Search Results

• FĀRS v. Monuments

  Dietrich Huff

  The founder of the Sasanian empire, Ardašīr I (224-40), shifted the seat of power to the newly founded Ardašīr Ḵorra (Fīrūzābād), a circular city with palaces that are still preserved. His successor, Šāpūr I, built Bīšāpūr as his capital. Nevertheless, Eṣṭaḵr remained the most important city of Fārs until Shiraz surpassed it after the Islamic conquest in the 7th century.

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• ḠAFFĀRĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN ḠAFFĀRĪ.

• HORMOZD IV

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  Sasanian great king (r. 579-90 CE). He succeeded Ḵosrow I Anōširavān just as the latter was negotiating a peace treaty with the Byzantine empire.

• WEIGHTS AND MEASURES i. PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  A. D. H. Bivar

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• INDIA iv. RELATIONS: SELEUCID, PARTHIAN, SASANIAN PERIODS

  Pierfrancesco Callieri

  Seleucus I (d. 281 BCE) led an expedition to India (Matelli, 1987) ca. 305 B.C.E. It ended, however, with the cession of  territories to a new Indian king, Candragupta Maurya.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES i. INTRODUCTION

  Houman Sarshar

  Jewish communities have been living upon the Persian plateau since ca. 721 BCE, when King Sargon II (r. 721-705 BCE) relocated large communities of conquered Israelites.

• IRAN i. LANDS OF IRAN

  Xavier de Planhol

  This article intends to examine the relationship between Iranian culture and its natural environment.

• ʿEBRAT, Sayyed MOḤAMMAD-QĀSEM

  Munibur Rahman

  author of ʿEbrat-nāma, a history of the reigns of Awrangzēb’s successors to 1723.

• CERAMICS iv. The Chalcolithic Period in the Zagros Highlands

  Elizabeth F. Henrickson

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• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (9) Arabic

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Most extensive was the Arab settlement in eastern Iran and Greater Khorasan (including northwestern Afghanistan, and Central Asia, including Marv and Bukhara).

• EDUCATION x. MIDDLE AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk

  Modern secondary education in Persia was originally based on the 19th-century European humanistic system, focused on general knowledge and building character rather than on professional or vocational training. This philosophy dominated the Persian system until the 1960s, when reforms were introduced by American advisers.

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• GEORGIA i. The land and the people

  Keith Hitchins

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• AFGHANISTAN xiii. FORESTS AND FORESTRY

  Xavier de Planhol

• FRANCE iv. RELATIONS WITH PERSIA SINCE 1918

  Marie-Louise Chaumont

• CLOTHING v. In Pre-Islamic Eastern Iran

  Gerd Gropp

• Isfahan xviii. JEWISH COMMUNITY

  Amnon Netzer

  The beginning of the Jewish settlement in Isfahan is mixed with legends, but there are fragmentary source materials that enable us to reconstruct the major historical events concerning it.

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• CENTRAL ASIA ii. Demography

  Richard H. Rowland

• Great Britain v. British influence during the Reżā Shah period, 1921-41

  Stephanie Cronin

• CERAMICS xiii. The Early Islamic Period, 7th-11th Centuries

  David Whitehouse

• HORMOZD (1)

  cross-reference

  See AHURA MAZDĀ.

• HADITH iii. IN ISMAʿILISM

  Ismail K. Poonawala

  Ismaʿilis had neither a Hadith collection of their own nor a distinct Ismaʿili law before the establishment of the Fatimid dynasty in North Africa in 297/909.

• BAHMAN (3)

  cross-reference

  author of Qeṣṣa-ye Sanjān, q.v.

• TURKIC LANGUAGES OF PERSIA: AN OVERVIEW

  Michael Knüppel

  Only in few other regions (Caucasus and Southern Siberia) one can find a nearly comparable diversity of Turkic languages as in Persia. The number of their speakers varies from several thousands to several millions.

• KASHAN v. ARCHITECTURE (3) TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE

  Mohammad- Reza Haeri and EIr.

  In line with the trend towards modernization in Iran’s recent history, most residential houses built by the middle classes in Kashan since 1950 comprise all or some of the following units: entrance, courtyard, living room, reception room, kitchen, lavatory, bath, bedroom, storage, staircase, and hall.

• MANDAEANS ii. THE MANDAEAN RELIGION

  Kurt Rudolph

  A major characteristic of the Mandaeans is the frequent ritual use of (running) water (for baptisms and ritual purifications); another is the possession of a rich literature

• GEORGIA v. LINGUISTIC CONTACTS WITH IRANIAN LANGUAGES

  Thea Chkeidze

• AZERBAIJAN vi. Population and its Occupations and Culture

  R. Tapper

• KANDAHAR iii. Early Islamic Period

  Minoru Inaba

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (6) in Islamic Iran

  Gernot Windfuhr

  The non-Iranian languages spoken today in Iran include members of the following language families: (1) Altaic, (2) Afro-Asiatic Semitic, (3) Indo-European, (4) Caucasian (5) Dravidian.

• EDUCATION ix. PRIMARY SCHOOLS

  Sayyed ʿAlī Āl-e Dāwūd

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• HEDAYAT, SADEQ i. LIFE AND WORK

  Homa Katouzian and EIr

  Sadeq Hedayat was the youngest child of Hedā-yatqoli Khan Eʿteżād-al-Molk, the notable literary historian, the dean of the Military Academy.

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• ʿALĪ TABRĪZĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  (or MĪR ʿALĪ TABRĪZĪ), 8th/14th century calligrapher who is often credited with the invention of the nastaʿlīq script.

• Isfahan xiv. MODERN ECONOMY AND INDUSTRIES (2) Isfahan City

  Habib Borjian

  The stagnation experienced after the fall of the Safavids was even more marked in the 19th century, owing to European competition that had rendered many local industries practically extinct.

• ARMENIA i. IMAGE OF PERSIANS IN

  Robert Thomson

  In the Sasanian period Armenians developed a self-awareness as Christians against the background of their earlier Iranian social and religious culture.

• FEMINIST MOVEMENTS iii. IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD

  Hamideh Sedghi

  The fundamental political, socio-cultural, and economic changes which Persia underwent in the Pahlavi era (1921-78) had drastic repercussions on the women’s rights movement and the condition of women.

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• GILAN xviii. Rural Production Techniques

  Christian Bromberger

  A considerable range of techniques is used to produce such diversified commodities as rice, silk, tea, tobacco, vegetables, olives, and wheat. One can, however, speak of a distinctly Gilāni technical system.

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• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 3)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

• KASHAN ii. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

  Geographic foundations and the origins of the urban area. To the northeast of the well-watered mountain ranges of western and southern Iran, a line of bountiful oases which have given rise to important urban areas stretches along the piedmont bordering the desert basins of central and southeastern Iran.

• BAHRĀM (3)

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  son of GŌDARZ, in the Šāh-nāma a hero in the reigns of Kay Kāōs and Kay Ḵosrow, renowned for his valiant service in all the wars.

• AFGHANISTAN ix. Pre-Islamic Art

  F. Tissot

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• BĀḴTAR (1)

  A. Tafażżolī

  designation of the geographical “west” in Modern Persian, but its Pahlavi equivalent abāxtar means “north,” probably borrowed from Parthian.

• HAMADĀN vii. MONUMENTS

  Ali Mousavi and EIr

  The city of Hamadān, besides its pre-Islamic remains, comprises some important monuments belonging to the Islamic period. The most significant of these is the mausoleum called Gonbad-e ʿAlawiān. It is a square, relatively massive monument, almost entirely of baked brick. Its façade was once covered with opulent stucco decoration.

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• ʿARAB i. Arabs and Iran in the pre-Islamic period

  C. E. Bosworth

• GĪLĀN v. History under the Safavids

  Manouchehr Kasheff

• INDIA xxviii. IRANIAN IMMIGRANTS IN INDIA

  Masashi Haneda

  Although emigration from the Iranian plateau to the Indian subcontinent is not a phenomenon specific to any particular period, the trend does seem to have grown after the foundation of Muslim governments on the subcontinent.

• BAZAR v. Temporary Bazars in Iran and Afghanistan

  M. Bazin

  Periodic markets, and especially weekly markets, are generally presented as an intermediate stage between a subsistence economy and net­works of permanent trading centers.

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• CENTRAL ASIA x. Economy Before the Timurids

  Peter B. Golden

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vi. Relations with Afghanistan in the Modern Period

  Daniel Balland

• Isfahan xi. SCHOOL OF PAINTING AND CALLIGRAPHY

  Massumeh Farhad

  The “Isfahan” school of painting and calligraphy generally refers to works of art associated with the city from about 1597-98, when it was chosen as the Safavid capital, until the Afghan invasion of 1722. In the second half of the 17th century, many Isfahani artists  began experimenting with Europeanized pictorial concepts, such as modeling and shading—the second phase of the “Isfahan” school of painting.

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• CYRUS iv. The Cyrus cylinder

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

• GILAN xvii. Gender Relations

  Christian Bromberger

  The division of activities and spaces between the sexes is quite distinct in the province of Gilan.

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• ISMAʿILISM ii. ISMAʿILI HISTORIOGRAPHY

  Farhad Daftary

  The general lack of Ismaʿili interest in historiography is well attested by the fact that only a few works of historical nature have been found in the rich corpus of Ismaʿili literature.

• Italy viii. PERSIAN MANUSCRIPTS

  Paola Orsatti

  Italy houses 439 Persian manuscripts in two public archives and thirty public libraries located in fifteen different cities.

• GILĀN xxi. Cooking

  Christian Bromberger

  Eating habits and culinary preparations in Gilān have several distinct characteristics. In this rice-producing region, the consumption of rice is much higher than elsewhere in Persia.

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• CARPETS vii. Islamic Persia to the Mongols

  Barbara Schimtz

  Because of the scarcity of surviving materials it is difficult to separate the history of carpet making in Iran from that of the rest of the Islamic world before the Mongol invasion (656/1258). Furthermore, the kind of rigid distinction between carpet and other textile designs that characterizes later production probably did not exist in the early Islamic period.

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• FESTIVALS ii. MANICHEAN

  Werner Sundermann

  The Manichean calendar of holidays proves independence from that of the Zoroastrians. Even if the heptavalent number of the Manichean Yimkis was correlated to the Zoroastrian gāhānbār and Nowrūz

• JAPAN vii. IRANIAN STUDIES, ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Cross-Reference

   Forthcoming, Online.

• AFGHANISTAN iv. Ethnography

  L. Dupree

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• HAMADĀN i. GEOGRAPHY

  Parviz Aḏkāʾi and EIr

  Hamadān is one of the western provinces of Persia, situated to the southwest of Tehran between latitudes 33°59′ and 35°48′ N and longitudes 47°34′ and 49°36′ E. The city of Hamadān is located at an altitude of 1,645 m on the eastern slope of the Alvand massif. In the National Physical Plan (Ṭarḥ-e kālbodi-e melli), which divides the country into 10 regions, the province is identified as a part of the central Zagros sub-region.

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• BOLOD

  Bertold Spuler

  CHʿENG-HSIANG (Pers. Pūlād Čīnksāng; d. 1313), the representative of the Great Khan Qubilai at the court of the Il-khans of Iran.

• INDIA xxiv. PERSIAN CALLIGRAPHY IN

  Cross-Reference

  Forthcoming.

• IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (2) Documentation

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  Iranian languages are known from roughly three periods, commonly termed Old, Middle, and New (Modern).

• IRAQ v. AFSHARIDS TO THE END OF THE QAJARS

  Ernest Tucker

  The collapse of the Safavid dynasty in the 1720s ushered in a new round of conflict in Iraq that would continue through the first half of the 18th century.

• Isfahan x. Monuments (2) Palaces

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

  None of the royal palaces and pavilions of Isfahan built prior to the 17th century is extant. In contrast, of all the monuments of Isfahan, Safavid palaces represent the most coherent group of buildings to have survived from a single period.

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• FRANCE vii. FRENCH TRAVELERS IN PERSIA, 1600-1730

  Anne-Marie Touzard

  While the Italian cities and Spain entered into diplomatic relations with Persia at an early date, this was not true of France, despite an abortive attempt—the dispatch in 1626 of Louis Deshayes de Courmenin to the court of Shah ʿAbbās I. The early 17th century also witnessed the great missionary upsurge in France.

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• ART IN IRAN vii. ISLAMIC PRE-SAFAVID

  P. Soucek

• EGYPT i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period

  Edda Bresciani

• Greece v - vi. The Image of Persia and Persians in Greek Literature

  Reinhold Bichler and Robert Rollinger

• Italy iv. TRAVEL ACCOUNTS

  Michele Bernardini, Anna Vanzan

  Italian travel accounts represent a major source for the history of Iran, especially that of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

• AMLAŠ i. Geography

  Marcel Bazin

  small town and district in southeastern Gilān (q.v.)

• HISTORIOGRAPHY v. TIMURID PERIOD

  Maria Szuppe

  Timurid historiography is firmly rooted within the Persian literary tradition of official court histories of the post-Mongol period.

