, ABDURAHMON

  Keith Hitchins

  (Mošfeqi, ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān), Tajik poet (1525-1588).

• HAFT ḴᵛĀN

  Olga M. Davidson

  the title of two famous episodes in Ferdowsi’s Šāh-nāma, the Haft Ḵᵛān-e Rostam, and the Haft Ḵᵛān-e Esfandiār, describing seven exploits that each hero had to undertake.

• JĀMEʿ AL-ʿOLUM

  cross-reference

  See ENCYCLOPAEDIAS, PERSIAN.

• AḤMAD TAKŪDĀR

  P. Jackson

  third il-khan of Iran (r. 680-83/1282-84), seventh son of Hülegü.

• ĀSMĀN

  A. Tafażżolī

  (sky, heavens), in Zoroastrian cosmology the first part of the material (gētīg) world created by Ohrmazd.

• LUT

  Cross-Reference

  Persian word meaning “desert.” See DESERT.

• DĀRČĪNĪ

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  lit., “Chinese tree/wood."

• FAWZĪ MOSTĀRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See FEVZİ MOSTĀRĪ.

• ESFĪJĀB

  Cross-Reference

  See ASFĪJĀB.

• MENOSTANES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Achaemenid prince, son of Artaxerxes I’s brother Artarios, who was satrap of Babylon; he was a “eunuch” at Artaxerxes’ court and during the troubles about the succession after Artaxerxes’ death in 424/23 BCE.

• MICHAEL THE SYRIAN

  Florence Jullien

  Jacobite patriarch of Antioch (1166-99), who wrote a universal chronicle in Syriac, covering events from the Creation until 1195.

• GĀZORGĀH

  Lisa Golombek

  a village approximately 2.5 miles northeast of the city of Herat in present-day northwestern Afghanistan at 34°22′ N and 62°14′ E, situated at an elevation of 4,100 feet.

• HÜBSCHMANN, (JOHANN) HEINRICH

  Erich Kettenhofen and Rüdiger Schmitt

  eminent German scholar of Iranian and Armenian studies (1848-1908).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABḴĀZ

  Dzh. Giunashvili

  (also APSUA, APSNI), ethnic group of the Caucasus.

• ANDARĪMĀN

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the name of a number of Turanian heroes in the Šāh-nāma.

• CHALCOLITHIC ERA

  Elizabeth F. Henrickson

  in Persia; chalcolithic is a term adopted for the Near East early in this century as part of an attempt to refine the framework of cultural developmental “stages” (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages) and used by students of western European prehistory.

• EBN ABHAR, MOḤAMMAD-TAQĪ

  Stephen Lambden

  (1854-1919), Bahai teacher and one of the “hands of the cause."

• ARDAŠĪR I i. History

  Joseph Wiesehöfer

• TAJADDOD

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (Modernity), a newspaper published as the official organ of the Democratic Party of Azerbaijan, of which a total of 202 issues appeared in Tabriz.

• ḤĀJI VĀŠANGTON

  Hossein Kamaly

  (Washington), epithet for Ḥosaynqoli Khan Moʿtamed-al-Wezāra (later Ṣadr-al-Salṭana; 1849-1937, Persia's first ambassador to the United States (1888–89). In his copious dispatches to Persia he presented, sometimes in minute detail, information about the American political system and society.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAPAN xi. COLLECTIONS OF PERSIAN ART IN JAPAN

  Toh Sugimura

  Persian works of art in Japanese collections may be classified into (1) artifacts brought through China and Korea up to early modern times, (2) purchases in art markets since the 19th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AIRYAMAN IŠYA

  C. J. Brunner

  Gathic Avestan prayer.

• ĀŠRAFĪ

  A. Hairi

  religious leader, born sometime before 1235/1819 and died 1315/1897-98.

• BĪLAQĀN(Ī)

  Cross-Reference

  See BAYLAQĀN.

• DĀRŪḠA

  Cross-Reference

  See CITIES iii.

• FENDERESK

  Mīnū Yūsofnežād

  a rural district (dehestān) of the county (šahrestān) of Gonbad-e Qābūs and situated north of the Alborz range in the eastern part of Māzandarān.

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. ʿABBĀD, ṢĀḤEB

  Cross-Reference

  See ṢĀḤEB b. ʿABBĀD.

• KAY ḴOSROW KHAN

  Hirotake Maeda

  (1674-1711), Georgian royal prince of the Kartlian branch, also known as Ḵosrow Khan.

• JĀSK

  Daniel T. Potts

  a small Baluchi port on the Makrān coast with palm gardens, considered part of the Hormozgan province.

• HYMN OF THE PEARL

  J. R. Russell

  or Hymn of the Soul, a Syriac poem, of which an early Greek translation also exists, composed probably in the third century CE in the region of Edessa.

• ABŪ ʿALĪ MESKAVAYH

  Cross-Reference

  Persian chancery official and treasury clerk of the Buyid period, boon companion, litterateur and accomplished writer in Arabic on a variety of topics, including history, theology, philosophy and medicine (d. 421/1030). See MESKAVAYH, ABU ʿALI AḤMAD.

• ANĪRĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ANĒRĀN.

• BAḴT

  W. Eilers, S. Shaked

  “fate, destiny,” often with the positive sense of “good luck” (ḵᵛošbaḵtī).  i. The term.  ii. The concept.

• CHIONITES

  Wolfgang Felix

  a tribe of probable Iranian origin that was prominent in Bactria and Transoxania in late antiquity.

• EBN AL-ʿEBRĪ, ABU’L-FARAJ

  Herman G. B. Teule

  (b. Malaṭīa, 1225; d. Marāḡa, 1286), Syriac historian and polymath.

• CARPETS xiv. Tribal Carpets

  Siawosch Azadi

  In Persia rural carpets have been made in nearly every possible technical variation and for a wide range of uses. Yet there are many nomadic groups whose works are absolutely unknown, and the weavings of other groups have been only very imperfectly studied and described. For that reason there are still many objects of which the function is obscure.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• PERSIAN GULF i. IN ANTIQUITY

  Daniel T. Potts

  The Persian Gulf is a shallow, epi-continental sea approximately 1,000 km long and 200-350 km wide, narrowing to about 60 km across at the Straits of Hormuz.

• JEBĀL

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  in Arabic, the plural of jabal “mountain,” a geographical term used in early Islamic times for the western part of Persia, roughly corresponding to ancient Media (Ar. māh).

• AḴLĀQ-E MOḤSENĪ

  G. M. Wickens

  an ostensibly serious treatise on ethics by the prolific prose-stylist Kamāl-al-dīn Ḥosayn Wāʿeẓ Kāšefī, completed in 900/1494-95.

• ASTŌDĀN

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  “bone-receptacle, ossuary.” The term has an important place in the vocabulary of ancient Iranian funerary rites.

• BLOCHMANN, HEINRICH FERDINAND

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (also Henry), a German orientalist and scholar of Persian language and literature who spent most of his career in India (1838-1878).

• DASTA

  Peter J. Chelkowski

  the most common term for a ritual procession held in the Islamic lunar month of Moḥarram and the following month of Ṣafar, both periods of mourning for Imami Shiʿites. The procession commemorates the tragic death of Ḥosayn (q.v.), grandson of the prophet Moḥammad and the third imam of the Shiʿites.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FEṬRAT ZARDŪZ SAMARQANDĪ, SAYYED KAMĀL

  Michael Zand

  (1660-1699), Tajik poet.

• EṢṬAḴR

  A. D. H. Bivar, Mary Boyce

  In origin, Eṣṭaḵr was presumably a suburb of the urban settlement once surrounding the Achaemenid royal residences, but of which few traces now survive. After the death of Seleucus I (280 B.C.), when the province began to re-assert its independence, its center seems to have developed at Eṣṭaḵr, better protected than the old capital by the surrounding hills.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• URARTU IN IRAN

  Wolfram Kleiss

  The territory of the ancient kingdom of Urartu extended over the modern frontiers of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and the Republic of Armenia. Its center was the Armenian highland between Lake Van, Lake Urmia, and Lake Sevan. It s first mentioned as “Nairi countries” in Assyrian sources in the time of Salmanasser I, 1274 BCE.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GĒSŪ-DARĀZ

  Cross-Reference

  See GĪSŪ-DARĀZ.

• ARMOR ii. In Eastern Iran

  Boris A. Litvinsky

  By the 6th, or even 7th, century BCE, the Scythian and Northern Caucasian nomads had formed a complete complex of defensive armor.

• ABŪ ESḤĀQ NAẒẒĀM

  J. van Ess

  famous adīb and Muʿtazilite theologian.

• BALĀSĀḠŪN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a town of Central Asia, in early Islamic times the main settlement of the region known as Yeti-su or Semirechye “the land of the seven rivers,” now mainly within the eastern part of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

• ČIHRDĀD NASK

  D. N. MacKenzie

  one of the lost nasks of the Avesta.

• EBN MARZOBĀN, ABŪ AḤMAD ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN

  D. M. Dunlop

  b. ʿAlī b. Marzbān Ṭabīb Marzbānī (d. Tostar, February-March 1006), administrative official under the Buyids.

• NĀMA-YE BĀNOVĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (Women’s journal), a biweekly paper published in Tehran between 1 Mordād 1299 and 24 Khordād 1300 Š. (23 July 1920-14 June 1921).

• KAWĀD I

  Nikolaus Schindel

  ii. COINAGE Since the reign of Jāmāsp interrupts the two regnal periods of Kawād I, and because of marked differences between the two, they should be treated separately. Kawād employs only one obverse and one reverse type during his first reign. The obverse shows the king’s bust to the right wearing a crown consisting of a crescent and two mural elements, which corresponds to the second crown of Pērōz (457-84).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤAMZA B. ĀḎARAK

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  or Atrak or ʿAbd-Allāh Abu Ḵozayma (d. 828), Kharijite rebel in Sistān and Khorasan during early ʿAbbasid times.

• JIWĀM

  Firoze M. Kotwal and Jamsheed K. Choksy

  “(consecrated) milk,” the designation for one of the organic items—now a mixture of milk and consecrated water—used in the  high or inner liturgical rituals of the Zoroastrians.

• ĀL-E DĀBŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See DABUYIDS.

• ĀTAŠKADA

  M. Boyce

   “house of fire,” a Zoroastrian term for a consecrated building in which there is an ever-burning sacred fire.

• BOLŪḠ

  cross-reference

  See BĀLEḠ.

• DAVĀNĪ, JALĀL-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Andrew J. Newman

  b. Asʿad Kāzerūnī Ṣeddīqī (b. Davān, q.v., near Kāzerūn in Fārs, 1426-27, d. 1502), often referred to as ʿAllāma Davānī, leading theologian, philosopher, jurist, and poet of late 15th-century Persia.

• FIRMAN

  Cross-Reference

  See FARMĀN.

• EUPHRATES

  Samuel N. C. Lieu

  together with the Tigris, historically and geographically constituting one of the most important river-systems in the Near East.

• GHILAIN, Antoine

  Aloïs van Tongerloo

  (b. Hainaut, Belgium, 1901; d. Hainaut, Belgium, 1947), Roman Catholic priest, secondary school teacher of Latin and Greek, scholar of Manicheism, and pioneer of Parthian linguistics.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INDIA xxix. SHIʿITE COMMUNITIES IN

  Cross-Reference

  See CONVERSION iii. TO IMAMI SHI'ISM IN INDIA.

• ABŪ ḤANĪFA ESKĀFĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ESKĀFĪ, ABŪ ḤANĪFA.

• APOLLODORUS OF ARTIMITA

  M. L. Chaumont

  historian of the 1st century B.C. or later, author of a Parthian History.

• BANAFŠA

  H. Aʿlam

  “violet,” common name for the genus Viola L. in New Persian. From certain botanical features of violas there have developed some violet-based similes and metaphors in classical Persian literature.

• CLEARCHUS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (b. ca. 390 or 410 BCE, the latter date based on Memnon’s report of his age as fifty-eight years at his death in 352), tyrant of Pontic Heracleia (modern Ereğli) in 363-52 BCE.

• EBN ŠAHRĀŠŪB, ABŪ JAʿFAR ZAYN-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi

  b. ʿALī b. Šahrāšūb b. Abī Naṣr b. Abi’l-Jayš (b. Sārī, Māzandarān; d. Aleppo, 2 September 1192), the most illustrious Imami scholar of the 12th century.

• PLANE TREE

  Cross-Reference

  See ČENĀR.

• URDU

  David Matthews

  National language (qaumī zabān) of Pakistan and one of the fifteen officially recognized languages of India. It is spoken, according to recent censuses made in India and Pakistan, by an estimated 53 million people in the South Asian subcontinent.

• HARKARN DĀS KANBŌH

  S.H. Qasemi

  the first Hindu author of a Persian work, Eršād al-ṭālebin, commonly known as Enšāʾ-e Harkarn, a collection of documents and model letters.

• JOVAYNI, ṢĀḤEB DIVĀN

  Michal Biran

  ŠAMS-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD b. Moḥammad (d. 1284), Persian statesman of the early Il-khanid period, the younger brother of the historian  ʿAlāʾ-al-Din ʿAṭā-Malek Jovayni.

• ʿALĪʾ-AL-DĪN ATSÏZ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a late and short-reigned sultan of the Ghurid dynasty in Afghanistan (607-11/1210-14).

• AVADH

  R. B. Barnett

  an ancient cultural and administrative region lying between the Himalayas and the Ganges in North India, named after Ayodhyā, the setting of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana.

• BORHĀN-AL-DĪN MOḤAQQEQ TERMEḎĪ

  cross-reference

  See MOḤAQQEQ TERMEḎĪ.

• DĀYA, NAJM-AL-DĪN ABŪ BAKR ʿABD-ALLĀH

  Moḥammad-Amīn Rīāḥī

  b. Moḥammad b. Šāhāvar b. Anūšervān Rāzī (1177–1256), mystic and author.

• EZNIK OF KOŁB

  James R. Russell

  or KOŁBACʿI (b. ca. 374-80), Armenian Christian theologian and cleric; his work contains a refutation of the Zoroastrian religion. 

• ARCHIVES i. Turkish archives concerning Iran

  Osman G. Özgüdenli

  Ottoman archive materials are important not only for the history of the Ottoman Empire, but they are also of tremendous significance for the history of all those countries that had relations with the Ottoman Empire.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GODARD, ANDRÉ

  Ève Gran-Aymerich and Mina Marefat

  (b. Chaumont, France, 1881; d. Paris, 1965), French architect, archeologist, art historian, and director of the Archeological Services of Iran (Edāra-ye koll-e ʿatiqāt).

• INSTITUTE FOR IRANIAN PHILOLOGY

  Claus V. Pedersen

  (INSTITUT FOR IRANSK FILOLOGI), University of Copenhagen. i. Forerunners. ii. History. Although the Institute was founded only in 1961, it has a long prehistory, since it is the natural culmination of about 200 years of Iranian studies in the Kingdom of Denmark.

• ABŪ KĀLĪJĀR GARŠĀSP (I)

  C. E. Bosworth

  second son of the Kakuyid amir of Jebāl, ʿAlāʾ-al-dawla Moḥammad b. Došmanzīār, ruled in Hamadān and parts of what are now Kurdistan and Luristan, 433-37/1041-42 to 1045, d. 443/1051-52.

• ʿAQL-E SORḴ

  H. Corbin

  “The Crimsoned Archangel” (lit., “The Red Intellect”), one of the visionary recitals or treatises on spiritual initiation of Sohravardī (d. 1191)

• BANNĀʾĪ

  C. Bromberger

  While the term bannāʾī covers the entire construction field, in this brief study domestic building techniques, in particular, which are more or less part of the traditional crafts, and the recent evolution of popular housing will be emphasized.

• ČOḠĀ SAFĪD

  Frank Hole

  or Chogha Sefid, a prehistoric site on the Dehlorān (Deh Luran) plain in Ḵūzestān, dating back to the 8th millennium B.C.E.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EBRĀHĪM MAWṢELĪ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ

  Everett Rowson

  the most celebrated musician at the court of Hārūn al-Rašīd and a central figure in the development of the Iraqi school of music under the early ʿAbbasids.

• ʿAJIB MĀZANDARĀNI

  M. Dabirsiāqi

  19th-century poet of the Qajar court.

• QAWĀMI, Ḥosyan

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi and EIr

  (1909-1989), known also as Fāḵtaʾi, a master vocalist of Persia in the second half of the 20th century.

• ḤASAN ŠIRĀZI

  Hamid Algar

  , MIRZĀ MOḤAMMAD, often referred to as Mirzā-ye Širāzi, leading Shiʿite cleric chiefly renowned for the role he played in the celebrated Tobacco Boycott of 1892 (1814-1895).

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS vi. LEGAL SYSTEM, ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Cross-Reference

  See forthcoming, online. See also AḴBĀRIYA; CIVIL CODE; CONSTITUTION; CONTRACT; FEQH; HADITH.

• ʿALAWĪ, ABD-AL-KARĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-KARĪM ʿALAVĪ.

• AXTAR

  W. Eilers

  (Middle and New Persian) “star” or “constellation.”

• BOZGŪŠ

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the traditional reading of the name of a mythical tribe in Māzandarān mentioned in the Šāh-nāma.

• DEHḴᵛĀRAQĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀẔARŠAHR.

• FAḴRĪ BANĀKATĪ

  Cross-reference

  See BANĀKATĪ.

• PEYMĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  periodical published (1933-42) in Tehran by Aḥmad Kasravi, historian of the Constitutional Revolution.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠOLĀM-REŻĀ ḴOŠNEVIS

  Maryam Ekhtiar

  Eṣfahāni, Mirzā (b. Tehran, 1829/30; d. Tehran, 1886/87), a calligrapher and epigraphist of late 19th-century Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ NAṢR ʿOTBĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿOTBĪ, ABŪ NAṢR.

• ĀRAŠ, KAY

  A. Tafażżolī

  Avestan KAVI ARŠAN, a member of the Kayanid dynasty in Iranian legend. 

• BĀRAKZAY DYNASTY

  cross-reference

  See AFGHANISTAN x. Political History ; and DORRĀNĪ.

• CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF AFGHANISTAN

  M. Ḥassan Kākaṛ

• ʿEDĀLAT-ḴĀNA

  Cross-Reference

  See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION.

• SANG-E CHAKHMAQ

  Christopher P. Thornton

  a Neolithic site near Šāhrud in northeastern Iran, important for having an unbroken archeological sequence from the 7th to the early 5th millennium BCE.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FOLK POETRY

  Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  in Iranian languages. The term ‘folk poetry’ can be properly used for texts which have some characteristics marking them as poetry and belong to the tradition of the common people, as against the dominant ‘polite’ literary cult

• ḤAYDAR ʿALI EṢFAHĀNI, Ḥājji Mirzā

  Moojan Momen

  (b. Isfahan, ca. 1830; d. Haifa, 1920), Bahāʾi polemicist.

• KADIMI

  Ramiyar P. Karanjia

  a Zoroastrian sect (Ar. qadim “old, ancient”). The movement emerged in 18th-century India.

• ʿALĪ B. ḤĀMED

  cross-reference

  KŪFĪ. See ČĀČ-NĀMA.

• AYYOHAʾL-WALAD

  I. Abbas

  a short treatise by Abū Ḥāmed Moḥammad Ḡazālī Ṭūsī (fl. 450-505/1058-1111), originally composed in Persian.

• BRONZES OF LURISTAN

  Oscar White Muscarella

  the accepted term for a distinct body of metalwork produced in the first half of the first millennium B.C. and characterized by a wide range of idiosyncratic forms and a highly stylized conception of human and animal representation.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DEMOTTE ŠĀH-NĀMA

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  illustrated manuscript, now dispersed, of Ferdowsī’s epic poem, often identified by the name of a former owner, the Paris dealer Georges Demotte (active ca. 1900-23). It is generally believed to have been produced for a patron associated with the Il-khanid court and is renowned for the  quality of its paintings.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLŠĀʾIĀN, ʿABBĀSQOLI

  Abbas Milani

  (1902-1990), civil servant, minister in various cabinets, and governor-general of major provinces in the Pahlavi period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIRS

  Malcolm Byrne

  the linkage in the mid-1980s of two separate and distinct U.S. covert operations in Iran and Central America.

• ABŪ SAHL ZŪZANĪ

  Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī

  courtier and official under the Ghaznavid amirs Maḥmūd (388-421/998-1030) and Masʿūd (421-32/1031-41), d. ca. 440-50/1050-59.

• BARGOSTVĀN

  A. S. Melikian-Chirvani

  horse armor, a distinctive feature of Iranian warfare from very early times on. The earliest known helmet (chamfron) has been excavated at Ḥasanlū from a 9th-century B.C. stratum.

• ČORTKA

  Yaḥyā Ḏokāʾ

  (or čortaka, čotka < Russ. schëty “abacus”), an ancient calculation device, a rectangle strung with parallel metal wires along which clay, metal, or wooden beads can be moved.

• EFTEḴĀR DAWLATĀBĀDĪ, ʿABD-AL-WAHHĀB BOḴĀRĪ

  S. Moinul Haq

  (b. Ahmadnagar; d. Dawlatābād, 1776), Deccani biographer and poet in Urdu and Persian.

• FOUCHER, ALFRED

  François de Blois

  (1865-1952), the first head of the French Archaeological Mission in Afghanistan (see DÉLÉGATIONS ARCHÉOLOGIQUES FRANÇAISES, ii.) and a noted scholar on Grœco-Buddhist art.