• ARABIA ii. The Sasanians and Arabia

  Daniel T. Potts

• HAFEZ xii. HAFEZ AND THE VISUAL ARTS

  Priscilla Soucek

  The 16th century constitutes the apex in production for illustrated copies of Hafez’s Divān; they were made in several places for a range of patrons. The largest group of the illustrated Hafez manuscripts was produced in Shiraz, the most impressive among them dating to the 1580s.

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• Japan iii. Japanese Travelers to Persia

  Tadahiko Ohtsu and Hashem Rajabzadeh

  It was only in 1854 that relations with foreign countries were resumed. This process gathered pace with the advent of the Meiji period (1868-1912), when the Japanese were allowed to go on official visits abroad.

• GERMANY iv. Iranian studies in German: Islamic Period

  Bert G. Fragner

  Until World War I, there were only a few scholars concentrating on subjects specifically Iranian, but many Orientalists did not refrain from dealing with Iranian, particularly Persian, affairs.

• INDIA xviii. PERSIAN ELEMENTS IN INDIAN LANGUAGES

  Christopher Shackle

  Some Persian elements are present in most of the modern languages of the subcontinent of South Asia, as a consequence of the prolonged cultivation of Persian associated with pre-modern Indo-Muslim culture.

• GILĀN xiii. Kinship and Marriage

  Christian Bromberger

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• IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (1) A General Survey

  R. N. Frye

  The term “Iranian” may be understood in two ways. It is, first of all, a linguistic classification, intended to designate any society which inherited or adopted, and transmitted, an Iranian language.

• ECONOMY vii. FROM THE SAFAVIDS THROUGH THE ZANDS

  Bert Fragner

• KARAJ ii. Population

  Habibollah Zanjani

  a town in Tehran province, located 36 km west of the city of Tehran on the western bank of the Karaj River (q.v.; lat 35° 46ʹ N, long 50° 49ʹ E; elev., 1,360 m).

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• FRANCE viii. TRAVELOGUES OF THE 18TH-20TH CENTURIES

  Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam

• ISFAHAN vi. MEDIEVAL PERIOD

  Hossein Kamaly

  The history of Isfahan prior to the city’s efflorescence in the 17th century often traced alternating cycles of urbanization and de-urbanization.

• CORRESPONDENCE iii. Forms of opening and closing, address, and signature

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

• ISLAM IN IRAN vi. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN SUNNI ISLAM

  Said Amir Arjomand

  The Savior is a descendant of the Prophet whose expected return to rule the world will restore justice, peace, and true religion.

• ART IN IRAN iii. Achaemenid Art and Architecture

  P. Calmeyer

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• EGYPT vii. Political and religious relations with Persia in the modern period

  Shahrough Akhavi

• HAFEZ vi. PRINTED EDITIONS OF THE DIVĀN OF HAFEZ

  Bahaʾ-al-Din Khorramshahi and EIr

  Printed editions of Hafez’s poems include partial and complete collections, non-critical and critical editions, in lithographic, calligraphic, facsimile, and typeset formats. The earliest printed editions appeared outside of Persia. The first lithograph edition was commissioned by Richard Johnson of the East India Company and published by Upjohn’s Calcutta press in 1791.

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• FISCHEL, WALTER JOSEPH

  David Yeroushalmi

  (b. 12 November 1902; d. 14 July 1973), a scholar of Oriental Jewry and Islamic civilization.

• ḴĀQĀNI ŠERVĀNI ii. Works

  Anna Livia Beelaert

  a major Persian poet and prose writer (b. Šervān, ca. 521/1127; d. Tabriz, between 582/1186-87 and 595/1199).

• INDIA xiv. Persian Literature in India

  Mario Casari

  The amount of Persian literature composed in the Indian subcontinent up to the 19th century is larger than that produced in Iran proper during the same period.

• BAM (2)

  X. De Planhol, M.-E Bāstānī Pārīzī

  (in Arabic, Bamm), a town in southeastern Iran, located on the southwestern rim of the Dašt-e Lūt basin at an altitude of 1,100 m. i. History and modern town. ii. Ruins of the old town.

• BAHAISM vi. The Bahai Community of Ashkhabad

  V. Rafati

  Attracted by religious freedom and economic opportunities unavailable to them in Iran, Iranian Bahais began to settle in Ashkhabad around 1884; the community prospered and reached its peak during the period 1917-28.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN vi. Music and Sound Production

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  In 1967, Kanun produced only one storytelling phonograph record. Regular music and sound production did not begin until 1971.

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• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES vi. THE PAHLAVI ERA (1925-1979)

  Orly R. Rahimiyan

  Reza Shah (r. 1925-41) was not motivated by a positive attitude towards religious minorities (except Zoroastrians), but all minorities indirectly benefited from his reforms. He favored a modern Iran, free of foreign influence, united, and strong militarily. He opposed a nation of tribal groups and wanted one people, a people with a well-developed historical and national consciousness founded on a culture whose sources lay mainly in pre-Islamic Iran.

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• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 6)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Moḥammad Reza Shah (1941-79). The long history of Russian and British interventions in Persian affairs had fostered widespread resentment against the two great powers.

• ECONOMY iii. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

• CERAMICS xi. The Achaemenid Period

  Remy Boucharlat and Ernie Haerinck

• IRAN ix. RELIGIONS IN IRAN (1) Pre-Islamic (1.2) Manicheism

  Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst and Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  Called after the founding prophet Mani (216-74 or 277), Manicheism was a syncretistic religion that, combining elements of the various religions current in Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau at the time, claimed to be the ultimate religion.

• EDUCATION xvi. SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk and EIr

• CLOTHING xiv. Clothing of the Hazāra tribes

  Klaus Ferdinand

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• ISFAHAN iii. POPULATION (2) Isfahan Province

  Habibollah Zanjani

  In 2001, the province (ostān) of Isfahan comprised 19 sub-provinces (šahrestāns), 83 towns in 43 districts (baḵš), and 2,514 rural settlements in 121 sub-districts (dehestāns).

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• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN ii. Libraries

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  A children’s library, conceived by the founders of Kanun as a pilot project for future libraries, was approved, and construction began in 1965.

• GILAN xvi. FOLKLORE

  Christian Bromberger

  The folklore of Gilān is a striking example of the intricate ties between pre-Islamic practices and Islamic rituals.

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• HERODOTUS iv. CYRUS ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS

  Robert Rollinger

  The historical past takes on clearer outline beginning with the figure of Cyrus the Great. With him the Persians too are introduced into world history.

• CENTRAL ASIA iv. In the Islamic Period up to the Mongols

  C. Edmund Bosworth

• FĀRS vii. Ethnography

  Pierre Oberling

  The largest part of the population of Fārs is of Iranian stock, but since the rise of Islam in the 7th century there has been substantial immigration of peoples of other ethnic origins into the province.

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• HAFEZ i. AN OVERVIEW

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Hafez is the most popular of Persian poets. Many of his lines have become proverbial sayings, and there are few who cannot recite some of his lyrics.

• SALJUQS iii. SALJUQS OF RUM

  Andrew Peacock

  dynasty of Turkish origin that ruled much of Anatolia (Rum), ca. 1081-1308.

• INDIA v. RELATIONS: MEDIEVAL PERIOD TO THE 13TH CENTURY

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  The first political and military footholds of the Muslims in the subcontinent proper were in Sind, and at Multan in the middle Indus valley, secured in the early 8th century.

• BAHAISM i. The Faith

  J. Cole

  Bahaism as a religion had as its background two earlier and much different movements in nineteenth-century Shiʿite Shaikhism (following Shaikh Aḥmad Aḥsāʾī) and Babism.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN i. Establishment of Kanun

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  Kanun’s goal was to produce and offer support and services for children in better settings than the grim and austere school classrooms.

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• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES iii. PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS

  Jacob Neusner

  By the time the Parthians reached Babylonia, Jews had lived there, under Babylonian, Achaemenid, and Seleucid rule for more than four and a half centuries.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 1)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Iran in the Islamic Period (651-1980s). This section of Persian history begins with the conquest by Muslim Arabs and the introduction of Islam to Persia, the gradual conversion of the Persians to the faith of the conquerors, and some 200 years of Arab rule.

• CERAMICS vi. Uruk, Proto-Elamite, and Early Bronze Age in Southern Persia

  William M. Sumner

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• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (10). Aramaic

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Speakers of North-Eastern Aramaic have been in contact with Iranian languages in the western regions of the plateau and on the western side of the Zagros for some 3,000 years -- with Jewish settlement from Mesopotamia documented since the eighth century BCE, Christian emigration begun during the Parthian period, and the Mandaeans, settled in southeastern Mesopotamia and adjacent Khuzestan  by the 3rd century CE. 

• EDUCATION xii. VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

  Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr

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• FRANCE vi. PERSIA AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

  Mohammad Tavakoli-Targhi

• CLOTHING viii. In Persia from the Arab conquest to the Mongol invasion

  Elsie H. Peck

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• Isfahan xx. GEOGRAPHY OF THE MEDIAN DIALECTS OF ISFAHAN

  Habib Borjian

  The continuum of Central Plateau Dialects appears along a northwest-souteast axis traversing the modern provinces of Hamadān, Markazi, Isfahan, and Yazd, that is, the area of Ancient Media Major.

• Great Britain vii. British Travelers to Persia

  Denis Wright

• HORMOZD I

  M. RAHIM SHAYEGAN

  Sasanian great king (r. 272-73 CE), the throne name of Šāpur I’s son and and successor, Hormozd-Ardašēr.

• BESṬĀMĪ, BĀYAZĪD

  Hamid Algar

  [Basṭāmī], ABŪ MOḤAMMAD BĀYAZĪD b. ʿEnāyat-Allāh, a 16th-century faqīh and Sufi of Khorasan.

• KASHAN vii. KASHAN WARE

  Forthcoming online.

• BAHMAN (2)

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  son of ESFANDĪĀR, a Kayanian king of Iran in the national epic.  

• KASHAN viii. RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES (1) JEWISH COMMUNITY

  Mehrdad Amanat

  This sub-entry is devided into two sections: (1) Jewish community. (2) Bahai community.

• CYRUS vi. Cyrus the Younger

  Rüdiger Schmitt

• GEORGIA vii. Georgians in the Safavid Administration

  Rudi Matthee

• INDIA ii. Historical Geography

  Pierfrancesco Callieri

  The geographical borders between the Iranian plateau and the Indian subcontinent are well defined by features, such as mountain ranges, which represent the western limits of the Indus River valley.

• AZERBAIJAN viii. Azeri Turkish

  G. Doerfer

• KANDAHAR v. In the 19th Century

  Shah Mahmoud Hanifi

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• CERAMICS i. The Neolithic Period through the Bronze Age in Northeastern and North-central Persia

  Robert H. Dyson

  The ceramic tradition of northeastern Persia devel­oped in parallel but distinct sequences in the Gorgān lowlands and the Dāmḡān highlands, including the parts of the Atrak (q.v.) region adjacent to both. 

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• EDUCATION vi. THE MADRASA IN SUNNI KURDISTAN

  ʿAbd-Allāh Mardūḵ

• FRANCE i. Introduction

  Jean Calmard

• CLOTHING ii. In the Median and Achaemenid periods

  Shapur Shahbazi

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• FĀRS i. Geography

  Xavier de Planhol

  The heart of Fārs is comprised of the highland basins. East of the meridian of Bušehr and Isfahan, the Zagros mountain chains, which gradually decrease in altitude toward the southeast but still mostly remain above 2,000 and sometimes 3,000 m.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xvi. FOLKLORE AND LEGEND

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  Systematic collection of the folklore of Isfahan is mostly due to Amirqoli Amini, whose first publication was a collection of Persian dicta entitled hazār o yak soḵan.

• ISMAʿILISM iv - x

  cross-reference

• CARPETS ii. Raw materials and dyes

  Jasleen Dhamija

• KASHAN v. ARCHITECTURE (1) URBAN DESIGN

  Mohammad- Reza Haeri and EIr.

  The city of Kashan, similar to other older Iranian cities, preserved its traditional architectural features and urban design into the early 20th century.

• AFGHANISTAN xi. Administration

  A. Ghani

• GEORGIA ii. History of Iranian-Georgian Relations

  Keith Hitchins

  Between the Achaemenid era and the beginning of the 19th century, Persia played a significant and at times decisive role in the history of the Georgian people. The Persian presence helped to shape political institutions, modified social structure and land holding, and enriched literature and culture. Persians also acted as a counterweight to other powerful forces in the region.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿARAB iii. Arab settlements in Iran

  E. L. Daniel

• AZERBAIJAN ii. Archeology

  W. Kleiss

• GĪLĀN vii. History in the 19th century

  EIr and Reza Rezazadeh Langaroudi

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CENTRAL ASIA xii. Economy in the 19th-20th Centuries

  Ian Matley

• EDUCATION ii. IN THE PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS viii. Persian Language and Literature in China

  EIr

• Isfahan xiii. CRAFTS

  Habib Borjian and EIr

  Isfahan has maintained its position as a major center for traditional crafts in Persia. The crafts of Isfahan encompass textiles, carpets, metalwork, woodwork, ceramics, painting, and inlay works of various kind. The work is carried out in different settings including small industrial and bazaar workshops, in the homes of craftsmen and women, and in rural cottage industries.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CYRUS i. The Name

  Rüdiger Schmitt

• GREAT BRITAIN ii. An Overview of Relations: Safavid to the Present

  Denis Wright

• CARPETS ix. Safavid Period

  Daniel Walker

  The high point in Persian carpet design and manufacture was attained under the Safavid dynasty (1501-1739). It was the result of a unique conjunction of historical factors—royal patronage, the influence of court designers at all levels of artistic production, the wide availability of locally produced and imported materials and dyes, and commercial acceptance, particularly in foreign markets.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAMPUR ia. PREHISTORIC SITE (Continued)

  Daniel T. Potts

  Since Beatrice de Cardi’s excavations at Bampur in 1966 (de Cardi, 1968; idem, 1970) no new work has taken place there. Nevertheless, objects recovered at Bampur in the 1960s can now be better dated and understood, thanks to discoveries in recent

• FESTIVALS vi, vii, viii

  Moojan Momen, Amnon Netzer, A. Arkun

  vi. BAHAI, vii. JEWISH, viii. ARMENIAN.

• BAHRĀM (2)

  A. Sh. Shahbazi, O. Klíma, W. L. Hanaway, Jr.

  the name of six Sasanian kings and of several notables of the Sasanian and later periods.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFGHANISTAN vi. Paṧto

  G. Morgenstierne

• HAMADĀN iii. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

  The city of Hamadān lies at the extreme northwest of the series of major urban sites stretching along the line of contact between the Zagros range and the central plateau.

• ANṢARĪ, ʿALĪ-QOLĪ KHAN

  M. Kasheff

  MOŠĀWER-AL-MAMĀLEK (1868-1940), a career diplomat under the late Qajars. 

• GĪLĀN ii. Population

  Habibollah Zanjani

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CENTRAL ASIA vii. In the 18th-19th Centuries

  Yuri Bregel

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (1) Overview

  Gernot Windfuhr

  This entry will discuss the non-Iranian languages spoken in Iran in the course of its history as the result of various peoples settling in parts of Iran and interacting with Iranian-speaking peoples who began to migrate to Iranian territories at the beginning of second millennium BCE. The entry includes linguistic sketches of languages or dialects.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS ii. Islamic Period to the Mongols

  J. M. Rogers

• CLOTHING vii. Of the Iranian Tribes on the Pontic Steppes and in the Caucaus

  S. A. Yatsenko

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAQ vii. IRAN-IRAQ WAR

  Saskia M. Gieling

  The war between Iran and Iraq commenced with the Iraqi invasion of Iran on 22 September 1980, and ended with the bilateral acceptance of the UN Security Council Resolution 598 on 20 July 1988.

• Isfahan x. Monuments (4) Madrasas

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

  In Isfahan, as elsewhere in Persia, the earliest madrasas were established to spread and solidify Sunni orthodoxy.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Greece viii. Greek Art in Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Northwest India

  Claude Rapin

  The emergence of Greek art as a phenomenon following the expedition of Alexander the Great was a major cultural event in Central Asia and India. Its effects were felt for almost a thousand years, down to the early Islamic period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Italy v. IRANIAN STUDIES, PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Carlo G. Cereti

  Although Italian contacts with Iran date from ancient times, scientific interest in pre-Islamic Iran cannot be traced earlier than the second half of the eighteenth century.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY vii. AFSHARID AND ZAND PERIODS

  Ernest Tucker

  Persian historical writing in the 18th century reflected the profound changes that occurred in Iran after the1722 Afghan conquest of Isfahan.

• CARPETS iv. Knotted-pile carpets: Designs, motifs, and patterns

  Annette Ittig

  In this discussion “design” refers to the overall composition of decorative elements on a carpet; the simplest elements in designs are single motifs, which are most frequently combined in more complex units; these units in turn may be arranged in various combinations and sequences to form patterns.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GERMANY vi. Collections and Study of Persian Art in Germany

  Jens Kröger

  Until the 19th century, Persian works of art entered collections in Germany by mere chance. From then on, works of art from all periods of Persian history were collected systematically to acquire knowledge of the world and to educate and inspire artists and craftsmen. Collecting, exhibiting, and studying Persian art reached an unprecedented scale in the 20th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INDIA xxi. INDIAN INFLUENCES ON PERSIAN PAINTING

  Barbara Schmitz

  During the 17th century, the flow of artistic influences between Persia and India reversed. Paintings and drawings in the developed Mughal style of the first quarter of the century were imported to the courts and bazaars of Isfahan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (3). Islamic Period

  cross-reference

  See Supplement.

• KABUL v. MONUMENTS OF KABUL CITY

  Jonathan Lee

  This article focuses on the major monuments in and around the Old City of Kabul and the most significant Dorrāni dynastic monuments and mausolea.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAQ i. IN THE LATE SASANID AND EARLY ISLAMIC ERAS

  Michael Morony

  The late Sasanid era. The late Sasanid winter capital was located at the urban complex on the Tigris river called “the cities” (al-Madāʾen) by the Arabs that included Ctesiphon, Aspānpur, Veh-Antioḵ-e Ḵosrow, and Veh-Ardašir.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan ix. THE PAHLAVI PERIOD AND THE POST-REVOLUTION ERA

  Habib Borjian

  In the process of consolidating his power in Isfahan, Reza Shah managed to constrain two powerful social groups: the Shiʿite clergy and the Baḵtiāri tribesmen.

• ISLAM IN IRAN viii. THE OCCULTATION OF MAHDI

  cross-reference

  See ḠAYBA.

• HERODOTUS vi. DARIUS ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS

  Robert Rollinger

  Herodotus connects the beginning of Darius’s reign with a deep break in the history of Persian royalty. He describes the rule of the Magus and palace administrator Patizeithes as an attempt at usurpation.

• EGYPT iv. Relations in the Sasanian period

  Ruth Altheim-Stiehl

• Greece ii. Greco-Persian Cultural Relations

  Margaret C. Miller

  This article is addresses the evidence for receptivity to Persian culture in Greece, the North Aegean, and West Anatolia, including receptivity on the part of the non-Greek peoples of these regions.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Italy ii. DIPLOMATIC AND COMMERCIAL RELATIONS

  Mario Casari

  A privileged relationship between Iran and Italy dates back to the age of the ancient Roman and Persian empires. Despite their ever-changing internal affairs, the two political centers of Europe and Asia, throughout the entire ancient time, experienced long lasting contacts.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY ii. PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  A. SH. Shahbazi

  Iranian historiography remained unaffected by the Herodotean school and developed from oral traditions and the Mesopotamian-style “quasi-history,” which embellished historical narratives.

• BADĪLĪ, AḤMAD

  H. Algar

  , SHAIKH, a Sufi shaikh in 12th-century Sabzavār, renowned for his mastery of the exoteric as well as the esoteric science. 

• HAFEZ ix. HAFEZ AND MUSIC

  Franklin Lewis

  The poetics of Hafez, perhaps more so than many Persian poets, depends on a sensuality of language and imagery. Smell, taste, texture, color and certainly sound imagery abound.

• GEOGRAPHY ii. Human geography

  Xavier de Planhol

• MANDAEANS iv. COMMUNITY IN IRAN

  Jorunn Jacobsen Buckley

  According to the 15 September 2004 United States Department of State International Religious Freedom Report for Iran, Section 1, the current Mandaean population in Persia comprises between 5,000 and 10,000 persons.

• GERMANY i. German-Persian diplomatic relations

  Oliver Bast

• INDIA xv. Persian Correspondence Literature

  cross-reference

  See CORRESPONDENCE iv.

• BAHAISM viii. Bahai Shrines

  J. Walbridge

  Of the Bahai sites of pilgrimage and visitation, the most important are the tombs of Bahāʾ-Allāh and the Bāb in Israel and the houses of the Bāb and Bahāʾ-Allāh in Shiraz and Baghdad.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN viii. The Pioneers and Promoters

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  Of the initial contributors to Kanun’s production activities, many artists and writers submitted only one or two works.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES viii. JUDEO-PERSIAN LANGUAGE

  Thamar E. Gindin

  a group of very similar, usually mutually comprehensible, dialects of Persian, spoken or written by Jews in greater Iran over a period of more than a millennium.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (4) Index of Proper Names

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Index of proper names that occur in the chronological table.

• KABUL iii. HISTORY FROM THE 16TH CENTURY TO THE ACCESSION OF MOḤAMMAD ẒĀHER SHAH

  May Schinasi

  Kabul was a small town until the 16th century, when Ẓahir-al-Din Bābor (1483-1530), the first of the Great Mughals, made it his capital.

• IRAN ix. RELIGIONS IN IRAN (2) Islam in Iran (2.2) Mongol and Timurid Periods

  Hamid Algar

  It is sometimes assumed that the general predominance of Sunnism in Persia was significantly weakened by the destruction of the ʿAbbasid caliphate by the Mongols in 1258.

• EDUCATION xviii. TEACHERS’-TRAINING SCHOOLS

  Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾ ī

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḴĀQĀNI ŠERVĀNI i. Life

  Anna Livia Beelaert

  (1127-1186/1199), major Persian poet and prose writer.

• CLOTHING xvi. Kurdish clothing in Persia

  Shirin Mohseni and Peter Andrews

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISFAHAN viii. QAJAR PERIOD

  Heidi Walcher

  The historical changes affecting the Isfahan of this period included loss of its status as the royal capital and its transformation into a major provincial city.

• ISLAM IN IRAN i - iv

  Multiple Authors

  The following series of articles provide an overview of some historical, contemporary, and especially political aspects of the topic that are of special interest and relevance in the world today.

• ART IN IRAN i. NEOLITHIC TO MEDIAN

  E. Porada

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FĀRS ii. History in the Pre-Islamic Period

  Josef Wiesehöfer

  The history of early pre-Islamic Fārs is most closely interwoven with that of its eastern and western neighbors. Agrarian settlements had been established (by immigrants?) in the Muški phase in the Kor basin, a widely and well researched area, before 5,500 B.C.E.

• HAFEZ iii. HAFEZ’S POETIC ART

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  Perhaps the greatest progress in research on Hafez during the past century has been made in the domain of philology. Critical editions have been published which begin to provide a reliable basis for the study of Hafez’s poetry.

• SALJUQS vi. ART AND ARCHITECTURE

  Lorenz Korn

  The naming of an art-historical period for the Saljuq dynasty, and its demarcation according to dynastic terms, has justly been debated. Nevertheless, a notion of Saljuq art has been shaped by the constant use of this term in the literature of the past decades

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 2)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

• MANDAEANS iii. INTERACTION WITH IRANIAN RELIGION

  Kurt Rudolph

  iii. INTERACTION WITH IRANIAN RELIGION

• INDIA vii. RELATIONS: THE AFSHARID AND ZAND PERIODS

  Mansour Bonakdarian

   The invasion of the Persian capital (Isfahan) by Ḡilzai Afghan forces in 1722 and the collapse of Safavid central authority had a marked impact on Indo-Persian relations,

• KARABALGASUN ii. The Inscription

  Y. Yoshida

  archeological site of a capital of the Uighur Khaghanate (second half of the 8th century to first half of the 9th century).

• BAHAISM iii. Bahai and Babi Schisms

  D. M. MacEoin

  Although it never developed much beyond the stage of a sectarian movement within Shiʿite Islam, Babism experienced a number of minor but interesting divisions, particularly in its early phase.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN iii. Book Publishing

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  When Kanun began producing children’s books, there were no specialized children’s book publishers in Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES v. QAJAR PERIOD (1)

  Daniel Tsadik

  The socio-economic and legal status of the Jews of Iran in early Qajar times was, to an extent, a continuation of the legacy of Safavid times. With the passage of time, however, and largely due to the increasing intervention of the great powers and foreign Jews, certain changes started to be seen.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 3)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  The Saljuqids (1040-1194). The plains of Central Asia, northwestern China, and western Siberia were breeding grounds for nomadic people, who kept multiplying and searching for new pastures.

• GILĀN xv. Popular and Literary Perceptions of Identity

  Christian Bromberger

• CERAMICS viii. The Early Bronze Age in Southwestern and Southern Persia

  Elizabeth Carter

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN viii. PERSIAN LITERATURE (2) Classical

  CHARLES-HENRI DE FOUCHÉCOUR

  We will pay special attention to the early formation and origins of different literary genres in Persian works, even though the very notion of literary genres is somewhat arbitrary and a subject of continuing debate.

• EDUCATION xiv. SPECIAL SCHOOLS

  Samineh Baghchehban-Pirnazar

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CLOTHING x. In the Safavid and Qajar periods

  Layla S. Diba

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISFAHAN ii. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

  The Isfahan oasis, as a prosperous area of agricultural life, eventually fostered the foundation of a major city—one whose strategic location helped it to dominate the entire area of Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BRONZE i. In pre-Islamic Iran

  Vincent C. Pigott

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xxii. GAZI DIALECT

  Donald Stilo

  spoken in the city of Gaz in the district of Borḵᵛār, belonging to the Central Plateau Dialect group ( of Northwestern Iranian languages.

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• HERODOTUS i. INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORIES

  Robert Rollinger

  Philologists of Hellenistic times divided Herodotus’s opus magnuminto nine books and subdivided these into chapters.