• HECATOMPYLUS

  cross-reference

  See ŠAHR-E QUMIS.

• ABAQA

  Peter Jackson

  (or ABAḠA, “paternal uncle” in Mongolian; ABĀQĀ in Persian and Arabic), eldest son and first successor of the Il-khan Hülegü.

• ʿALĪ AṢḠAR BORŪJERDĪ

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  author of several works including the ʿAqāʾed al-šīʿa, written in 1263/1874 and dedicated to Moḥammad Shah Qāǰār.

• ĀZARMĪGDUXT

  Ph. Gignoux

  Sasanian queen who according to Ṭabarī ruled for a few months in 630.

• BURUSHASKI

  Hermann Berger

  language spoken in Hunza-Karakorum, North Pakistan, containing some Iranian loanwords of various origins.

• DEYLAMĀN

  Jean During

  melody (gūša) incorporated into the radīf of Āvāz-e Daštī by Abu’l-Ḥasan Ṣabā (1957), who borrowed it from the regional repertoire of northern Persia.

• BIBLE ii. Persian Elements in the Bible

  Morton Smith

  Identification of Persian elements in the Bible is difficult because: (1) mobody knows just what was “Persian” when the biblical books were being written. (2) many things then “Persian” were also elements of other cultures.

• KHAYYAM, OMAR x. MUSICAL WORKS BASED ON THE RUBAIYAT OF OMAR KHAYYAM

  William H. Martin and Sandra Mason

  The enduring popularity of the verses in the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam is reflected in the large number of musical works they have inspired.

• GORBA

  Cross-Reference

  See CAT I; CAT II.

• ABU’L-WAZIR MARVAZĪ

  L. A. Giffen

  Secretary and author (d. 186/802).

• ARḠANDĀB RIVER

  D. Balland

  a river in the south of Afghanistan, the biggest tributary of the Helmand. The present name, in the form Āb-e Arḡand, is attested from the 7th/13th century.

• BARTHOLOMAE’S LAW

  M. Mayrhofer

  the name given to a rule of phonetic assimilation in the Indo-Iranian and probably also the proto-Indo-European languages first noted by Christian Bartholomae in 1882.

• CROWN JEWELS of Persia

  Patricia Jellicoe

  the assemblage of jewels collected by the kings of Persia, kept now in the Bānk-e markazī-e Īrān (Central bank of Iran) in Tehran.

• EḴWĀN AL-ṢAFĀʾ

  Paul E. Walker

  a self-professed brotherhood of piously ascetic scholars.

• BARḠAŠI, ABU’L MOẒAFFAR MOḤAMMAD b. EBRAHIM

  C. E. Bosworth

  vizier to two of the last Samanid Amirs of Transoxiana and Khorasan. 

• AUSTRIA

  Helmut Slaby

  Diplomatic and commercial relations between Austria and Persia have a long history, stretching back to the sixteenth century.

• FRATARAKA

  Josef Wiesehöfer

  lit. “leader, governor, forerunner”; ancient Persian title.

• ḤELLI, ḤASAN B. YUSOF B. MOṬAHHAR

  Sabine Schmidtke

  generally referred to, using his title, as “ʿAllāma Ḥelli,” prominent Imami theologian and jurist (1250-1325).

• ʿABD-AL-ʿALĪ BĪRJANDĪ

  D. Pingree

  (or BARJANDĪ) Islamic astronomer, said to have died in 934/1527-28.

• ʿALĪ-QOLĪ KHAN MOḴBER-AL-DAWLA

  Cross-Reference

  See MOḴBER-AL-DAWLA.

• BĀB, ʿAli Moḥammad Širāzi

  D. M. MacEoin

  the founder of Babism (1819-1850).

• ČAḠĀNRŪD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Čaḡānīrūd in Farroḵī, the seventh and last right-bank tributary of the Oxus or Amu Darya.

• DĪBĀ, MAḤMŪD KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĀʾ-al-MOLK.

• BAM EARTHQUAKE

  Manuel Berberian

  OF DECEMBER 26, 2003  A moderate-magnitude (Mw 6.6) earthquake struck the city of Bam and its surroundings at 05:26 AM local time (01:56 GMT) on Friday, 5 Dey 1382 Š./26 December 2003, resulting in the highest casualty rate and the most profound social impact in the recorded post-1900 history of devastating urban earthquakes in Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠOSL

  Cross-Reference

  See CLEANSING.

• ĀDĀ

  J. Duchesne-Guillemin

  “requital” in Avestan.

• ARNOLD, THOMAS WALKER

  B. W. Robinson

  , Sir (1864-1930), British orientalist.

• BISOTUN ii. Archeology

  Heinz Luschey

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CYROPOLIS

  Igor V. P’yankov

  (Latin form of Gr. Kuroúpolis), ancient town in Central Asia probably founded by Cyrus the Great (559-30 B.C.E.).

• ELWELL-SUTTON, LAURENCE PAUL

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (b. Ballylickey, Cork County, Ireland, 2 June 1912-d. Edinburgh, 2 September 1984), scholar of Islamic and modern Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MOḤSENI, Akbar

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi

  (1912-1995) composer and prominent performer of the Ud (lute).

• ḠIĀṮ AL-LOḠĀT

  Solomon Bayevsky

  lit. "Aid in [the explication of] vocabulary," punning on the author’s name; a Persian dictionary compiled in India in 1827 by the linguist, philologist, and poet Moḥammad Ḡiāṯ- al-Din b. Jamāl-al-Din b. Jamāl-al-Din b. Šaraf-al-Din Rāmpuri Moṣṭafā-ābādi.

• GABAIN, ANNEMARIE VON

  Peter Zieme

  (1901-1993), German scholar who worked in the field of Central Asian (primarily Turkic) studies, first as a linguist but later as an art historian.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HERBARIUMS

  cross-reference

  See BOTANICAL STUDIES iii.

• ʿABD-AL-JABBĀR

  D. Duda

  Calligrapher at the Safavid court in Isfahan in the time of Shah ʿAbbās I (17th century).

• ALQĀS MĪRZA

  C. Fleischer

  second of Shah Esmāʿīl’s four surviving sons (1516-1550) and leader of a revolt.

• BĀBAY OF NISIBIS

  N. Sims-Williams

  Christian Syriac writer who flourished about the beginning of the seventh century CE; a homily of his is attested in Sogdian.

• ČAKAR

  Mansour Shaki

  a Middle Persian legal term denoting a widow who at the death of her “authorized” (pādixšāyīhā) husband without issue was obliged to enter into a levirate marriage (čakarīh) in order to provide him with male offspring (frazand).

• DIOGENES LAERTIUS

  Wolfgang Felix

  author of a biographically arranged history of Greek philosophy in ten books that also deals with the Persian Magi, especially in the first book on the origins of philosophy.

• PERICLES

  Ernst Badian

  (ca. 495-429 BCE), Athenian politician and commander in the period after the major victories over the forces of Xerxes I.

• GRAPES

  Cross-Reference

  See ANGŪR.

• ISLAM IN IRAN xiv - xviii

  Cross-Reference

• ADMINISTRATION in Iran

  Multiple Authors

• ART IN IRAN ix. SAFAVID To Qajar Periods

  A. Welch

• BĀYSONḠORĪ ŠĀH-NĀMA

  Dj. Khaleghi Motlagh, T. Lentz

  an illuminated and gilded manuscript of Ferdowsī’s Šāh-nāma measur­ing 26.5 × 38 cm, containing 346 pages and twenty-one paintings, written in nastaʿlīq, and kept in the former Royal Library (Golestan Palace Museum, no. 6) in Tehran. i. The manuscript.  ii. The paintings.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DĀDGĀH

  Cross-Reference

  fire. See ĀTAŠ.

• FARANGĪS

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  eldest daughter of Afrāsīāb and wife of Sīāvaḵš.

• EMIGRATION

  Cross-Reference

  See HUMAN MIGRATION.

• MARD-e EMRUZ

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini

  a controversial and highly popular newspaper published weekly in Tehran, with frequent interruptions, from 19 August 1942 to 14 February 1947, by Mohammad Mas’ud.

• MITHRAISM

  Roger Beck

  the cult of Mithra as it developed in the West, its origins, its features, and its probable connection with Mithra worship in Iran.

• GĀVBĀZĪ

  Christian Bromberger

  arranged fights between bulls. These now take place only in the Caspian provinces of Gīlān and Mazandarān. In the past, however, they were common throughout Persia and formed part of the entertainment in local festivities along with other games involving pitting animals and creatures of all kinds against each other.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HERZFELD, ERNST iii. HERZFELD AND PERSEPOLIS

  Hubertus von Gall

  Herzfeld first visited Persepolis in November 1905 during his return from the Assur excavation. He returned to Persepolis during his expedition to Persia, Iraq, and Afghanistan, which lasted from February 1923 to October 1925.

• ʿABD-AL-QĀDER KHAN JĀʾEŠĪ

  M. Baqir

  Late Mughal biographer (18th-19th century).

• ʿĀMELĪ, ʿABD-AL-MONʿEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-MONʿEM ʿĀMELĪ.

• BĀDĀM

  X. de Planhol, N. Ramazani

  “almond.”  i. General.  ii. As food.  The genus Amygdalus is very common in Iran and Afghanistan and throughout the Turco-Iranian area.

• ČAMRŪŠ

  Alan V. Williams

  a mythical bird that in the Pahlavi books, of all birds of land and sky, is second only to the Sēn bird in worth.

• DOḴĀNĪYĀT

  Willem Floor

  tobacco projects; referring to the State tobacco-monopoly law (Qānūn-e enḥeṣār-e dawlatī-e doḵānīyāt) of 20 March 1909 and to the state monopoly of tobacco products itself.

• CLASS SYSTEM iv. Classes In Medieval Islamic Persia

  Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi

• YAZD iv. THE JEWISH DIALECT OF YAZD

  Thamar E. Gindin

   The name “Judeo-Yazdi” is applied to a Central dialect spoken by some Jews of Yazd. The Jewish community of Yazd is one of the oldest in Persia. Although it had never been large, it was divided into two neighborhoods, referred to as ma:le (NPers. maḥalla).

• GRIBOEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGEEVICH

  George Bournoutian

  (b. Moscow, 1794; k. Tehran, 1829), Russian writer, poet, and playwright, whose most famous work is the play Gore ot uma (Woe from wit).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Italy xii. TRANSLATIONS OF ITALIAN WORKS INTO PERSIAN

  MARIO CASARI

  Two texts by Italian authors appear to be the first known translations of European literary works into Persian carried out in the modern age.

• AFRĀSĪĀB i. The Archeological Site

  G. A. Pugachenkova and Ī. V. Rtveladze

  the ruined site of ancient and medieval Samarqand in the northern part of the modern town.