• FĀRS iv. History in the Qajar and Pahlavi Periods

  Ahmad Ashraf

  The Qajar period (1794-1921) was marked in Fārs by developments such as the rule of dozens of prince-governors; Britain’s influence, with domination of the Persian Gulf; division of the Qašqāʾī and Ḵamsa tribal confederacies; continued local autonomy of tribal khans and influential landowners; and the increasing political role of the ʿolamāʾ.

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• ISMAʿILISM xvi. MODERN ISMAʿILI COMMUNITIES

  Azim Nanji and Zulfikar Hirji

  The Ismaʿilis consist of two main branches—the Nezāri Ismaʿilis and the Mustaʿlian Ṭayyebi Ismaʿilis. Both have their roots in the Fatimid period of Ismaʿili history.

• HORMOZD III

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  Sasanian great king (r. 457-59 C.E.). He was the eldest son and heir of Yazdegerd II and “was king of Sejestān" (Ṭabari).

• KASHAN ix. THE MEDIAN DIALECTS OF KASHAN

  Habib Borjian

  This sub-entry is divided into two sections: (1) Rural Rāji dialects. (2) Urban Jewish dialect.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KANDAHAR vii. From 1973 to the Present

  Antonio Giustozzi

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• CERAMICS iii. The Neolithic Period in Central and Western Persia

  Peder Mortensen

  Present knowledge of the development of Neolithic ceramics in Luristan and Kurdistan, covering a period from the late 8th millennium to the middle of the 6th millennium B.C.E. is based primarily on evidence from three excavated sites and from surveys carried out southwest of Harsīn, on the Māhī­dašt plain, and in the Holaylān valley.

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• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (8) Semitic Languages

  Gernot Windfuhr

   First Aramaic and then Arabic had considerable contact with Iranian languages. Their impact differs.

• EDUCATION viii. NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS

  Tūrān Mīrhādī

  The beginnings of formalized preschool education in Persia can be traced back to ca. 1891, when Armenians in Jolfā, near Isfahan, founded a kindergarten, which continues to function today. By 1919 there were a few kindergartens in Tehran and other cities, primarily founded by missionaries and minority groups.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FRANCE iii. RELATIONS WITH PERSIA 1789-1918

  Florence Hellot-Bellier

• CLOTHING iv. In the Sasanian period

  Elsie H. Peck

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS v. Diplomatic and Commercial Relations, 1949-90

  Parviz Mohajer

• CENTRAL ASIA i. Geographical Survey

  EIr

• GREAT BRITAIN iv. British influence in Persia, 1900-21

  Mansour Bonakdarian

• DĀNEŠ (1)

  ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  pen name of MOʿĪN-AL-WEZĀRA MĪRZĀ REŻĀ KHAN ARFAʿ (Arfaʿ-al-Dawla; ca. 1846-1937), also known as Prince Reżā Arfaʿ, diplomat and poet of the late Qajar period.

• DU MANS, RAPHAEL

  Francis Richard

  , FATHER (b. Jacques Dutertre, Le Mans, France, d. Isfahan, 1 April 1696), author of important descriptions of Persia.

• ADAB ii. Adab in Arabic Literature

  Ch. Pellat

  In modern Arabic usage the term adab (plur. ādāb) denotes “literature,” but in classical Islam it was applied only to a limited range of literary works.

• MANDAEANS i. HISTORY

  Edmondo F. Lupieri

  an ethnic group (also called Nasoreans or Ar. Ṣābeʾin) belonging to one of the less represented religions of the Near East.

• GEORGIA iv. Literary contacts with Persia

  Aleksandre Gvakharia

  The tribes of Georgia had a well-established and vast literary tradition and folklore long before the Christian era. None of the pre-Christian Georgian literary works have survived, however. Christianity became established in Georgia as an official religion at the beginning of the 4th century, and in the 5th century the first surviving literary work was created.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿARAB v. Arab-Iranian relations in modern times

  R. K. Ramazani

• AZERBAIJAN v. History from 1941 to 1947

  B. Kuniholm

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GĪLĀN x. LANGUAGES

  Donald Stilo

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KANDAHAR ii. Pre-Islamic Monuments and Remains

  Gérard Fussman

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (5) Kassite

  Gernot Windfuhr

  The Kassites, Akkadian Kaššu, were mountain tribes probably somewhere in the central Zagros who ruled Babylon from the sixteenth to the middle of the twelfth century BCE.

• EDUCATION iv. THE MEDIEVAL MADRASA

  Christopher Melchert

• Isfahan xiv. MODERN ECONOMY AND INDUSTRIES (1) The Province

  Habib Borjian

  On the whole Isfahan is an average province within Persia in terms of general economic indices.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FEMINIST MOVEMENTS i. INTRODUCTION, ii. IN THE LATE QAJAR PERIOD

  EIr, Janet Afary

  The struggle for women’s rights that began in the mid-19th century and, more specifically, on the eve of the 1905-09 Constitutional Revolution and continued to the present time has been one of the main forces for democratic change in the 20th century Persia.

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• KASHAN i. GEOGRAPHY

  Habibollah Zanjani and EIr.

  Covering an area of approximately 9,647 km2, the sub-province of Kashan is situated between the Karkas mountains on the west to the Central Desert on the east.

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• HAJIABAD

  Philippe Gignoux, EIr

  (Ḥājiābād), site of bilingual inscription of Šāpur I on the wall of a cave near Persepolis. OVERVIEW of the entry: i. The Inscriptions. ii. The Texts.

• AFGHANISTAN viii. Archeology

  N. H. Dupree

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAMADĀN v - vi. HISTORY, ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Parviz Aḏkāʾi

  Hamadān was captured by the Arabs after their victory at the battle of Nehāvand, which took place in 640 or 642. The Arab army besieged the town and eventually conquered it for the second time in 22/642.

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• GĪLĀN iv. History in the Early Islamic Period

  Wilferd Madelung

• INDIA xxvi. MUTUAL MUSICAL INFLUENCES

  cross-reference

    See under MUSIC.

• CENTRAL ASIA ix. In the 20th Century

  Edward Allworth

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (3) Elamite

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Elamite was spoken in the southern Zagros regions, which correspond to the ancient cultural-political entities of Elam and Anshan, and expanded into Akkadian-speaking Susiana.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS iv. The Safavid Period, 1501-1732

  J. M. Rogers

• Isfahan x. Monuments (6) Bibliography

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

• ADAB i. Adab in Iran

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  Apart from a genre of literature (see section ii), adab in Persian means education, culture, good behavior, politeness, proper demeanor; thus it is closely linked with the concept of ethics.

• CYRUS iii. Cyrus II The Great

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

• ISMAʿILISM i. ISMAʿILI STUDIES

  Farhad Daftary

  In its modern and scientific form, dating to the 1930s, Ismaʿili studies represents one of the newest fields of Islamic studies.

• Italy vii. IRANIAN STUDIES, ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Mario Casari

  The earliest known references to Persia by Italian writers are gleaned from numerous notes in the oldest medieval travel accounts, dating from the 13th century onwards.

• DĀMḠĀNĪ (2)

  Sheila S. Blair

  nesba of a father and two sons from Dāmḡān who worked as engineers, builders, and stucco carvers in the early 14th century.

• CARPETS vi. Pre-Islamic Carpets

  Karen S. Rubinson

  Evidence for textiles of all kinds in pre-Islamic Iran is very sparse. It is necessary to supplement the few remains of actual textiles with examination of representations in art and other kinds of indirect evidence of production, for example preserved impressions and pseudomorphs from excavations.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FESTIVALS i. ZOROASTRIAN

  Mary Boyce

• JAPAN vi. IRANIAN STUDIES IN JAPAN, PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Takeshi Aoki

  Ancient Iranian studies in Japan started at the beginning of the 20th century in Tokyo and Kyoto independently.

• AFGHANISTAN iii. Fauna

  K. Habibi

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAMADĀN

  Multiple Authors

  province, governorship, and city located in the Zagros region of western Persia.

• GILĀN xii. Rural Housing

  Christian Bromberger

  There are considerable differences among settlement and building styles according to geographic location. Roughly, one can isolate four geographic areas, each with a distinctive type of rural dwelling: the Gilān plain; the low foothills of the Alborz range; the mountains, covered with forest and capped by alpine meadows; and finally the arid slopes of the Alborz.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• INDIA xxiii. INDIAN INFLUENCE ON PERSIAN CINEMA

  cross-reference

  See x, above.

• IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (1) Earliest Evidence

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  The Indo-Aryan and Iranian tribes separated about 2000 BCE., but attempts to correlate the proto-Indo-Iranians with archeological sites are all problematic.

• IRAQ iv. RELATIONS IN THE SAFAVID PERIOD

  Rudi Matthee

  Iraq was frequently the scene and the object of the intermittent wars the Ottomans and the Safavids fought in the 16th and early 17nth century.

• Isfahan x. MONUMENTS (1) A Historical Survey

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

   Isfahan’s monuments developed, in the Islamic era: first, in the early medieval period under the ʿAbbāsid Caliphate and Buyid patronage. Many of the extant monuments of Isfahan, however, date to two periods in history when the city served as the capital of the ruling dynasties of the Great Saljuqs (1040-1194) and the Safavids (1501-1722).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ART IN IRAN vi. PRE-ISLAMIC EASTERN IRAN AND CENTRAL ASIA

  G. Azarpay

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HERODOTUS viii. MARDONIUS ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS

  Robert Rollinger

  After Xerxes’ retreat, Mardonius prepared his offensive on land. He also wanted the higher powers to be on his side.

• EGYPT ii. Egyptian influence on Persia in the Pre-Islamic period

  Philip Huyse

• Greece iv. Greek Influence on Persian Thought

  Mansour Shaki

• Italy iii. CULTURAL RELATIONS

  Mario Casari

  Italy and Persia have hardly ever had a direct and continuous cultural exchange.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY iv. MONGOL PERIOD

  Charles Melville

  Persian historiography reached its maturity during the period of 13th-15th centuries, which might broadly be described as the Turko-Mongol era.

• ABU MUSĀ iii

  Guive Mirfendereski

  (Bu Musā), a small island in the eastern Persian Gulf (25°52′ N, 55°2′ E).

• HAFEZ xi. TRANSLATIONS OF HAFEZ IN GERMAN

  Hamid Tafazoli

  The name of Hafez is closely associated with that of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in German literature. This is directly attributable to the status Goethe accords Hafez in his West-West-östlicher Divan (1819).

• JAPAN ii. Diplomatic and Commercial Relations with Iran

  Nobuaki Kondo

  Although it is not clear when Iran initiated diplomatic contact with Japan, it is believed to have been in 1873, when Nāṣer-al-Din Shah, on his first trip to Europe, met Naonobu Sameshima of Satsuma, who was the then Japanese ambassador to Paris, France. The shah did not include many details about the meeting in his memoir.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GEOGRAPHY iv. Cartography of Persia

  CYRUS ALAI

  The world’s oldest known topographical map is a Babylonian clay tablet (ca. 2300 B.C.E.) found at Nuzi in northeastern Iraq. It is a relatively advanced picture map, showing two ranges of hills, as seen from the side, and the rivers they flank, by a series of parallel lines. The site covered by this map may have lain between the Zagros mountains and the hills running through Kirkuk.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GERMANY iii. Iranian studies in German: Pre-Islamic period

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  This contribution aims at presenting an overview of the studies on all aspects of the culture of pre-Islamic Iran as conducted by German, Austrian, and Swiss scholars.

• INDIA xvii. PERSIAN PRESS IN

  cross-reference

  See INDIA viii and INDIA ix. See also CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION vi and ḤABL AL-MATIN.

• JOURNALISM IN IRAN

  Negin Nabavi, Hossein Shahidi

  the collection and editing of news for presentation through the public press during the Qajar, Pahlavi, and Post-Revolutionary periods.

• KASHAN vi. THE ESBANDI FESTIVAL

  Habib Borjian

  An elaborate festival held in the Kashan region on the eve of the month Esfand.

• IRAN iv. MYTHS AND LEGENDS

  John R. Hinnells

  In the study of religion, myths are seen as narratives which encapsulate fundamental truths about the nature of existence, god(s), God(s), the universe. They explain the origin of the world or of a tribe or of a ritual.

• ECONOMY vi. IN THE TIMURID PERIOD

  Maria E. Subtelny

• IRAN xi. MUSIC

  Bruno Nettl

• KARAJ i. Modern City

  Bernard Hourcade

  a town in Tehran province, located 36 km west of the city of Tehran on the western bank of the Karaj River (q.v.; lat 35° 46ʹ N, long 50° 49ʹ E; elev., 1,360 m).

• TENTS in Iran

  Multiple Authors

  A portable dwelling characteristic of certain nomad groups. It consists of a canopy of cloth or skin supported by upright posts and anchored to the ground by means of pegs and ropes.

• CLOTHING xviii. Clothing of the Baluch in Persia

  Iran Ala Firouz and Mehremonīr Jahānbānī

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISFAHAN v. LOCAL HISTORIOGRAPHY

  JÜRGEN PAUL

  Isfahan is exceptional in the number and variety of works of local historiography; no other Persian city has attracted nearly as many such works.

• ISLAM IN IRAN v. MESSIANIC ISLAM IN IRAN

  Abbas Amanat

  Messianism is one of the most powerful, diverse and enduring expressions of Islam in Iran throughout its long history.

• EGYPT viii. Egyptian cultural influence in Persia, modern times

  E. Yarshater

• AFGHANISTAN i. Geography

  J. F. Shroder, Jr.

• GYPSY ii. Gypsy Dialects

  Gernot L. Windfuhr

  The languages and dialects popularly called “Gypsy” (< Egipcien < qebṭi “Coptic, Egyptian”) constitute three major groups: Asiatic or Middle Eastern Domari, Armenian Lomavren, and European Romani.

• HAFEZ v. MANUSCRIPTS OF HAFEZ

  Julie Scott Meisami

  A major concern of 20th-century Hafez scholarship has been the establishment of a reliable text of his poems.

• ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS ii. Qajar period

  F. Kazemzadeh

  Before the 19th century Anglo-Iranian relations were sporadic. Periods of engagement alternated with decades of disengagement. After the death of Karīm Khan Zand (1193/1779) contacts between Britain and Iran diminished and were maintained with regularity only in the Persian Gulf as the center of government authority moved north.

• INDIA xiii. INDO-IRANIAN COMMERCIAL RELATIONS

  Scott C. Levi

  Since antiquity merchants have used both caravan and maritime routes to transport commodities between India and Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAM (1)

  W. Eilers

  (also written bām) “bass,” the lowest-pitched string in music. The etymology is discussed.

• BAHAISM v. The Bahai Community in Iran

  V. Rafati

  With the Declaration of the Bāb in 1844, followed by his being accepted as the promised Qāʾem (the Hidden Imam) by a handful of early believers, the first Babi community was born in the city of Shiraz.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN v. Film Production: 1970-77

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  Kanun productions were the first experience of film direction for a number of today’s best-known Iranian directors.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES v. QAJAR PERIOD (2)

  Mehrdad Amanat

  In the latter part of the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries there occurred a relatively widespread mass movement of Persian Jews to the Bahai community.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 5)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  The Qajar dynasty (1779-1924). The Qajar were a Turkmen tribe who first settled during the Mongol period in the vicinity of Armenia and were among the seven Qezelbāš tribes that supported the Safavids.

• ECONOMY ii. IN THE PRE-ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Robert C. Henrickson

• KABUL i. GEOGRAPHY OF THE PROVINCE

  Andreas Wilde

• CERAMICS x. The Iron Age

  Robert C. Henrickson

• IRAN ix. RELIGIONS IN IRAN (1) Pre-Islamic (1.1) Overview

  Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  From the 2nd millennium BCE until Islam became dominant in Iran, a remarkable number of religious traditions existed there.

• EDUCATION xv. FOREIGN AND MINORITY SCHOOLS IN PERSIA

  EIr

• CLOTHING xiii. Clothing in Afghanistan

  Nancy Hatch Dupree

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISFAHAN iii. POPULATION (1) The Qajar Period

  Heidi Walcher

  Population figures for the Qajar period diverge drastically and are largely based on conjecture by European diplomats.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ŠĀH-NĀMA — EXCURSUS

  Amin Banani

  Essay: “Reflections on Re-reading the Iliad and the Shahnameh” by Amin Banani.

• HERODOTUS iii. DEFINING THE PERSIANS

  Robert Rollinger

  In the Histories the Persians are sometimes not exactly distinguishable from other peoples of their empire, especially when the Greeks’ opponents are simply qualified as “Persians.” The Persians generally are run together with the Medes.

• FĀRS vi. Population

  Habib Zanjani

  The province of Fārs is the largest and the most populous province in the south of Persia. In the  national census of 1996, it was composed of 16 counties (šahrestāns), comprising a total of 60 districts (baḵš), 48 towns (šahr), and 185 village clusters (dehestān).

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• BRONZE ii. In Islamic Iran

  James W. Allan

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HORMOZD V

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  Sasanian great king (r. 630-32 CE) in the turbulent years following the murder of Ḵosrow II Parvēz (628).

• INDIA ix. RELATIONS: QAJAR PERIOD, EARLY 20TH CENTURY

  Mansour Bonakdarian

  The contributions made by various non-Iranian individuals and groups to the constitutional/ nationalist cause in Persia have long been acknowledged in the historiography of the revolution.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES ii. ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Mayer I. Gruber

  The most significant chapter in the story of Jews and Judaism in Persia began 15 March 597 BCE, when King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylonia conquered Jerusalem.

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• BOSḤĀQ AṬʿEMA

  Heshmat Moayyad

  , FAḴR-AL-DĪN ḤALLĀJ ŠĪRĀZĪ (d. 1420s), satirical poet who used Persian culinary vocabulary and imagery and kitchen terminology to create a novel style of poetry.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (1) Pre-Islamic Times

  Ehsan Yarshater

  This section provides a concise introduction to the history of Iran from its beginnings to modern times. The generally recognized periods of the country’s history are reviewed, and some of the major motifs or themes in the politics or culture of the various periods are discussed.

• CERAMICS v. The Chalcolithic Period in Southern Persia

  Thomas W. Beale

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EDUCATION xi. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL GROUPS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GILĀN xi. Irrigation

  Christian Bromberger

  In the rice-growing regions of the Caspian hinterland, water requirements are considerable and irrigation requires careful organization. It is estimated that one hectare of rice, on average,  requires 12,400 cubic meters of water. To meet this demand various techniques are used, depending on the micro climate of the area and the resources available.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FRANCE v. ADMINISTRATIVE AND MILITARY CONTACTS WITH PERSIA

  Massoud Farnoud

• CLOTHING vi. Of the Sogdians

  Aleksandr Naymark

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xix. JEWISH DIALECT

  Donald Stilo

  The dialect spoken by the Jews of Isfahan belongs to the Central Dialect group. The original speech form of the city of Isfahan was probably very similar to it.

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• CENTRAL ASIA iii. In Pre-Islamic Times

  Richard N. Frye

• Great Britain vi. British influence in Persia, 1941-79

  Fakhreddin Azimi

• TABRIZ x. MONUMENTS x(1). The Blue Mosque

  Sandra Aube

  (Pers. Masjed-e kabud), also known as Masjed-e moẓaffariya, built during the rule of the Qarā Qoyunlu dynasty (1351-1469) and completed in 1465. The extant tilework documents artistic connections with contemporary architecture in Timurid Khorasan and in the Ottoman Empire.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HORMOZD (2)

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  (Ormisdas), a brother of the Sasanian great king Šāpur II (r. 307-79 CE), who participated on the Roman side in the emperor Julian’s Persian expedition of 363 CE.

• KASHAN iii. HISTORY

  Forthcoming online.

• BAHMAN (1)

  J. Narten, Ph. Gignoux

  the New Persian name of the Avestan Vohu Manah (Good Thought) and Pahlavi Wahman.

• KASHAN v. ARCHITECTURE (4) HISTORIC MANSIONS

  EIr.

  The city of Kashan boasts at least nineteen historic mansions that are well preserved; they are presented in the first volume of the Ganjnameh devoted to these structures.

• CYRUS v. The Tomb of Cyrus

  Antigoni Zournatzi

  The tomb of Cyrus is generally identified with a small stone monument approximately 1 km southwest of the palaces of Pasargadae, in the center of the Morḡāb plain. According to Greek sources, the tomb of Cyrus II 559-29 B.C.E.) was located in the royal park at Pasargadae.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GEORGIA vi. Iranian studies and collections in Georgia

  Keith Hitchins

• INDIA i. Introduction

  Christopher J. Brunner

  This entry presents a series of survey articles on selected areas of interaction and mutual influence between the two culture areas, including overviews of the enormous body of literature produced in India in the Persian language.

• AZERBAIJAN vii. The Iranian Language of Azerbaijan

  E. Yarshater

• KANDAHAR iv. From The Mongol Invasion Through the Safavid Era

  Rudi Matthee and Hiroyuki Mashita

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• BORŪJERDĪ, ḤOSAYN ṬABĀṬABĀʾĪ

  Hamid Algar

  , AYATOLLAH ḤĀJJ ĀQĀ (1875-1961), director (zaʿīm) of the religious teaching institution (ḥawza) at Qom Qom for seventeen years and sole marjaʿ-e taqlīd of the Shiʿite world for fifteen years.

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (7) Turkic Languages

  Gernot Windfuhr

  In Iran, there are two distinct branches of Turkic: Oghuz Turkic languages and dialects that represent the southwestern branch of Turkic, and Khalaj, which presents a tiny branch of its own.

• EDUCATION v. THE MADRASA IN SHIʿITE PERSIA

  ʿAbbās Zaryāb

  After the introduction of the institutionalized madrasa by Neẓām-al-Molk in the late 11th century, above) Shiʿite madrasas were also founded in Persia and Iraq. These schools were local efforts, however, and did not constitute a unitary system of education.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CLOTHING i. General remarks

  EIr

• Isfahan xv. EDUCATION AND CULTURAL AFFAIRS

  Maryam Borjian and Habib Borjian

  Isfahan is distinguished among Persian cities not only for its size, centrality, position in a riverain plain, and numerous historical monuments, but also for the idiosyncratic characteristic of its inhabitants.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS vii. In the Qajar period

  Abbas Amanat

• DĀNEŠ (2)

  Nassereddin Parvin

  lit., “knowledge”; title of seven newspa­pers and journals published in Persia and the Indian subcontinent, presented here in chronological order.

• FEMINIST MOVEMENTS iv. IN THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC

  Ziba Mir-Hosseini

  After the Revolution of 1978-79, “feminism,” because of its associations with the West and its appropriation by the previous regime, soon became viewed by the ruling clerics as synonymous with decadence.

• GILĀN xx. Handicrafts

  Christian Bromberger

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KASHAN iv. POPULATION

  Habibollah Zanjani

  Approximately 90 percent of the Kashan Sub-province population lives in the city of Kashan, so the demographic data for the sub-province closely resembles that of the city.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFGHANISTAN x. Political History

  D. Balland

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BĀḴTAR (2)

  N. Parvīn

  name of an educational magazine (Isfahan, 1933-35) and a political newspaper (Isfahan and Tehran, 1935-45).

• HAMADĀN viii. JEWISH COMMUNITY

  Houman Sarshar

  The earliest reference to the Jews in Hamadān is in The Old Testament, according to which a group of Israelites were brought to the Persian plateau ca. 722 BCE (2 Kings 18.11).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿARAB ii. Arab conquest of Iran

  M. Morony

• AZERBAIJAN i. Geography

  X. de Planhol

• GĪLĀN vi. History in the 18th century

  EIr and Reza Rezazadeh Langaroudi

• CENTRAL ASIA xi. Economy from the Timurids until the 18th Century

  Robert D. McChesney

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (4) Urartian

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Urartian was most likely the dominant vernacular around Lake Van and the upper Zab valley. It was written from the late ninth to seventh century BCE in the empire of Urartu.

• EDUCATION i. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS vii. Persian Settlements in Southeastern China during the T’ang, Sung, and Yuan Dynasties

  Chen Da-Sheng

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ARDAŠĪR B. DAYLAMSOPĀR

  cross-reference

  See ABU’L-ḤAYJĀ NAJMĪ.

• Isfahan xii. BAZAAR: PLAN AND FUNCTION

  Willem Floor

  The bazaar of Isfahan is one of the best-preserved examples of the kind of large, enclosed, and covered bazaar complex that was typical of most cities in the Muslim world prior to the 20th century. The oldest areas of the present-day bazaar date from the early 17th century; its first stone was laid in 1603.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GREAT BRITAIN i. INTRODUCTION

  Multiple Authors

• ISMAʿILISM iii. ISMAʿILI HISTORY

  Farhad Daftary

  On the death of Imam Jaʿfar al-Ṣādeq in 148/765 his followers from among the Imami Shiʿites split into six groups, of which two may be identified as proto-Ismaʿilis or earliest Ismaʿilis.

• GILĀN xix. Landholding and Social Stratification

  Christian Bromberger

  Prior to the Land Reform of 1962 that began the process of land redistribution, the dominant production system in Gilān, as in the majority of Persianprovinces, was of a feudal nature.

• CARPETS viii. The Il-khanid and Timurid Periods

  Eleanor Sims

  Persian carpets that can be indisputably identified a having been produced in the 8-9th/14-15th centuries are virtually nonexistent. That carpets were used and produced in Persia  has  been inferred from written sources, both contemporary and slightly earlier. The existence of carpets and weavings from contemporary Anatolia and the Turkman tribal confederations, and possibly also from Egypt and even Spain, also permits the inference.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FESTIVALS iii, iv, v

  Anne H. Betteridge and EIr, Philip G. Kreyenbroek, Keith Hitchins

  iii. SHI'ITE, iv. YAZIDI AND AHL-E HAQQ, v. KURDISH (SUNNI).

• BAHRĀM (1)

  G. Gnoli, P. Jamzadeh

  the Old Iranian god of victory, Avestan Vərəθraγna (“smiting of resistance”);  Middle Persian Warahrān, frequently used as a male proper name.

• JAPAN viii. SAFAVID STUDIES IN JAPAN

  Masashi Haneda

  The genesis of Safavid studies in Japan was an outgrowth of the interest in the history of the Mongols and the Turkic people, which is a significant point characterizing Safavid studies there.