• ARTHROPODS

  ʿA. Aḥmadī and R. G. Tuck, Jr.

  or ARTHROPODA, largest and undoubtedly most diverse animal phylum, comprising an estimated seventy-five to eighty percent of all known species in the kingdom; representatives of both major extant subdivisions occur within Iran.

• BEDLĪSĪ, ŻĪĀʾ-AL-DĪN ʿAMMĀR

  Edward Badeen

  Sufi shaikh (d. between 1194 and 1207-08), teacher of Najm-al-Din Kobrā.

• DĀʿĪ-E KABĪR

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤASAN b. ZAYD.

• FARHANG-E TĀRĪḴĪ-E ZABĀN-E FĀRSĪ

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  a comprehensive historical dictionary of the Persian language, of which only one volume has been published so far.

• ENSĀN-E KĀMEL

  Gerhard Böwering

  lit. "the Perfect Human Being"; a key idea in the philosophy and ethics of Islamic mysticism.

• KAŠF O ŠOHUD

  Cyrus Ali Zargar

  (“unveiling and witnessing”), terms commonly used by Muslim mystics to describe the acquisition of esoteric knowledge and the constant first-hand encountering of the divine presence. 

• PELLIOT, PAUL

  Samuel Lieu

  (1878-1945), French orientalist who particularly contributed to the study of the languages and  history of the diverse religions and cultures of Central Asia.

• GALĪN QAYA

  Cross-Reference

  dialect. See HARZANDĪ.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY xiii. THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

  cross-reference

  See INDIA xvi.

• ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ BEG

  J. R. Perry

  (1176-1243/1762-63 to 1827-28), literary biographer, poet, and historian of the early Qajar period.

• AMĪN-AL-SOLṬĀN, ʿALĪ-AṢḠAR KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ATĀBAK-E AʿẒAM.

• BADRĪ KAŠMĪRĪ

  Z. Safa

  Persian poet in India in the second half of the 16th century.

• ČĀRJŪY

  Cross-reference

  See ĀMOL.

• DORRĀNĪ DYNASTY

  Cross-Reference

  See AFGHANISTAN x.

• COMMERCE vii. In the Pahlavi and post-Pahlavi periods

  Vahid Nowshirvani

  A prominent feature of Persian export trade was the steady rise in both the value and volume of oil shipments through almost the entire Pahlavi period until the Revolution, when this trend was reversed. Because of the large increase in price in 1352 Š./1973 the value of Persian oil exports climbed substantially more than the volume in the 1970s. Other exports fared less well.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SEVRUGUIN, ANTOIN

  Aphrodite Désirée Navab

  Armenian–Iranian photographer (b. Tehran, late 1830s; d. Tehran, 1933). Sevruguin’s reputation as a portrait photographer soon came to the attention of Nāṣer-al-Din Shah (r. 1848-1896), who appointed him as one of the official court photographers. Of the more than 7,000 glass-plate negatives that Sevruguin made, only 696 have survived.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GURĀNI

  D. N. Mackenzie

  comprises a group of similar North-west Iranian dialects which includes that of Kandula, 25 miles north-north-west of Kermānšāh, and Bāǰalānī, in the region around Zohāb and Qaṣr-e Šīrīn, with an offshoot among the Šabak, Ṣārlī, and Bāǰalān (Bēǰwān) villages east of the city of Mosul in Iraq.

• JAGHATAY

  cross-reference

  See CHAGHATAYID DYNASTY.

• ĀḠĀ MOḤAMMAD KHAN QĀJĀR

  J. R. Perry

  (r. 1203-12/1789-97), founder of the Qajar dynasty.

• ASADĀBĀD

  C. E. Bosworth

  names of a town in the medieval Islamic province of Jebāl.

• BEHZĀD

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  in the traditional history, the name of the black horse belonging successively to Sīāvoš, Kay Ḵosrow, and Goštāsb.

• DĀMI

  Jean Kellens

  Avestan word, probably the noun of agency connected with Old Avestan dāman- “stake," thus “the one who drives the stake.”

• FARNŪDSĀR

  See NAẒEM-AL-AṬEBBĀʾ.

• ERĀDA-YE MELLĪ

  Pīrāya Yaḡmāʾī

  lit. "national will"; a pro-British political party founded on 19 January 1944 by Sayyed Żīāʾ al-Dīn Ṭabāṭabāʾī (1891-1969), a devout anglophile politician and journalist.

• MOHALLABI, Abu Moḥammad

  Maurice Pomerantz

  vizier and literary patron.

• KAIFENG

  Donald D. Leslie

  medieval capital of the Northern Song dynasty (960-1127) and home of a Judeo-Persian community.

• GANJAʾĪ, REŻĀ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (1918-1995), journalist, cabinet member, and university professor.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HONEY

  Hushang Aʿlam

  (ʿasal, archaic Pers. angobin).  In Iranian lore, according to the Nowruz-nāma, Hušang, the second  Pišdādiān king, first “brought out honey from the zanbur (“wasp”).

• ABDĀLĪ

  C. M. Kieffer

  ancient name of a large tribe, or more particularly of a group of Afghan tribes, better known by the name of Dorrānī since the reign of Aḥmad Šāh Dorrānī (1747-72). 

• AMĪRAK BAYHAQĪ

  C. E. Bosworth

  (d. 448/1056), intelligence officer in Khorasan under the early Ghaznavids.

• BAḠDĀDĪ, ABU’L-FAŻL

  H. Algar

  (d. 1155), Sufi whose name appears in the initiatic chain of the Neʿmatallāhī order.

• CASSIODORUS, Magnus Aurelius

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  (b. ca. 485, d. after A.D. 580), Latin author of three historical works containing material on Iran.

• DRYPETIS

  RÜDIGER SCHMITT

  (Gk. Drýpĕtis [Arrian] or Drypêtis [Diodorus]), daughter of Darius III Codomannus and younger sister of Stateira; in the collective wedding arranged by Alexander the Great at Susa in 324 B.C.E. she was given in marriage to Hephaestion.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS ii. In the Parthian and Sasanian periods

  Philippe Gignoux

• BANDAR-E LENGA

  D. T. Potts

  (lat 26° 33’ N, long 54° 53’ E), a small port on the coast of Lārestān.

• HĀDI SABZAVĀRI

  Seyyed Hossein Nasr

  , Shaikh Mollā (1797-1873), the most famous Islamic philosopher of the Qajar period, as well as an outstanding theologian and a notable poet.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JALĀLZĀDA

  Tahsın Yazici

  , MOṢṬAFĀ ÇELEBI, also known as “Koja Nişancı” (Ḵᵛāja Nešānči), Ottoman historian and administrator (b. ca. 1490-94; d. 1567).

• AḤMAD B. BAHBAL

  Hameed ud-Din

  Mughal historian and author of a Persian work, Maʿdan-e aḵbār-e Aḥmadī, also known as Maʿdan-e aḵbār-e Jahāngīrī. 

• AŠƎM VOHŪ

  B. Schlerath

  the second of the four great prayers of the Zoroastrians, the others being: Ahuna vairyō (Y. 27.13), Yeŋˊhē hātąm (Y. 27.15), and Airyəˊmā išyō (Y. 54.1).

• BESMEL ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Zabihollah Safa

  , ḤĀJĪ ʿALĪ-AKBAR, also known as Nawwāb, Persian writer and poet of note of the 18th-19th centuries.

• DAQQĀQ, ABŪ ʿALĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ʿALĪ DAQQĀQ.

• FARYĀD

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the title of seven publications in Persian.

• ESʿAD DEDE, MEHMED

  Tahsın Yazici

  Moḥammad Asʿad Dada (b. Salonika, 1841; d. Istanbul, 9 August 1911), Turkish author and Sufi poet of the Mawlawī order.

• MOFAŻŻAL al-JOʿFI

  Mushegh Asatryan

  a prominent member of the Kufan ḡolāt and companion of the sixth and seventh Shiʿite imams Jaʿfar al-Ṣādeq and Musa al-Kāẓem.

• ZAMYĀD YAŠT

  Pallan Ichaporia

  Yašt 19, the last in sequence of the great pieces of the Yašt hymn collection of the Younger Avesta.

• AMRĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ

  I. K. Poonawala

  (d. 999/1590-91 [?], poet and Sufi from Kūhpāya, a village near Isfahan.

• BAHĀR (1)

  Ḡ.-Ḥ. Yūsofī

  a Persian literary, scientific, political, and social-affairs monthly, 1910-11, 1921-22. Bahār represented a departure from traditional Persian journalism; readers found its willingness to discuss contemporary literature and literary criticism a refreshing change.

• ČEHEL TANĀN

  Kerāmat-Allāh Afsar

  (“the forty dervishes,” popularly called Čeltan), a minor takīya (monastery) situated in the northeastern section of Shiraz, a short distance north of the tomb of Ḥāfeẓ and south of Haft Tanān (“the seven dervishes”).

• DUPREE, LOUIS

  David B. Edwards

  (b. Greenville, N.C., 23 August 1925, d. Durham, N.C., 21 March 1989), American anthropologist who specialized in Afghan studies.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ELAM vii. Non-Elamite texts in Elam

  SYLVIE LACKENBACHER

• MODARRESI, Taqi

  Nasrin Rahimieh

  (1931-1997), Persian novelist and psychiatrist.

• ḤĀFEẒ-E ʿAJAM

  Tahsin Yazıcı

  , HĀFEẒ-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD, scholar of religion and author (d. 1550).

• JĀMĀSPI

  Cross-Reference

  See AYĀDGĀR I JĀMĀSPIG.

• AḤMAD SHAH DORRĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See AFGHANISTAN X. POLITICAL HISTORY.

• ʿAŠKARĪ, ʿALĪ AL-HĀDĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ AL-HĀDĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN AL-ʿASKARĪ.

• BHARUCHA, SHERIARJI DADABHAI

  Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa

  Parsi scholar (1843-1915). During the last years of his life he was criticized for his reformist views that the Zoroastrian religion was not meant for a particular fold but was open for all.

• DARBAND (1)

  Erich Kettenhofen

  (Ar. Bāb al-Abwāb), ancient city in Dāḡestān on the western shore of the Caspian Sea, located at the entrance to the narrow pass between the Caucasus foothills and the sea.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FATWĀ

  Hamid Algar

  the authoritative ruling of a religious scholar on questions of Islamic jurisprudence that are either dubious or obscure in nature or which have newly arisen without known precedent.

• ESFANDĪĀRĪ, ḤĀJJ MOḤTAŠAM-AL-SALṬANA ḤASAN

  Bāqer ʿĀqelī

  (b. 23 April 1867; d. 24 February 1945), politician, governor, and speaker of the Majles.

• MEDḤAT PASHA

  Necati Alkan

  A liberal Ottoman statesman of the 19th century, who served both as provincial governor and grand vizier (b. Istanbul, 18 October 1822; d. Ṭāʾef, 8 May 1884).