• AFGHANISTAN v. Languages

  Ch. M. Kieffer

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAMADĀN ii. POPULATION

  Habibollah Zanjani

  This article is divided into two sections: (1) population of Hamadān province; and (2) population of Hamadān city.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AFGHANISTAN xiv. AFGHAN REFUGEES IN IRAN

  Zuzanna Olszewska

  Afghan refugees make up a population of up to 3 million people of various ethnicities, who have settled in Iran since the communist coup of 1978 in Afghanistan.

• GĪLĀN i. GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

  Marcel Bazin

  Gīlān includes the northwestern end of the Alborz chain and the western part of the Caspian lowlands of Persia. The mountainous belt is cut through by the deep transversal valley of the Safīdrūd between Manjīl and Emāmzāda Hāšem near Rašt. To the northwest, the Ṭāleš highlands stretch a continuous watershed separating Gīlān and Azerbaijan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CENTRAL ASIA vi. In the 16th-18th Centuries

  Robert D. McChesney

  In the 16th-17th centuries Central Asia, includ­ing Transoxania, Greater Balḵ, and Ḵᵛārazm, witnessed a neo-Chingizid (Jochid) political revival, spearheaded by the ʿArabshahid/Shibanid (Shaibanid) lineage in Ḵᵛārazm and the Abulkhairid/Shibanid and Toqay-Timurid lines in Transoxania and Greater Balḵ. In the main, political life was shaped by the neo-Chingizid appanage system of state and its internal dynamic.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS (3) Writing Systems

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  Writing systems for Iranian languages include cuneiform (Old Persian); scripts descended from “imperial” Aramaic, two Syriac scripts, Hebrew, Arabic, Greek, Cyrillic, Georgian, and Latin.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS i. In Pre-Islamic Times

  Edwin G. Pulleyblank

• IRAQ vi. PAHLAVI PERIOD, 1921-79

  Mohsen M. Milani

  Relations between Iran and Iraq underwent three different phases between 1921, when Britain installed Faysal Ibn Hossein as king of a newly formed nation-state of Iraq and 1979, when the Pahlavi dynasty was swept away by revolution.

• Isfahan x. Monuments (3) Mosques

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

  Isfahan is known historically for its large number of mosques. According to Abu Noʿaym of Isfahan, the first large mosque in Isfahan was built during the Caliphate of Imam ʿAli b. Abi Ṭāleb (r. 656-61). The French traveler Jean Chardin counted 162 mosques during his travels to Isfahan in the middle of the 17th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ART IN IRAN viii. ISLAMIC CENTRAL ASIA

  G. A. Pugachenkova

• GREECE vii. GREEK ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN IRAN

  Rémy Boucharlat

• HISTORIOGRAPHY vi. SAFAVID PERIOD

  Sholeh Quinn

  Safavid historiography, although developing unique features of its own, had its origins in the eastern Timurid tradition that was centered in Herāt.

• CARPETS i. Introductory survey

  Roger Savory

• HAFEZ xiii. - xiv. HAFEZ’S TOMB (ḤĀFEẒIYA)

  Kuros Kamali Sarvestani

  The Hafeziya is located south of the Koran Gate (Darvāza-ye Qorʾān) on the northern edge of Shiraz. It is on the site of the famous Golgašt-e Moṣallā, the pleasure ground often mentioned in the poems of Hafez and occupies about 19,000 square meters, incorporating one of Shiraz’s most famous cemeteries, Ḵāk-e Moṣallā.

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• JAPAN iv. Iranians in Japan

  Toyoko Morita

  Among the foreigners in Japan, Iranians total about 5,000 people, constituting a small minority group.

• GERMANY v. German travelers and explorers in Persia

  Oliver Bast

  Hans Schiltberger, a Bavarian soldier, was the first German to give an eyewitness account of his travels in Persia. Initially captured by the Ottomans in 1396, he later became a prisoner of Tīmūr at the battle of Ankara (1402).

• INDIA xx. PERSIAN INFLUENCES ON INDIAN PAINTING

  Barbara Schmitz

  Between about 1300 and 1600, Persian painting styles had a sustained impact on the Indian art at the Sultanate and Mughal courts as well as on Hindu painting styles. The earliest dated manuscripts from the subcontinent that rely on Persian models for some of their motifs are from the late 14th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ŠĀH-NĀMA v. ARABIC WORDS

  John Perry

  Moïnfar calculates that the Šāh-nāma contains 706 words of Arabic origin, occurring a total of 8,938 times. The 100 words occurring most frequently account for 60 percent of all occurrences.

• GILĀN xiv. Ethnic Groups

  Christian Bromberger

• IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (2) Pre-Islamic

  C. J. Brunner

  This survey focuses on the early phase of the Iranian-speaking peoples’ presence on the plateau, during the early state-building phase.

• ECONOMY viii. IN THE QAJAR PERIOD

  Hassan Hakimian

• CLOTHING xxii. Clothing of the Caspian area

  Christian Bromberger

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISFAHAN vii. SAFAVID PERIOD

  Masashi Haneda and Rudi Matthee

  Isfahan came under Safavid rule in 1503 following Shah Esmāʿil’s defeat of Solṭān Morād, the Āq Qoyunlu ruler of Erāq-e ʿAjam, near Hamadān.

• ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM

  Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi

  Mahdism in Twelver Shiʿism inherited many of its elements from previous religious trends.

• ART IN IRAN iv. PARTHIAN Art

  S. B. Downey

• EGYPT vi. Artistic relations with Persia in the Islamic period

  Jonathan M. Bloom

  Although direct evidence of artistic links between Persia and Egypt before the Mongol invasion of the Near East in the 13th century is limited, surviving works of art suggest that transfer of artistic ideas resulted from the movement of artisans and their works, rather than from the specific demand of patrons.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Greece i. Greco-Persian Political Relations

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  After subjugating the Medes, Cyrus II started his first expedition westwards. In 547 B.C.E. he turned against Lydia and its king, Croesus.

• Italy i. INTRODUCTION

  Carlo G. Cereti

  Direct relations between the Italian peninsula and the Iranian plateau date at least from the Parthian period,  when the border between the Arsacids and the Roman Empire was set on the Euphrates.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY i. INTRODUCTION

  Elton Daniel

  Historiography, literally, is the study not of history but of the writing of history. In modern usage, this term covers a wide range of related but distinct areas of inquiry.

• DONKEY i. In Persian tradition and folk belief

  Mahmoud Omidsalar and Teresa P. Omidsalar

  domesticated species descended from the wild ass, probably first bred in captivity in Egypt and western Asia, where by 2500 B.C.E. the domesticated donkey was in use as a beast of burden.

• HAFEZ viii. HAFEZ AND RENDI

  Franklin Lewis

  Rend, variously translated in English as “rake, ruffian, pious rogue, brigand, libertine, lout, debauchee,” is the very antithesis of establishment propriety.

• GEOGRAPHY i. Evolution of geographical knowledge

  Xavier de Planhol

  Geography of Persia and Afghanistan. The concept of Iran and ancient Iranian geography (Justi; Spiegel, I, pp. 188-243 and especially pp. 210-12; Herzfeld, pp. 671-720; Gnoli, 1980, 1989).

• INDIA xix. INDIAN LITERARY INFLUENCES ON PERSIAN LITERATURE

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• BAHAISM vii. Bahai Persecutions

  D. M. MacEoin

  Bahai persecutions were a pattern of continuing discriminatory measures against adherents and institutions of the Bahai religion, punctuated by outbreaks of both random and organized violence.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN vii. Visual Arts Training Center

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  In the beginning, each artistic training program was independent, and the subjects were not coordinated under an overall artistic training management.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES vii. THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC

  Cross-Reference

  See forthcoming online.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (3) Chronological Table

  Ehsan Yarshater

  A chronological table of events. This records major happenings of Iranian pre-history and history from the most ancient times to 2005.

• ABU MUSĀ i - ii

  E. Ehlers

  island in the Persian Gulf.

• ECONOMY iv. IN THE SASANIAN PERIOD

  Ryka Gyselen

• KABUL ii. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

  Before the period of war and unrest in Afghanistan that started in 1978, almost all the functions concerned with governing the country and directing its international relations were concentrated in Kabul. This primacy among Afghan cities is due to an exceptionally favorable geographical site.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CERAMICS xii. The Parthian and Sasanian Periods

  Remy Boucharlat and Ernie Haerinck

• IRAN ix. RELIGIONS IN IRAN (2) Islam in Iran (2.1) The Advent of Islam

  Hamid Algar

  Persian acquaintance with Islam began already in the time of the Prophet. Well known is the case of Salmān-e Fārsi, the Persian companion of the Prophet around whom many legends have been spun.

• EDUCATION xvii. HIGHER EDUCATION

  David Menashri

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CLOTHING xv. Clothing of Tajikistan

  Guzel’ Maĭtdinova

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISFAHAN iii. POPULATION (3) Isfahan City

  Habibollah Zanjani

  The city of Isfahan is the capital of Isfahan Province (ostān) and Sub-province (šahrestān) and the center of the Isfahan comprehensive regional planning complex.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• MANICHEISM i. GENERAL SURVEY

  Werner Sundermann

  Manicheism is the only world religion that has become completely extinct. Its founder, Mani, lived in the third century CE. His religion spread over the continents from the Atlantic to the Chinese Sea.

• FĀRS

  Multiple Authors

  province in southern Persia.

• HERODOTUS v. CAMBYSES ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS

  Robert Rollinger

  Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, is first described by Herodotus at a time when his father’s reign was already about to end.

• CENTRAL ASIA v. In the Mongol and Timurid Periods

  Bertold Spuler

• FĀRS viii. Dialects

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Local variants of Persian are found in most cities and towns and their vicinities, and, rurally, mainly in the northeastern parts of the region, all of which tend to reflect a good deal of the vocabulary and idiomatic features of the earlier non-Persian dialects.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HAFEZ ii. HAFEZ’S LIFE AND TIMES

  Bahaʾ-al-Din Khorramshahi and EIr

  In spite of this enormous popularity and influence, details of his life are extremely sketchy, and the brief references in taḏkeras (anthologies with biographical sketches) are often unreliable or even purely fictitious.

• SALJUQS v. SALJUQID LITERATURE

  Daniela Meneghini

  The term ‘Saljuqid literature’is used here to refer to literary works in Persian produced between 432/1040 and 617/1220.

• SACRIFICE i. IN ZOROASTRIANISM

  William W. Malandra

• INDIA vi. Political and Cultural Relations (13th-18th centuries)

  Richard M. Eaton

  Relations between peoples of the Iranian plateau and India were extensive and uninterrupted between the 13th and 18th centuries. Migration, commerce, and politics all led to a range of cross-regional influences.

• KARABALGASUN i. The Site

  Toshio Hayashi

  archeological site of a capital of the Uighur Khaghanate (second half of the 8th century to first half of the 9th century).

• BAHAISM ii. Bahai Calendar and Festivals

  A. Banani

  The notion of renewal of time, implicit in most religious dispensations, is made explicit in the writings of the Bāb and Bahāʾ-Allāh.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN ii. Libraries

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  an institute with a wide range of cultural, artistic, and educational activities for children and adolescents, founded under the patronage of Queen (Shahbanou) Farah Pahlavi in December 1965.

• ḤASAN II

  Farhad Daftary

  , ʿALĀ ḎEKREHE’L-SALĀM, Nezāri Ismaʿili Imam and the fourth ruler of Alamut (1162-66). The most important event of his brief reign was his declaration of the qiāma (the Resurrection).

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES iv. MEDIEVAL TO LATE 18TH CENTURY

  Vera Basch Moreen

  The Arab conquest of Iran (636 CE) and the end of the 18th century are convenient, if artificial, dates to demarcate the “Middle Ages” in a diachronic approach to the history of the Jews in Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 2)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Formation of local dynasties. The Taherids (821-73). The first of these dynasties came into being when Ṭāher b. Ḥosayn was appointed the governor of Khorasan with full power.

• CERAMICS vii. The Bronze Age in Northwestern, Western, and Southwestern Persia

  Robert C. Henrickson

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAN viii. PERSIAN LITERATURE (1) Pre-Islamic

  Philip Huyse

  Iranian “literature” was for a long time essentially of oral nature as far as composition, performance, and transmission are concerned.

• EDUCATION xiii. RURAL AND TRIBAL SCHOOLS

  Moḥammad Bahmanbeygī, Nāṣer Mīr, Moḥammad Pūrsartīp, and EIr

  Compulsory-education laws enacted in 1911 and 1943 provided the legal framework for the extension of modern education into rural and tribal areas. Until the 1950s, however, the Persian government did not possess the resources  to implement these laws; in addition, landowners and tribal khans resisted such efforts.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CLOTHING ix. In the Mongol and Timurid periods

  Eleanor Sims

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISFAHAN i. GEOGRAPHY

  EIr, Xavier de Planhol

  (1) Geography of the province. (2) Geography of the oasis. Isfahan Province is situated in central Persia between the massive central Zagros mountain range and the great desert.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xxi. PROVINCIAL DIALECTS

  Donald Stilo

  The Iranian languages of Isfahan Province are of three basic types: Northwest Iranian dialects belonging to the Central Plateau Dialect group, and two different types of Southwest Iranian  languages: slightly divergent dialects of Persian, but intelligible to the standard language, and  large pockets of Lori.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Great Britain viii. British Archeological Excavations

  St. J. Simpson

• CARPETS iii. Knotted-pile carpets: Techniques and structures

  Annette Ittig

  The techniques of carpet making are the processes of weaving, knotting, and finishing; structure is the complex of interrelations among the elements of the finished carpet. One of the major problems in carpet studies is the lack of a standard terminology to describe specific techniques, structures, and designs.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HORMOZD II

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  Sasanian great king (r. 303-09 CE). He assumed a crown very similar to that of Bahrām II,  representing the varəγna, the royal falcon.

• BESṬĀMĪ, ŠEHĀB-AL-DĪN

  Hamid Algar

  [Basṭāmī], SHAIKH (d. 1405), a Sufi of Herat during the Timurid period.

• ḎARĪʿA elā TAṢĀNĪF al-ŠĪʿA

  Etan Kohlberg

  a comprehensive bibliography of Imami Shiʿite works in twenty-five volumes compiled by Shaikh Moḥammad-Moḥsen Āqā Bozorg Ṭehrānī (1876-1970); it contains about 55,000 entries for works written up to 1950-51.

• KASHAN viii. RELIGIOUS COMMUNITIES (2) BAHAI COMMUNITY

  Mehrdad Amanat

  Like many Bahai communities in Iran, Kashan Bahais can trace their roots to the early years of the Babi movement.

• GEORGIA viii. Georgian communities in Persia

  Pierre Oberling

• INDIA iii. RELATIONS: ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Pierfrancesco Callieri

  The conquest by Darius I of the territories of the Indian subcontinent west of the Indus for the first time created a clear relationship between India and Iran.

• KURDISH LANGUAGE i. HISTORY OF THE KURDISH LANGUAGE

  Ludwig Paul

• KANDAHAR vi. 20th Century, 1901-73

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

• CERAMICS ii. The Neolithic Period in Northwestern Persia

  Mary M. Voigt

  The initial occupation of Persian Azerbaijan by farming groups took place in the second half of the 7th millennium B.C.E. The best known site of this period is Hajji Firuz (Ḥājī Fīrūz) Tepe, located in the Ošnū-­Soldūz valley and approximately contemporary with Hasanlu X (ca. 6000-5000 B.C.E.). 

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• EDUCATION vii. GENERAL SURVEY OF MODERN EDUCATION

  Ahmad Ashraf

  A modern system of national education emerged in Persia in the 1920s and 1930s, after the Pahlavi state had been founded; during this period the influence of the religious establishment was minimized, and the government gained control over schools, expanding enrollment at all levels.

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• FRANCE ii. RELATIONS WITH PERSIA TO 1789

  Jean Calmard

• CLOTHING iii. In the Arsacid period

  Trudi Kawami

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Isfahan xvii. ARMENIAN COMMUNITY

  Cross-Reference

  See JULFA.

• HELL ii. Islamic Period

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  Duzaḵ and jahannam are the terms commonly used in Persian for hell.

• CYRUS ii. Cyrus I

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

• DONKEY ii. Domestication in Iran

  Daniel T. Potts

  The domestication of the African ass (Equus africanus) and the development of the donkey (Equus asinus) for transport and traction have been discussed in the scholarly literature for many years.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AMLAŠ ii. Excavations

  R. H. Dyson

  small village in southeastern Gilān which, since 1959, has given its name to a large assortment of archeological artifacts derived from illegal, clandestine excavations in the nearby valleys of the Alborz range.

• KASHAN v. ARCHITECTURE (2) HISTORICAL MONUMENT

  Mohammad- Reza Haeri and EIr.

  This section briefly describes nine landmark monuments of Kashan.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GEORGIA iii. Iranian elements in Georgian art and archeology

  Gocha R. Tsetskhladze

  Ancient Georgian tribes had close cultural contacts with Near Eastern civilizations from the 18th century BCE. Iranian elements appeared from the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E., as they did in the art of the entire Caucasian region.

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• ʿARAB iv. Arab tribes of Iran

  P. Oberling and B. Hourcade

• ARMENIA ii. ARMENIAN WOMEN IN THE LATE 19TH- AND EARLY 20TH-CENTURY PERSIA

  Houri Berberian

• AZERBAIJAN iii. Pre-Islamic History

  K. Schippmann

• GĪLĀN ix. Monuments

  Manouchehr Sotoudeh

  Most buildings of historical interest in Gilān have been repeatedly repaired and rebuilt throughout their history. Some have clear records of their history, but most of them lack reliable, primary documents, and one has to rely on a variety of indirect evidence, such as the dates engraved on entrance doors or tombstones to reconstruct part of the past of a given edifice.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KANDAHAR i. Historical Geography to 1979

  Xavier de Planhol

  city in southern Afghanistan (lat 31°36′28″ N, long 65°42′19″ E), the second most important in the country and the capital of Kandahar province.

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• CENTRAL ASIA xiii. Iranian Languages

  Ivan M. Steblin-Kamenskij

• EDUCATION iii. THE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

  Jalīl Dūstḵᵛāh and Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī

  Before the establishment of a modern educational system in Persia in the early 20th century children received their early and intermediate education in the maktab (or maktab-ḵāna, lit., “place of writing”) under the tutelage of an āḵūnd (q.v.), mulla (clerical teacher), or moʿallem (teacher), who worked alone or occasionally with one or two assistants.

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• Isfahan xiv. MODERN ECONOMY AND INDUSTRIES

  Habib Borjian

  This sub-section is divided into the following parts: (1) Modern Economy of the Province; (2) Industries of Isfahan City.

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• GREAT BRITAIN iii. British influence in Persia in the 19th century

  Abbas Amanat

• AFGHANISTAN vii. Parāčī

  G. Morgenstierne

• HAMADĀN iv. URBAN PLAN

  Abdolhamid Eshragh

  Hamadān is the only city in Persia which has a star-shaped urban design, with six boulevards and a network of avenues autonomously branching out in various directions from the circular city center. In 1928, German architects were given the task of designing a plan for the city which would modernize its urban infrastructure and be suitable for motor traffic. The resultant project was eventually implemented in 1933.

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• GĪLĀN iii. Archeology

  Ezat O. Negahban

  The archeology of Gīlān, particularly in the pre-Islamic period, is usually studied in the wider context of the entire south Caspian region, including Mazandarān and Gorgān. Articles on three important locations, Marlik Tepe, Amlaš, and Deylamān, illustrate the perennial difficulties faced by archeological research in Persia.

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• INDIA xxv. MUTUAL MYSTICAL INFLUENCES

  cross-reference

  See under SUFISM.

• CENTRAL ASIA viii. Relations with Persia in the 19th Century

  Abbas Amanat

• IRAN vii. NON-IRANIAN LANGUAGES (2) In Pre-Islamic Iran

  Gernot Windfuhr

  Of the three known pre-Islamic languages (Urartian, Kassite, and Elamite), only Urartian and Elamite are fairly well known.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS iii. In the Mongol Period

  Liu Yingsheng and Peter Jackson

• ŠĀH-NĀMA iv. Illustrations

  Marianna Shreve Simpson

  Among the many works of classical literature that form the extensive corpus of Persian manuscript illustration, Ferdowsi’s Šāh-nāma occupies pride of place. Hundreds of illustrated volumes survive today, doubtless only a fraction of the actual artistic production.

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• IRAQ viii. THE SHIʿITE SHRINE CITIES OF IRAQ

  cross-reference

  See ʿATABĀT.

• Isfahan x. Monuments (5) Bridges

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

  On the southern edge of the city of Isfahan lies the Zāyandarud River, the unnavigable river that has been the major source of water in the region since the earliest settlements in its environs. Until the transfer of the Safavid capital to Isfahan in the late 16th century, the river was well outside the city walls.

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• Italy vi. ITALIAN EXCAVATIONS IN IRAN

  Pierfrancesco Callieri, Bruno Genito

  From the early 20th century on, Italians participated in the scholarly investigation of ancient Iran, but direct involvement in field archeology dates from relatively recent times.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY viii. QAJAR PERIOD

  Abbas Amanat

  In the century and a half that constituted the Qajar period (1786-1925), writing of history evolved from production of annalistic court chronicles and other traditional genres into the earliest experimentations in modern historiography.

• DĀMḠĀNĪ (1)

  EIr

  nesba of a leading family of jurists of Persian origin, descendants of Abū ʿAbd-Allāh Moḥammad Kabīr (b. Dāmḡān 1007, d. Baghdad 1085), a well-known exponent of Hanafite law, who served as the chief magistrate (qāżī al-qożāt) of Baghdad.

• CARPETS v. Flat-woven carpets: Techniques and structures

  Sarah B. Sherrill

  Most of the structures in Persian flat-woven carpets belong to the category called “interlacing” by textile specialists; the term designates the most straightforward way in which each thread of a fabric passes under or over threads that cross its path.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAPAN v. ARCHEOLOGICAL MISSIONS TO PERSIA

  Toh Sugimura

  After World War II Japanese archeologists could not continue their work on sites in Korea and China, and their expertise became available for research in the Middle East and Persia.

• AFGHANISTAN ii. Flora

  M. Šafīq Yūnos

• GERMANY vii, viii. German cultural influence in Persia

  Christl Catanzaro

  German culture was and is very highly appreciated in Persia, but its influence on Persian culture is usually overrated. A lasting influence was mainly exercised on Persians who either attended a German school in Persia, had other personal contacts with Germans, studied in Germany, or worked there.

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• INDIA xxii. PERSIAN INFLUENCE ON INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

  cross-reference

  See DECCAN ii; DELHI SULTANATE ii; GARDEN iii; HYDERABAD ii.

• IRAN vi. IRANIAN LANGUAGES AND SCRIPTS

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  The term “Iranian language” is applied to any language which is descended from a proto-Iranian parent language (unattested by texts) spoken, presumably, in Central Asia in the late 3rd to early 2nd millennium BCE.

• FLOYER, ERNEST AYSCOGHE

  Josef Elfenbein

  (1852-1903) explorer, writer, and the first station chief of the Indo-European Telegraph Line at Jāsk.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• IRAQ ii - iii. FROM THE MONGOLS TO THE SAFAVIDS

  ʿAbbās Zaryāb

  The Mongol capture of Baghdad in 1258 came at a time when Persian influence was on the rise but the city as a whole in decline.

• CLOTHING xxv. Clothing of the Baḵtīārīs and other Lori speaking tribes

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  Members of the Lori-speaking ethnic groups, including the Lors themselves, the Baḵtīārīs, and the Boīr-Aḥmadīs are characterized by similar styles of dress, with variations reflecting differences in tribe and social class of the wearer, variations that can have strong symbolic meaning, particularly among the Baḵtīārīs.

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• ISFAHAN x. MONUMENTS

  Sussan Babaie with Robert Haug

  According to the French traveler Jean Chardin, in the late 17th century Isfahan housed some 162 mosques, 48 theological colleges (madrasa), 1,802 caravansaries, and 273 bathhouses.

• ART IN IRAN v. SASANIAN ART

  P. O. Harper

• HERODOTUS vii. XERXES ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS

  Robert Rollinger

  The young king inherited a solid empire, which was greater than any before in history. The subsequent great war of the years 480 and 479 Herodotus describes as an immense struggle, to which he devotes a third of his work.

• EGYPT iii. Relations in the Seleucid and Parthian periods

  Heinz Heinen

• Greece iii. Persian Influence on Greek Thought

  Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin

• HISTORIOGRAPHY iii. EARLY ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Elton L. Daniel

  It might be questioned whether there is, strictly speaking, any “historiography of Persia in the early Islamic period” at all, since it is by no means clear that there was an Islamic “Persia” prior to the rise of the Safavids.

• TAQIYA iii. AMONG BABIS AND BAHAIS

  Kamran Ekbal

  Dissimulation of the faith was widespread among Babis and Bahais until the early years of the ministry of Shoghi Effendi (1921-57), when he, in a number of messages starting in 1927, prohibited its practice.

• HAFEZ x. TRANSLATIONS OF HAFEZ IN ENGLISH

  Parvin Loloi

  The first poem by Hafez to appear in English was the work of Sir William Jones (1746-94).

• JAPAN i. Introduction

  C. J. Brunner

  Direct contact and observation of each other by Persians and Japanese would wait for the establishment of Japan’s relations with the world by the modernizing administration of the Meiji period (1868-1912).

• GEOGRAPHY iii. Political Geography

  Xavier de Planhol

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BĀJ (1)

  A. V. Williams

  a principal Zoroastrian observance meaning primarily “utterance of consecration;” reference to bāj has been current in Mazdean literature since at least Sasanian times,

• AZERBAIJAN iv. Islamic History to 1941

  C. E. Bosworth

• GERMANY ii. Archeological excavations and studies

  Dietrich Huff

  The first Germans who reported on the historical and archeological monuments of the ancient Persian world, were, as in other nations, adventurers and travelers of a different kind. Their reports can be significant as contemporary descriptions of the condition of monuments in late medieval times, particularly those which have vanished or are seriously altered nowadays.