• LURISTAN BRONZES i. THE FIELD RESEARCH

  Bruno Overlaet

  The label “Luristan bronzes”  designates a series of decorated bronze objects in a specific local style dating from the Iron Age (ca. 1300/1250 to 700/650 BCE). These bronzes became known through large-scale illegal excavations starting in the late 1920s, but their cultural context and provenance remained uncertain for a long time and the label is often wrongfully used—usually for commercial reasons—for bronze objects from other regions or periods.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GAZĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ISFAHAN xxii.

• HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

  cross-reference

  See MAJLES.

• ABĪVARD

  C. E. Bosworth

   a town in medieval northern Khorasan.

• ANBARIN QALAM, ‘ABD-AL-RAḤĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-RAḤĪM ʿANBARĪN QALAM.

• BAḤR-E ṬAWĪL

  M. Dabīrsīāqī

  a type of Persian verse. generally the repetition of a whole foot (rokn) of the meter hazaj (ᴗ - - -) or of a whole foot of the meter ramal (- ᴗ - -) or a variation of the two.

• ČEŠTĪYA

  Gerhard Böwering

  the name of an influential Sufi order in India, derived from the name of the village of Češt.

• EBERMAN, VASILIĬ ALEKSANDROVICH

  A. B. Khaledov

  (b. St. Petersburg, 1899, d. Orel, 1937), scholar of early Persian poets writing in Arabic.

• FACULTIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TEHRAN iv. Faculty of Letters and Humanities

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

• ASMUSSEN, Jes Peter

  Werner Sundermann

  scholar of Iranian studies (1928-2002).

• ḤĀJI BĀBĀ OF EṢFAHĀN

  cross-reference

  See HAJJI BABA OF ISPAHAN.

• ĀʾĪN GOŠASP

  A. Tafażżolī

  a general of Hormazd IV (A.D. 579-590), sent by him to campaign against the rebellious general Bahrām Čūbīn.

• ĀŠRAF, town in Māzandarān

  Cross-Reference

  town in Māzandarān. See BEHŠAHR.

• BĪGDELĪ

  Gerhard Doerfer

  (or Bēgdelī, also Bagdīlū), a former Turkish tribe; the name Bīgdelī appears to have survived only in personal names.

• DARRA-YE NŪR

  Daniel Balland

  name of a small tributary valley on the right bank of the Konar river in eastern Afghanistan and the corresponding subdistrict of Nangrahār province.

• FELFEL

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  modern Persian term designating the fruits and/or berries of two botanically different groups of plants: the pepper proper and the capsicum peppers.

• ESLĀM

  Cross-Reference

  See ISLAM in IRAN.

• ḴALIL-ALLĀH ŠAH

  Nasrollah Pourjavady

  (or Sayyed) BORHĀN-AL-DIN (b. 1373-74, d. 1455-56), the only son of the Sufi master, Šāh Neʿmat-Allāh Wali of Kermān.

• GEORGIA

  Multiple Authors

  (Pers. Gorjestān; Ar. al-Korj). This series of entries covers Georgia and its relations with Iran.

• HYDE, THOMAS

  A. V. Williams

  , D.D., English orientalist, Professor of Arabic and Hebrew in the University of Oxford, the first scholar to attempt to write a comprehensive description of the religion of Zoroaster (1636-1703).

• ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD B. ŠĀḎĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  governor (ʿamīd) of Balḵ and northern Afghanistan under the Saljuq ruler of Khorasan, Čaḡrī Beg Dāʾūd, and then under his son, Alp Arslan.

• ANGRA MAINYU

  Cross-Reference

  See AHRIMAN.

• BĀḴARZ

  C. E. Bosworth

  or Govāḵarz, a district of the medieval Islamic province of Qūhestān/Qohestān in Khorasan.

• CHILIARCH

  Philippe Gignoux

  Greek title of one of the chief offices of state in Achaemenid Persia, presumably translated from Old Persian hazārapati-, attested in Greek as azarapateîs, explained as eisaggeleîs, that is, announcers or ushers.

• EBN DĀʿĪ RĀZĪ, ABŪ TORĀB ṢAFĪ-AL-DĪN MORTAŻĀ

  Marco Salami

  b. Dāʿī b. Qāsem Rāzī Ḥosaynī (or Ḥasanī), known as ʿAlam-al-Hodā (d. after 1132), Imami traditionist and author of a heresiography in Persian.

• NABIL-E AKBAR

  Minou Foadi

  title of Āqā Moḥammad Qāʾeni, a prominent Bahai author and apologist (1829-92).

• ḤALWĀ

  Etrat Elahi

  (Ar. ḥalwāʾ, Pers. ḥalwā “sweetmeat”), a generic term applied to various kinds of sweet dishes and fruits.

• JAXARTES

  cross-reference

  See SIR DARYA.

• AKES

  M. A. Dandamayev

  (Greek Akēs), a river in Central Asia, the modern Tejen or Harī-rūd (q.v.).

• ĀŠTĪĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  the name both of an administrative subdistrict (dehestān) and its chef-lieu in the First Province (ostān).

• BĪŽAN-NAMA

  William Hanaway, Jr.

  an epic poem of about 1,900 lines relating the adventures of the legendary hero Bīžan son of Gīv.

• DAŠNAK

  ARAM ARKUN

  short name for Hay Yełapʿoxakan Dašnakcʿutʿiwn (Armenian revolutionary federation [A.R.F.]) or its members.

• EŠRĀQ ḴĀVARĪ, ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD

  Vahid Rafati

  (b. Mašhad, 1902; d. Tehran, 1972), Bahai scholar, teacher, and author.

• SOUTH PERSIA RIFLES

  Floreeda Safiri

  (SPR), a locally recruited militia, commanded by British officers, and operating in the provinces of Fārs and Kermān from 1916 to 1921.

• ILDEGOZIDS

  cross-reference

  See ATĀBAKĀN-E ĀḎARBĀYJĀN.

• ABŪ ʿEKREMA

  D. M. Dunlop

  a freedman of Banū Ḥamdān, regarded as the first ʿAbbasid propagandist in Khorasan.

• ANŌŠAZĀD

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  (in the Šāh-nāma, Nōšzād; the name means “son of the immortal”), a son of Ḵosrow I Anōšīravān and leader of a revolt in ca. 550 CE.

• BALʿAMĪ, ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD

  cross-reference

  B. MOḤAMMAD. See AMĪRAK BALʿAMĪ.

• ČIÇANTAXMA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  an Iranian personal name signifying “brave in lineage.”

• EBN ḴORDĀḎBEH, ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. ʿAbd-Allāh (fl. 9th century), author of the earliest surviving Arabic book of administrative geography.

• MAŠREQ AL-AḎKĀR

  Moojan Momen

  (the Dawning-Place of the Remembrance [of God]), a Bahai term having three meanings.  The first meaning is a gathering which is held, ideally at dawn, to say prayers and recite from scripture; the second meaning is a building to be constructed in every community in which this dawn gathering takes place; and the third meaning is a complex of edifices centered around the prayer building but including other auxiliary social and humanitarian institutions as well. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FOX i. NATURAL HISTORY

  Steven C. Anderson

  small member of the dog family (Canidae). They occur throughout most of the world, with four species in Iran and Afghanistan, i. NATURAL HISTORY.

• HAMMER-PURGSTALL, JOSEPH FREIHERR von

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  prolific Austrian orientalist, among whose many works is the first ever complete translation of the Divān of Ḥāfeẓ into a Western language (1774-1856).

• JIROFT i. Geography of Jiroft Sub-Province

  M. Badanj and EIr.

  Located in the south of Kerman Province, the sub-province of Jiroft is bound by those of Kermān (north), Bam (east), ʿAnbarābād and Kahnuj (south), and Bāft (west).

• ĀL-E BĀBĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀBĀN.

• ĀTAŠ, AḤMAD

  cross-reference

  See  ATEŞ, AHMED.

• BOLANDMĀZŪ

  cross-reference

  See BALŪṬ.

• DAULIER DESLANDES

  ANNE KROELL

  (b. Montoire-sur-le-Loir, 1621, d. Paris, 23 October 1715), author of Les Beautez de la Perse ..., a brief but valuable description of Safavid Persia in the years 1075-76/1664-65.

• FIRE ALTARS

  Mark Garrison

  a structure used to to hold fire for urposes of veneration, probably contained within a metal or clay bowl. The term should probably be restricted to those structures which have a clear Zoroastrian religious context.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ETTINGHAUSEN, RICHARD

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  (1906-79), a German-born and educated scholar specializing in the study of Islamic art.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• SWEDEN i. PERSIAN ART COLLECTIONS

  Karin

  Persian art collections in Sweden contain items from the prehistoric period (3600 BCE) to the 19th century. The first artifacts of possibly Iranian origin were brought by Vikings (or Rus), who traveled to the shores of the Caspian and there met with merchants from Iran. Notably a 9th-century glass beaker and two bronze jugs, finds from Viking burial sites, bear witness to these contacts.

• GĪLAKĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See GĪLĀN x. Languages

• ABŪ ḤAFṢ ḤADDĀD

  J. Chabbi

  an ascetic who was born and lived in Nīšāpūr, d. between 265/874 and 270/879.

• APARIMITĀYUḤ-SŪTRA

  R. E. Emmerick

  a Buddhist text belonging to the Mahāyāna tradition. It is concerned with the merit obtained by recalling the Buddha called Aparimitāyurjñānasuviniścitarāja.

• BAMPŪR

  B. de Cardi, ʿA.-A. Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  i. Prehistoric Site. ii. In Modern Times. Bampūr is a baḵš and qaṣaba (borough) in the šahrestān of Īrānšahr in the province of Balūčestān o Sīstān. The plain of Bampūr is encircled by several high mountains.

• CIVIL CODE

  Naser Yeganeh

  (qānūn-e madanī) of Persia, a series of regulations controlling all civic and social relations between individuals in the various circumstances of their lives.

• EBN SAʿD, ʿOMAR

  Jean Calmard

  (k. Kūfa 686), commander of the Omayyad troops at Karbalāʾ.

• OAK

  Cross-Reference

  See BALŪṬ.

• SOAP

  Willem Floor

  Soap (Ar. and Pers. ṣābun) was manufactured in Persia from antiquity. In the 10th century, various Persian towns produced soap, among them Bost, Balkh, and Arrajān.

• HAREM ii. IN THE QAJAR PERIOD

  Anna Vanzan

  Women played an important role in the life of the Qajar monarchs. Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah and Nāṣer-al-Din Shah, in particular, kept a large harem.

• JOURNALISM iii. Post-Revolution Era

  Hossein Shahidi

  At the time of the 1978-79 Revolution, there were about 100 newspapers in Iran, of which twenty-three were dailies. Within two years of the revolution, 700 new titles had appeared.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DAWLA ḤASAN B. ROSTAM

  W. Madelung

  B. ʿALĪ B. ŠAHRĪĀR, ŠARAF-AL-MOLŪK, Bavandid ruler of Māzandarān. According to the account of Ebn Esfandīār, he reigned from 558/1163 to 566/1171. 

• AURELIUS VICTOR

  M. L. Chaumont

  born in Africa ca. 325/330, held high positions under Julian and Theodosius.

• BORHĀN-AL-MAʾĀṮER

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• DĀWŪD B. MOʾMEN

  Cross-Reference

  See JEWISH PERSIAN LITERATURE.

• EYVĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See AYVĀN.

• WERTIME, Theodore

  Roya Arab

  (b. Chambersburg, Pa., 31 August 1919; d. Chambersburg, 8 April 1982), diplomat and scholar, expert on the history of technology in the ancient Middle East.

• ḠOBAYRĀ

  A. D. H. Bivar

  medieval township in Kermān province, located at 57° 29 E and 47° N, 70 km by road south of Kermān City (historical Bardsir) at the intersection of the medieval eastern highway and the route from Kermān to Bāft, Esfandaqa, and Jiroft.

• INOSTRANTSEV, KONSTANTIN ALEXANDROVICH

  Aliy I. Kolesnikov

  (1876-1941), Russian orientalist and historian of culture, best known abroad as the author of Sasanidskie et’udy (Etudes sassanides).

• ABŪ ʿĪSĀ WARRĀQ

  W. M. Watt

  heretical theologian of the 3rd/9th century.

• ʿAQD-NĀMA

  L. S. Diba

  contract, now specifically marriage contract.

• BANĪ SĀLA

  J. Perry

  a Shiʿite Arab tribe of Howayza (Ḥawīza) district in Ḵūzestān.

• CODOMANNUS

  Cross-Reference

  See DARIUS III.

• EBRĀHĪM ḴALĪL KHAN JAVĀNŠĪR

  GEORGE A. BOURNOUTIAN

  Khan of Qarābāḡ in late 18th century.

• ENGLISH iv. Translations Of Modern Persian Literature

  Michael Beard

• ORIENTAL INSTITUTE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

  Kamyar Abdi

  a major research center devoted to the study of the history, languages, and archeology of the ancient Near East, and Egypt.

• ḤASAN BOZORG B. ḤOSAYN

  cross-reference

  See JALAYERIDS.

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS i. ACHAEMENID JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS

  F. Rachel Magdalene

  This entry will be divided into the following sections: i. Achaemenid systems.  ii. Parthian and Sasanian judicial system. iii. Sasanian legal system. iv. Judicial system, advent of Islam through the 19th century. v. Judicial system, 20th century. vi. Legal system, Islamic period.

• ALAMŪT DIALECTS

  Cross-Reference

  See QAZVĪN DIALECTS.

• AWRŌMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  or AWRŌMĀNI, See AVROMAN; AVROMANI.

• BOYEKAN

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  the name of a mec naxarar “great satrap,” defeated and killed at Ṭʿawrēš (Tabrīz) by the Armenian general Vasak under Šāpūr II (r. 309-79).

• DEH-E NOW

  Hubertus von Gall

  site of a group of four rock-cut tombs of the 4th-3rd centuries BCE, located about 25 km south of Bīsotūn in Kermānšāhān. It is possible that at least the two smaller tombs were astōdāns.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ARCHITECTURE v. Islamic, pre-Safavid

  O. Grabar

  The beginnings of an Islamic architecture in Iran are still almost impossible to identify properly. Remaining monuments are few, most of them are very uncertainly dated, and literary information is scanty or difficult to interpret.

• FAḴR-E MODABBER

  EIr

  pen-name of Moḥammad b. Manṣūr b. Saʿīd, entitled Mobārakšāh, author of two prose works in Persian written in India in the late 12th and early 13th century, a book on genealogy with no formal title and the famous Ādāb al-ḥarb wa’l-šajāʿa.

• KHADEMI, Ali Mohammad

  Chapour Rassekh

  (1913-1978), Air Force officer, first general manager of Iran Air 1962-78.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠOLĀM-ʿALI KHAN, AMIR TUMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAZĪZ-AL-SOLṬĀN.

• ABŪ NAṢR FĀRĀBĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See FĀRĀBĪ, ABŪ NAṢR.

• ARANG

  C. J. Brunner

  a river in ancient Iranian tradition.

• BARĀ’A

  E. Kohlberg

  an Imami theological term denoting dissociation from the enemies of the imams. During the conflict between ʿAlī and Moʿāwīa, formulas of dissociation were used by both parties.

• CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF PERSIAN MONUMENTS

  Eugenio Galdieri and Kerāmat-Allāh Afsar

  in almost every historical period some restoration of Persian monuments has been undertaken either by state authorities or through the efforts of charitable individuals.

• KHACHIKIAN, Samuel

  Jamsheed Akrami

  (Sāmuʾel Ḵāčikiān), Iranian filmmaker (b. 20 October 1923, Tabriz; d. 21 October 2001, Tehran).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAXAMĀNIŠ

  cross-reference

  See ACHAEMENES.

• ʿALĪ B. ABĪ ṬĀLEB

  I. K. Poonawala, E. Kohlberg

  (b. ca. 600, d. 40/661), cousin and son-in-law of the prophet Moḥammad, first Shiʿite Imam, father of the Imams Ḥasan and Ḥosayn by Fāṭema, and fourth caliph (35-40/656-61).

• ĀYROM, MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN KHAN

  M. Amanat

  army commander and the head of the police under Reżā Shah (r. 1304-20 Š./1925-41).

• BROADBEAN

  cross-reference

  See BĀQELĀ.

• DEMOCEDES

  RÜDIGER SCHMITT

  (Gk. Dēmokḗdēs), Greek physician attached to the court of Darius I and praised as “the most skillful physician of his time” by Herodotus.

• AVICENNA x. Medicine and Biology

  B. Musallam

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FAQĪR-ALLĀH JALĀLĀBĀDĪ

  Cross-reference

  See AFGHANISTAN xii. LITERATURE.

• MADĀʾEN

  Michael Morony

  the Sasanian metropolitan area of several contiguous cities, on both sides of the Tigris and connected by floating bridges, about 35 km southeast of Abbasid Baghdad.

• GOLPĀYAGĀNI, ABU’L-FAŻL

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-FAŻL GOLPĀYEGĀNĪ.

• IRAN AND THE CAUCASUS

  Victoria Arakelova

  the annual international academic journal of the Caucasian Centre for Iranian Studies, Yerevan (CCIS), founded in 1997.

• ABŪ SAHL ḤAMDOWĪ

  Ḡ. Ḥ. Yūsofī

  Ghaznavid official of the 4th-5th/11th century.

• ARDAKĀN-E FĀRS

  C. E. Bosworth

  a small upland town of the ostān of Fārs.

• JĀMI iii. And Persian Art

  Chad Kia

• CORNELIAN CHERRY

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  the male cornel tree, a dogwood shrub with edible berries.

• EDUCATION xxiv. EDUCATION IN POSTREVOLUTIONARY PERSIA, 1979-95

  Golnar Mehran

• KĀMRĀN MIRZĀ

  Sunil Sharma

  second son of the founder of the Mughal empire, Ẓahir-al-Din Moḥammad Bābor (q.v.) and of Golroḵ Begom, and half-brother of the emperor Homāyun (q.v.).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FORŪGĪ BESṬĀMĪ, ʿABBĀS

  Heshmat Moayyad

  or BASṬĀMĪ (b. Karbalā, 1798; d. Tehran, 1857), 19th-century poet.

• HEALTH IN PERSIA ii. MEDIEVAL PERIOD

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ABĀN B. ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD

  I. Abbas

  Late 2nd/8th century poet. He was of a Persian family, originally from Fasā, which had settled (probably at an early date) in Baṣra.

• ʿALĪ AKBAR ḴEṬĀʾĪ

  T. Yazici

  (15th-16th centuries), author of the Persian Ḵeṭāy-nāma or “Book of Cathay,” i.e., of China.

• ĀẔARBĀDAGĀN

  cross-reference

  See AZERBAIJAN.

• BURHANPUR

  Nisar Ahmed Faruqi

  (Borhānpūr), city in Madhya Pradesh (formerly Central Provinces and Berar), India, on the Tapti river, 275 miles northeast of Bombay.

• DĒWĀŠTĪČ

  Boris Marshak

  ruler of Sogdia (706?-22), referred to as “prince of Panč” (Panjīkant) and as “king of Sogdia, ruler of Samarkand” in the portion of his archives discovered at the castle on Mount Mug (Mōḡ), east of Samarkand, on the upper course of the Zarafšān river.

• BAZAR ii. Organization and Function

  Willem Floor

  Both weekly market days and regular fairs occurred in pre-Islamic times. Among the latter, for example, was the bāzār of Māḵ in Bukhara.

• ḴELʿAT

  Willem Floor

  (Ar. ḵelʿa, pl. ḵelaʿ), term used in Iran, India, Central Asia for gifts, but in particular a robe of honor.

• GONDOPHARES

  A. D. H. Bivar

  Indo-Parthian king (20-46 C.E.) in Drangiana, Arachosia, and especially in the Punjab.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ABŪ TORĀB WALĪ

  S. Moinul Haq

  noble in the service of Akbar and author of Tārīḵ-e Goǰrāt, a short history of that province from the reign of Bahādor Shah (932-43/1526-36), with an account of his wars against Homāyūn, through Akbar’s conquest and up to 992/1584.

• ARG

  J. R. Perry

  (or ARK), the inner fortress or citadel of a walled city.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BARSOM YAŠT

  P. O. Skjærvø

  in the liturgical manuscripts of the Avesta the name of the second hād (chapter) of the Yasna.

• CROCUS

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  generic name of a large number of hardy bulbous flowering plants of the family Iridaceae.

• EḴTESĀN, TĀJ-AL-MOLK MOḤAMMAD

  Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi

  b. Aḥmad b. Ḥasan ʿAbdūsī Dehlavī (1300-51), author in Persian and secretary (dabīr) at the courts of the Tughluqid sultans Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Tōḡloq and his son Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Mo-ḥammad.

• YUSOF

  Cross-Reference

  son of the biblical patriarch Jacob. The story of Joseph has always been a source of attractive subject matters for the exegetists of the Qurʾān, poets, miniaturists, and popular tales. See JOSEPH.

• ĀS

  Mehdi Roschanzamir

  a game of playing cards which became popular in the Qajar era, and hence replaced ganjafa, the card game associated with the Safavids.

• FRĀRĀST

  Cross-reference

  See WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

• HELL

  Philippe Gignoux

  This entry will treat the concept of hell in the Iranian culture under two rubrics.

• ʿABBĀSĪ, ŠAYḴ

  R. Skelton

  A Safavid miniature painter, whose known works include seventeen signed and dated examples executed between the years 1060/1650 and 1095/1683-84.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĪ-QOLĪ JOBBA-DĀR

  P. P. Soucek

  painter active in Qazvīn and Isfahan during the late 11th/17th and early 12th/18th centuries.

• AZRAQĪ HERAVĪ

  Dj. Khaleghi Motlagh

  the pen-name of Abū Bakr b. Esmāʿīl Warrāq of Herat, a Persian poet of the 5th/11th century.

• ČAḠADĀY

  Cross-reference

  second son of Čengīz Khan. See CHAGHATAYID DYNASTY.

• DĪĀLA

  Cross-Reference

  river. See ARVAND-RŪD.

• TAʿZIA

  Peter Chelkowski

   a term used for the Shiʿite passion play performed in Persia. It is the sole form of serious drama to have developed in the world of Islam, with the exception of contemporary theater, which was introduced to Islamic countries, along with other Western influences, in the mid-19th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GORZEVĀN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a town in the medieval Islamic region of Guzgān in northern Afghanistan.

• ĀÇIYĀDIYA

  R. Schmitt

  (a-ç-i-y-a-di-i-y-), name of the ninth month (November-December) of the Old Persian calendar.

• ARMIN

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the fourth son of Kay Qobād in certain texts of the Šāh-nāma.

• BĀṬENĪYA

  H. Halm

  a generic term for all groups and sects which distinguished the bāṭen (inner, hidden) and the ẓāher (outer, visible) of the Koran and the Islamic law (Šarīʿa).

• CYLINDER SEALS

  Edith Porada

  The seals of ancient Persia correspond in their types and use to those of Mesopotamia, beginning with amuletic pendants, which could also be used as seals, and developing into elaborately engraved seal stones, with a change in the Uruk period from stamp to cylinder seals.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿELMĪ

  Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī

  a high school in Tehran with 500 students studying experimental sciences, mathematics, and economy.

• ŠAHNĀZI, ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn

  Morteżā Ḥoseyni Dehkordi

  (1905-1948) musician and performer of the tār (a plucked long-necked lute).

• FAHRAJ

  Rezazadeh Langarudi

  subdistrict (dehestān) and town in the Persian province of Yazd.

• FUNERAL CUSTOMS

  Cross-reference

  See BURIAL; CORPSE.

• HERAT v. LOCAL HISTORIES

  Jürgen Paul

  Local histories of Herāt belong to three distinct literary genres: the biographical dictionary, the dynastic history, and the guide for pilgrims.

• ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD MALEK-AL-KALĀMĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Calligrapher, poet, and government official (d. 1949).

• ALLIANCE ISRAĒLITE UNIVERSELLE

  A. Netzer

  the first worldwide Jewish organization, through which a number of Jewish schools were founded in Iran.

• BĀBAKĪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See ḴORRAMĪS.

• ČAHRĪQ

  Amir Hassanpour, Juan R. I. Cole

  a dehestān, village, and fortress in Salmās (Šāhpūr in the Pahlavi period) šahrestān in Azerbaijan between Ḵᵛoy and Urmia.

• DIO CASSIUS

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  (more correctly, Cassius Dio; b. Nicea, Bithynia, ca. 160, d. Nicea, after 229), Roman official whose Rhomaikē Historia is important for the study of Parthian history.

• ʿOTBI, ABU NAṢR MOḤAMMED

  Ali Anooshahr

  (ca. 961-1036 or 1040), secretary, courtier, and author of the Arabic al-Kitāb al-Yamini, an important dynastic history of the Ghaznavids.

• GRANICUS

  Ernst Badian

  river (mod. Kocabaş Çay) flowing into the Sea of Marmara.

• ADĪB PĪŠĀVARĪ

  Munibur Rahman

  poetic name of SAYYED AḤMAD B. ŠEHĀB-AL-DĪN RAŻAWĪ (1844-1930).

• ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

  Cross-Reference

  See DĀM DĀRĪ. 

• BĀYQARĀ B. ʿOMAR ŠAYḴ

  E. Glassen

  (b. 1392-93, d. 1422-23?), a Timurid prince and grandson of Tīmūr, active in Fārs.

• DADARSIS

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  Old Persian name derived from darš “to dare”; three men with this name are known.

• FARĀMARZ-NĀMA

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  a Persian epic recounting the adventures of the hero Farāmarz.

• EMĀMZĀDA

  Multiple Authors

  a shrine believed to be the tomb of a descendent of a Shiʿite Imam. such structures are also known as āstāna (lit., threshold), marqad (resting place, mausoleum), boqʿa (revered site), rawża (garden/tomb), gonbad (dome), mašhad (place of martyrdom), maqām (site/abode), qadamgāh (stepping place), and torbat (dust, grave).

• SUVASHUN

  Masʿud Jaʿfari Jazi

  (Suvašun 1969, tr. M. R. Ghanoonparvar, Savushun, A Novel About Modern Iran, 1990; and Roxane Zand, A Persian Requiem, 1991), the most acclaimed novel of the prominent writer Simin Daneshvar.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MESKAVAYH, ABU ʿALI AḤMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  , ABU ʿALI AḤMAD b. Moḥammad [ebn], Persian chancery official and treasury clerk of the Buyid period, boon companion, litterateur and accomplished writer in Arabic.

• GAVAN

  Cross-Reference

  the plant tragant (Astragalus). See KATĪRA.

• HERTEL, JOHANNES

  Almut Hintze

  Sanskritist and Iranist (1872-1955). His lasting contributions are his earlier works on Sanskrit narrative literature and its transmission. His interpretation of Vedic and Avestan texts is based on a theory he developed from 1924.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABD-AL-QĀDER BALḴĪ

  T. Yazici

  (1839-1923), an Ottoman Sufi and poet who came originally from Balḵ. 

• AMATUNI

  C. Toumanoff

  Armenian dynastic house, known historically after the 4th century CE.

• BADĀʾ

  W. Madelung

  (Ar. appearance, emergence), as a theological term denotes a change of a divine decision or ruling in response to the emergence of new circumstances.  It is upheld in Imami Shiʿite doctrine.

• CAMEL

  Richard W. Bulliet, Moḥammad-Nāṣer Ḡolāmreżaʾī, Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī, Mahmoud Omidsalar

  Artifacts from ancient Iran indicate that only the Bactrian camel was part of the native fauna of greater Iran, though it was probably not numerous. Possibly the earliest evidence is a painted image on a ceramic shard from Tepe Sialk, probably datable between 3000 and 2500 B.C. It seems that the domesticated Bactrian camel was first encoun­tered by the Indo-Iranians after their separation from the other Indo-European tribes.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• DODDER

  Cross-Reference

  See AFTĪMŪN.

• CITIES iv. Modern Urbanization and Modernization in Persia

  Eckart Ehlers

• TEPE HISSAR

  Robert H. Dyson

  (Tappa Ḥeṣār), prehistoric site located just south of Dāmḡān in northeastern Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Greece ix. Greek and Persian Romances

  Richard Davis

• AFNĀN

  M. Momen

  (“twigs” or “branches”), term used in the Bahaʾi faith (initially by Bahāʾallāh) to designate certain lines of descent in the maternal family of the Bāb.

• ARTEMBARĒS

  M. A. Dandamayev

  Greek form of an Old Iranian proper name.

• BĒDIL

  cross-reference

  See BĪDEL.

• DĀʿĪ

  Tahsin Yazici

  the pen name of Aḥmad b. Ebrāhīm b. Moḥammad, Turkish scholar and poet who wrote in both Persian and Turkish.

• FARHANG-E NĀFĪSĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See NĀẒEM-AL-AṬEBBĀʾ.

• ENQELĀB-E ESLĀMĪ NEWSPAPER

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a newspaper published by Abu’l-Ḥasan Banī-Ṣadr and supporting his political views. 

• KARSĪVAZ

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø, Mahmoud Omidsalar

  in the old Iranian epic tradition the brother of the Turanian king, Afrāsiāb, and the man most responsible for the murder of the Iranian prince Siāvaš. 

• OXYATHRES

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  brother of the Achaemenid Darius III and companion of Alexander the Great.

• ḠĀLEB, Mīrzā ASAD-ALLĀH Khan

  Munibur Rahman

  (b. Agra, 1797; d. Delhi, 1869), one of the greatest poets of Muslim India who wrote poems in both Persian and Urdu.

• ʿABD-AL-RAŠĪD DAYLAMĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Calligrapher and poet who served the Mughal ruler Shah Jahān (1037-58/1628-58).

• AMĪN ḴALWAT

  F. Gaffary

  (Trustee of the Shah’s private household or court), an office and title in the late Qajar period held by members of the Ḡaffārī family.

• BADR-AL-DĪN SERHENDĪ

  Y. Friedmann

  (b. ca. 1593-94), a Sufi author, translator, and disciple of Aḥmad Serhendī.

• CARDINAL POINTS

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀḴTAR.

• DORN, JOHANNES ALBRECHT BERNHARD

  N. L. Luzhetskaya

  (1805-1881), pioneer in many areas of Iranian studies in Russia. He was particularly interested in the Pashtuns and published annotated editions and translations of texts on tribal history. Dorn never visited Afghanistan, but he nevertheless established the scientific basis for Afghan studies, particularly the first systematic description of Pashto.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• COMMERCE i. In the prehistoric period

  Oscar White Muscarella

• ʿORFI ŠIRAZI

  Paul Losensky

  Persian poet of the latter half of the 16th century (b. Shiraz, 1555; d. Lahore, Aug. 1591).

• GUR

  Cross-Reference

  See ARDAŠIR ḴORRA, FIRUZĀBĀD.

• JAʿFARI, ŠAʿBĀN

  H. E. Chehabi

  (1921-2006), athlete, and rightwing political agent from the early 1940s to the early 1950s.

• AFŻAL KHAN, AMIR MOḤAMMAD

  ʿA. Ḥabībī

  (1220-84/1814-67), governor of Balḵ and for a short time ruler of Afghanistan.

• ĀŠ

  W. Eilers, ʿE. Elāhī, M. Boyce

  (thick soup), the general term for a traditional Iranian dish comparable to the French potage.

• BEHRANGĪ, ṢAMAD

  Michael C. Hillmann

  (1939-1968), teacher, social critic, folklorist, translator, and short story writer.

• DAMELĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See DARDESTĀN.

• FARMĀNFARMĀ, FĪRŪZ MĪRZĀ NOṢRAT-AL-DAWLA

  Shireen Mahdavi

  (1817-1886), sixteenth son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā and grandson of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah. His political and military career flourished in the reigns of his brother Moḥammad Shah (834-48) and his nephew Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah (1848-96), under whom he held numerous governorships and other prominent posts.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EQLĪD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a small town of medieval Fārs, now in the modern rural subdistrict of the same name.

• WAṬWĀṬ, RAŠID-AL-DIN

  Natalia Chalisova

  bilingual poet, philologist, and prose writer in Persian and Arabic, as well as a high-ranking official of the Khwarazmian court in the 12th century.

• CATHARS, ALBIGENSIANS, and BOGOMILS

  J. L M. van Schaik

  Manichaeism is said to have been passed via the Paulicians and the Bogomils to re-emerge in the European Cathars but this supposed historical transmission is difficult to demonstrate.

• GANJ-E ŠAKAR, Farid-al-Din Masʿud

  Gerhard Böwering

  Popularly known as Bābā Farid, a major Shaikh of the Češtīya mystic order, born in the last quarter of the 6th/12th century in Kahtwāl near Moltān, Punjab.

• HOMOSEXUALITY ii. IN ISLAMIC LAW

  E. K. Rowson

  The foundational texts of Islam address, and generally condemn, sexual relations between members of the same sex.

• ʿABDAK AL-ṢŪFĪ

  B. Reinert

  an eccentric religious devotee of Kūfa, who also lived for periods at Baghdad, late 2nd/8th to early 3rd/9th centuries.

• AMĪR PĀDEŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See MOḤAMMAD AMĪR B. MAḤMŪD.

• BAGAZUŠTA

  R. Schmitt

  Old Iranian personal name *Baga-zušta- “beloved of the god(s)” attested in the Achaemenid period and after.

• CASPIAN DIALECTS

  cross-reference

  Iranian dialects spoken along the Caspian littoral, including Ṭāleši, Gīlakī, Māzandarāni, and related subdialects, and the extinct dialect of Ṭabarestān. See individual entries.

• DRUGS

  ṢĀDEQ SAJJĀDĪ

  in medieval Muslim literature any vegetable, mineral, or animal substance that acts on the human body, whether as a medicament, a poison, or an antidote.

• COSMOGONY AND COSMOLOGY vi. In Ismaʿilism

  Wilferd Madelung

• ANDIJAN UPRISING

  Anke von Kuegelgen

  On the night of 9 Muḥarram 1316/30 May 1898, a group of about 2,000 poorly armed men attacked the 4th and 5th Russian Companies on the outskirts of Andijan under the leadership of the Naqšbandi Sufi Shaykh Dukči Išān (Muḥammad ʿAli Madali, ca. 1856-1898). 

• ḤABL AL-MATIN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (lit. strong cord), name of three newspapers published in Calcutta, Tehran, and Rašt.

• JALĀL-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD BALḴI, MAWLAWI

  cross-reference

  See RUMI. Forthcoming, online.

• AHLĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ

  W. Thackston

  poet (858/1454?-942/1535).

• ASBĀNBAR

  Cross-Reference

  See MADĀʾEN.

• BERYĀNĪ

  Ṣoḡrā Bāzargān

  (from beryān “roast”), an Iranian meat dish usually served wrapped in flat bread.

• DĀNĪĀL B. MOŠEH QŪMESĪ

  Amnon Netzer

  Persian Jewish scholar and exegete of the Karaite sect, the members of which rejected rabbinical writings later than the Bible itself.

• FĀRŪQĪ EBRĀHĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See FARHANG-E EBRĀHĪMĪ.

• ERŠĀD al-ZERĀʿA

  Maria E. Subtelny

  a Persian agricultural manual completed in Herat in 1515 by Qāsem b. Yūsof Abūnaṣrī, who was previously identified in the scholarly literature simply as Fāżel Heravī.

• ARYANPUR, AMIR-HOSAYN

  MEHRDAD MASHAYEKHI

  noted engagé intellectual, scholar, and educator of the 20th century Iran.

• SWEDEN ii. SWEDISH OFFICERS IN PERSIA, 1911-15

  Mohammad Fazlhashemi

  In October 1910, increasing unrest in southern Persia led the British government to demand that the Persian central government restore order. The Persian government decided to create a highway gendarmerie with the aid of European instructors.

• GĀVMĪŠ

  Cross-Reference

  buffalo. See CATTLE.

• ḤOSĀM-AL-DIN ʿALI BEDLISI

  Tahsin Yazici

  NURBAḴŠI, Kurdish Sufi author of a commentary on the Koran, among other works (d. 1494-95).

• ʿABDALLĀH KHAN

  B. W. Robinson

  Court painter (18th-19th century).

• DUGDŌW

  D. N. MacKenzie

  the name of Zoroaster’s mother, which appears in several different spellings in the Pahlavi texts, mostly more or less corrupted from an original attempt at representing the Avestan form.

• ELAM ii. The archeology of Elam

  Elizabeth Carter

  The archeological use of the term “Elam” is based on a loose unity recognizable in the material cultures of the period 3400-525 BCE at Susa in Ḵūzestān, at Anshan in Fārs, and at sites in adjacent areas of the Zagros mountains. Text-based definitions often lead to interpretations that are at odds with those derived from the study of material culture.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MECQUENEM, ROLAND DE

  Laurianne Martinez-Sève

  (1877-1957), French archeologist, director of the excavations of the Mission Archèologique de Susiane at Susa from 1913 to 1946.

• JĀMĀSP

  Jamsheed K. Choksy, Nikolaus Schindel

  Sasanian king. He ascended to the throne in 496 (or possibly early 497) when his brother, the king of kings Kawād I, was deposed.  Jāmāsp, like Kawād, was a son of the Sasanian ruler Pērōz (r. 459-84).  

• AḤMAD NEHĀVANDĪ

  D. Pingree

  2nd/8th century ʿAbbasid astronomer.  

• ĀŠKĀBĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See ASHKHABAD.

• BHADRAKALPIKASŪTRA

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  the name of a Buddhist Mahayanist text (Sanskrit sutra) concerning the names of the Buddhas to appear in the good aeon (Sanskrit bhadrakalpa).

• DĀRĀʾĪ, WEZĀRAT

  Cross-Reference

  See FINANCE MINISTRY.

• FATḤ JANG

  Mehrdad Shokoohy

  or Mīrzā Ebrāhīm (d. 1623-24), a Mughal official. 

• ESFAHSĀLĀR

  See SEPAHSĀLĀR.

• ḴĀTUN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a title of high-born women in the pre-modern Turkish and Persian worlds.

• ḠĀZĀN KHAN, MAḤMŪD

  R. Amitai-Preiss

  (1271-1304), oldest son of Arḡūn Khan and his eventual successor as the seventh Il-khanid ruler of Persia (r. 1295-1304).

• ḤOSN O DEL

  Ḏabiḥ-Allāh Ṣafā

  an allegorical work by Fattāḥi Nišāburi (1404-46), one of the best examples of rhyming prose in the Timurid period.

• ĀBĪ, ABŪ ʿABDALLĀH

  Abu’l-Qāsem Gorji

  8th-century traditionist.

• ANBĀR

  M. Morony

  (Pers. term meaning granary), a town on the left bank of the Euphrates five km northwest of Fallūǰa and sixty-two km west of Baghdad. 

• BAHMANYĀR, KĪĀ

  H. Daiber

  RAʾĪS ABU’L-ḤASAN B. MARZBĀN AʿJAMĪ ĀḎARBĀYJĀNĪ (d. 1066), one of Ebn Sīnā’s pupils and known mainly as a commentator and transmitter of Ebn Sīnā’s philosophy.

• ČERKES

  Cross-Reference

  See ČARKAS.

• EAST INDIA COMPANY

  Anne Kroell

  a company established in 1664 to conduct all French commercial operations with the Orient. 

• FĀRĀBĪ v. Music

  George Sawa

• TEHRAN i. A PERSIAN CITY AT THE FOOT OF THE ALBORZ.

  Xavier de Planhol

  At the northern borders of Iran’s arid central plateau, the southern foothills of the Alborz chain, which have the advantage of major precipitations, are particularly suitable for human settlements.

• ḤĀJEB ii. IN THE SAFAVID AND QAJAR PERIODS

  Rudi Matthee

  In the Safavid period the ḥājeb, the major domo or master of ceremony, was called the išik-āqāsi-bāši, literally “head of the masters of the threshold.”

• AHURA.ṰKAĒŠA

  M. Boyce

  an infrequent Avestan adjective meaning “following the Ahuric doctrine.”

• ĀŠPAZ-ḴĀNA

  ʿE. Elāhī

  “kitchen.”

• BĪDGOL

  Ehsan Yarshater

  and BĪDGOLI dialect. Bīdgol and Ārān, two practically contiguous townships in the province of Kāšān, are located some 10 km to the north and slightly to the east of the city of Kāšān.

• DARIUS viii. Darius Son of Artabanus

  Marie Louise Chaumont

• FEDĀʾĪ ḴORĀSĀNĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Farhad Daftary

  b. Zayn-al-ʿĀbedīn b. Karbalāʾī Dāwūd (b. ca. 1850; d. 1923), foremost Persian Nezārī Ismaʿili author and poet of modern times, who is referred to as Ḥājī Āḵūnd in the Persian Nezārī community.

• EŠKĀŠ(E)M

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a settlement in medieval Badaḵšān in northeastern Afghanistan, now in the modern Afghan province of Eškāšem.

• BAUSANI, ALESSANDRO

  Biancamaria Scarcia Amoretti

  (1921-1988), prolific Italian orientalist in several fields: Persian literature, Islam, linguistics, the history of Islamic science, Urdu, Indonesian, and other Islamic literatures.

• HUTUXŠ

  cross-reference

  and HUTUXŠBED, artisans as a class and the chief of artisans in Sasanian society. See CLASS SYSTEM ii.

• ABŪ AḤMAD MONAJJEM

  A. E. Khairallah

  (241/855-56 to 13 Rabīʿ I 300/29 October 912), literary historian, music theorist, poet, and Muʿtazilite, boon companion to caliphs Mowaffaq, Moʿtażed, and Moktafī.

• ANGLO-PERSIAN AGREEMENT OF 1919

  N. S. Fatemi

  provisional agreement made between the British and the Persian governments which, if ratified, would have granted the British a paramount position of control over the financial and military affairs of Iran. 

• BAIEV, GAPPO

  cross-reference

  See BAYATI, GAPPO.

• CHESS

  Bo Utas, Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī

  a board game.

• EBN AL-BAYYEʿ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH B. AL-BAYYEʿ.

• MANICHEISM iii. BUDDHIST ELEMENTS IN

  P. Bryder

  Mani, who came to be considered himself to be the seal of the prophets, named Buddha, Zarathustra, and Jesus as his forerunners.

• HALIL RUD

  M. H. Ganji

  river in the Jiroft and Kahnuj districts of Kerman Province in southeastern Iran, which stretches a total length of 390 km.

• JAWĀHER-E ḴAMSA

  Carl W. Ernst

  title of a Persian work on Sufi meditation practices composed by the well-known and controversial Šaṭṭārī saint, Moḥammad Ḡawṯ Gwāleyārī (1500-1563).