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• INDIA xvi. INDO-PERSIAN HISTORIOGRAPHY

  Stephen F. Dale

  Historical works in Persian began to appear in India in the era of the Delhi Sultanate during the late 13th to 14th centuries.

• IRAN iii. TRADITIONAL HISTORY

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Before assimilating the results of European research on Persian history, the Iranians were in possession of a historical tradition that combined a mixture of myth, legend, and factual history.

• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 1)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

• KABUL iv. URBAN POLITICS SINCE ẒĀHER SHAH

  Daniel E. Esser

  The first master plan marked an important attempt to reorganize the spatial structure of the city. A first revision was authorized in 1971.

• IRAN ix. RELIGIONS IN IRAN (2) Islam in Iran (2.3) Shiʿism in Iran Since the Safavids

  Hamid Algar

  The Safavids originated as a hereditary lineage of Sufi shaikhs centered on Ardabil, Shafeʿite in school and probably Kurdish in origin. Their immediate following was concentrated in Azerbaijan.

• CLOTHING xvii. Clothing of the Kurdish Jews

  Ora Shwartz-Beeri

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISFAHAN iv. PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  J. Hansman and EIr

  The Arab geographers  report that the Sasanian city of Isfahan comprised two adjoining towns: Jayy, the fortified town and province center and, two miles (mil) away, Yahudiya, a Jewish settlement.

• ART IN IRAN ii. Median Art and Architecture

  P. Calmeyer

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FĀRS iii. History in the Islamic Period

  A. K. S. Lambton

  Although the Arabs did not take over the Sasanian system of quadrants, they kept the division of Fārs into five kūras, a division which continued until the 6th/12th century. Shiraz, a continuously inhabited site which may go back to Sasanian or even earlier times, became and has remained the provincial capital.

• GYPSY i. Gypies of Persia

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  Almost everywhere in Persia there are groups with characteristics similar to those of the Gypsies, but they are called by different names, sometimes designating their geographic or ethnic origin, sometimes their social status, and sometimes their profession.

• HAFEZ iv. LEXICAL STRUCTURE OF HAFEZ’S GHAZALS

  D. Meneghini Correale

  Despite limitations, it is nevertheless necessary to base textual criticism on complete and reliable lexico-statistical inventories of Hafez’s ghazals.

• EGYPT v. Political And Commercial Relations In The Islamic Period

  Cross-reference

  See under FATIMIDS,; AYYUBIDS; IL-KHANIDS DYNASTY.

• ANGLO-IRANIAN RELATIONS i. Safavid to Zand Periods

  R. W. Ferrier

  English interest in Persia during this period is almost exclusively concerned with trade and has almost nothing to do with political relations. Relations arose as the result of a failure to trade eastwards through Russia and Central Asia in the mid-16th century by merchants of the Russia Company, which, though formed in London on 26 February 1555, had already dispatched their first voyage of three ships by the northeastern route round Russia on 18 May 1553.

• INDIA viii. RELATIONS: QAJAR PERIOD, THE 19TH CENTURY

  Mansour Bonakdarian

   By the time of Āqā Moḥammad Khan’s founding of the Qajar dynasty in 1796, Persia’s diplomatic relations with the Mughal empire and other territories in the Indian subcontinent were gradually passing under the supervision of British authorities in India.

• BAHAISM iv. The Bahai Communities

  P. Smith

  The development of the Bahai faith has been accompanied by a massive transformation of the religion’s social base. From being a religion predominantly composed of those of Iranian Shiʿite background, it has become a worldwide movement.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• KĀNUN-E PARVAREŠ-E FEKRI-E KUDAKĀN VA NOWJAVĀNĀN iv. International Film Festivals

  Fereydoun Moezi Moghadam

  Kanun organized its first international film festival for children (Noḵostin festivāl-e bayn-al-melali-e filmhā-ye kudakān o nowjavānān) in 1966, its first official year.

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• IRAN ii. IRANIAN HISTORY (2) Islamic period (page 4)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  The Safavids (1501-1722). The advent of the Safavids constitutes one of the major turning points in Persian history.

• MEDICINE i. INTRODUCTION OF WESTERN MEDICINE TO IRAN

  Shireen Mahdavi

  Western medicine was introduced to Iran by European physicians who began to arrive there from early nineteenth century onwards.

• ECONOMY i. ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

• CERAMICS ix. The Bronze Age in Northeastern Persia

  Serge Cleuziou

• IRAN viii. PERSIAN LITERATURE (3) Modern

  Cross-Reference

  See FICTION.

• CLOTHING xi. In the Pahlavi and post-Pahlavi periods

  ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISFAHAN iii. POPULATION

  Heidi Walcher, Habibollah Zanjani

  Isfahan’s population size from the Safavid through the Qajar periods, as reported by European travelers and diplomats, remained largely a matter of speculation.

• HERODOTUS ii. THE HISTORIES AS A SOURCE FOR PERSIA AND PERSIANS

  Robert Rollinger

  An evaluation of Herodotus’s treatment of Persia and the Persians is a difficult task. The subject is not limited to a specific logos but is ubiquitous in the Histories.

• DĪVDĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See BANŪ SĀJ.

• SASANIAN WALL PAINTING

  An De Waele

  Murals found on sites within the territory of the Sasanian empire (224- 650 CE) are considered Sasanian. While their main function is decorative, their secondary function can be derived from location, theme, and dimension, and is important because it reflects a world-view. Wall paintings were excavated at only seven sites in Iran, Iraq, and Syria.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Great Britain x. Iranian Studies in Britain, the Islamic Period

  Charles Melville

• ISMAʿILISM xvii. THE IMAMATE IN ISMAʿILISM

  Azim Nanji

  in common with all major Shiʿite groups, the Ismaʿilis believe that the Imamate is a divinely sanctioned and guided institution.

• ĀDURBĀD Ī MAHRSPANDĀN

  A. Tafażżolī

  (“Ādurbād, son of Mahrspand”), Zoroastrian mobad of mobads (mowbedān mowbed) or high priest in the reign of the Sasanian king Šāpūr II (309-79 CE). 

• ARTAMANIA

  M. Mayrhofer

  prince of Zi-ri-ba-ša-ni, who wrote a letter of devotion to the pharaoh of Egypt.

• BĀZDĀRĪ

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  (or bāzyārī, lit. “bāz keeping,” obs.), falconry, as a practical art and as a sport.

• DAFTAR-ḴĀNA-YE HOMĀYŪN

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  royal sec­retariat; a Safavid administrative unit headed by the daftardār, or chief secretary.

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM

  Elton L. Daniel

  a reference work of fundamental importance on topics dealing, according to its self-description, with “the geography, ethnography and biography of the Muhammadan peoples.”

• FASMER, RICHARD RICHARDOVICH

  Anatol Ivanov

  or VASMER (1858-1938), eminent Russian numismatist.

• NOWBAḴTI, ḤASAN

  David Pingree

  b. Musā Abu Moḥammad, 4th/10th century theologian and philosopher in Baghdad, d. between 300/912-3 and 310/922-3.

• ḤAKIM ʿALAWI KHAN

  Farid Ghassemlou

  an Iranian physician and author in the service of the Mughal Emperor Moḥammad Shah as his chief physician with the title of Moʾtamen-al-Moluk.  

• HILL, GEORGE FRANCIS

  Carmen Arnold-Biucchi

  noted numismatist, epigraphist, and Director of the British Museum (1867-1948).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABD-AL-RAḤĪM ḴᵛĀRAZMĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Calligrapher and poet active in western Iran during the second half of the 9th/15th century.

• AMIDA

  D. Sellwood and EIr

  Pers. Āmed (modern Dīārbakr), town situated on a plateau dominating the west bank of the upper Tigris.

• BADĪʿ (2)

  D. M. MacEoin

  designation of the calendar system of Babism and Bahaism, originally introduced by the Bāb.

• CAPITAL CITIES

  A. Shapur Shahbazi, C. Edmund Bosworth

  these centers played important diplomatic and administrative roles in Iranian history, closely linked to the fortunes of the ruling families.

• DOMESTIC ANIMALS

  Daniel Balland and Jean-Pierre Digard

  This article is devoted to the principal characteristics of the predominant systems of domestication in Afghanistan and Persia, what they owe to neighboring or preceding systems, how they have departed from them, and whether or not it is possible to speak of a typically Iranian system of domestication.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EXEGESIS i. In Zoroastrianism

  Philip G. Kreyenbroek

• BAHĀR (2)

  Esmāʿil Jassim

  a newspaper founded by Shaikh Aḥmad Tehrāni (d. 1957), known as Aḥmad Bahār, in 1917, in Mašhad.

• GUIDI’S CHRONICLE

  Sebastian P. Brock

  an anonymous, 7th-century chronicle of Nestorian Christians, known also as “the Khuzistan Chronicle,” written in Syriac and covering the period from the reign of the Sasanian Hormizd/Hormoz IV (579-89) to the middle of the 7th century and the time of the early Arab conquests.

• JĀBER JOʿFI

  Maria Dakake

  , ABU ʿABD-ALLĀH,  a Kufan traditionist and companion of the fifth and sixth Shiʿite Imams, Moḥammad al-Bāqer and Jaʿfar al-Ṣādeq.

• AFSHARIDS

  J. R. Perry

  dynasty (1148-1210/1736-96) founded by Nāder Shah Afšār.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ARYA

  H. W. Bailey

  an ethnic epithet in the Achaemenid inscriptions and in the Zoroastrian Avestan tradition.

• BEH-ARDAŠĪR

  Michael Morony

  (Mid. Pers. Vēh-Ardaxšēr, Ar. Bahorasīr), name of two cities founded by the first Sasanian king of kings, Ardašīr I (r. 226-41).

• DAḴMA

  Cross-Reference

  See CORPSE.

• EPISTLES OF MANI

  Cross-Reference

  See MANICHEISM.

• AŻĀʿELḴᵛĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See MANĀQEB ḴᵛĀNĪ.

• SHAPUR I

  Shapur Shahbazi

  second Sasanian king of kings (r. 239-70), and author of several rock-reliefs and the trilingual inscription on the walls of the so-called Kaʿba-ye Zardošt.

• NABIL-AL-DAWLA

  Guity Etemad

  Iranian diplomat and translator of Bahai scriptures.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GANDĀPŪR, SĒR MOḤAMMAD KHAN

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  b. Mehrdād Khan b. Āzād Khan, author of the Persian Tawārīḵ-e ḵoršīd-e jahān, an important chronicle containing genealogical accounts and tables of Pashtun/Paxtun tribal groups.

• ḤOJJAT-AL-ESLĀM

  Hamid Algar

  (lit. Proof of Islam), a title awarded to Shiʿite scholars, originally as an honorific but later as a means of indicating their status in the hierarchy of the learned.

• ʿABD-AL-SATTĀR LAHŪRĪ

  A. Camps

  author and translator in the reigns of Akbar and Jahāngīr.

• AMĪR BAHĀDOR, ḤOSAYN PĀŠĀ KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤOSAYN PĀŠĀ KHAN.

• BAG NASK

  P. O. Skjærvø

  one of the Avestan nasks of the gāhānīg group, that is, texts connected with the Gāθās; it is now lost almost in its entirety. This nask is listed in the survey of the Avesta in Dēnkard 8.1.9.

• CARROT

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  the taproot of Daucus L. subspp., etc. (family Umbelliferae), traditionally called gazar (arabicized as jazar) or zardak (lit. “the little yellow one”), and later also havīj in Persian.

• DRAINAGE

  Eckart Ehlers

  Persia can be divided into four main drainage regions: the Caspian region, the Lake Urmia region, the Persian Gulf region, and the interior. Most of it is characterized by endorheic basins, that is, by interior drainage.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HISTORIOGRAPHY ix. PAHLAVI PERIOD

  Abbas Amanat, EIr

  Historiography of this period will be treated in two separate entries: (1) General survey of historical writings; and (2) Specific topics concerning historical works.

• LITHOGRAPHY iii. IN CENTRAL ASIA

  Olimpiada P. Shcheglova

  Lithographic book printing began in Central Asia in the late 19th century: in the khanate of Khiva, 1874 (in Turkic languages only), in Turkistan in Tashkent, 1881, and in the khanate of Bukhara, 1901. The bulk of lithographed books in Oriental languages were published in Tashkent.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GUZGĀN

  Cross-Reference

  a district of what was in early Islamic times eastern Khorasan, now roughly corresponding to the northwest of modern Afghanistan, adjacent to the frontier with the southeastern fringe of the Turkmenistan Republic. See JOWZJĀN.

• JAHĀN TIMÜR

  Charles Melville

  recognized briefly as Il-khan in Iraq and Mesopotamia in 1339-40 during the period of the collapse of the Il-khanate.

• AḠRĒRAṮ

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  (Av. Aγraēraθa), Turanian warrior and brother of Afrāsīāb in the Avestan yašts and in the the Šāh-nāma.

• ASĀLEM

  M. Bazin

  a mountainous district in Ṭāleš, now a dehestān of the central baḵš of the šahrestān of Ṭawāleš, province of Gīlān.

• BELOWHAR O BŪDĀSAF

  Cross-Reference

  See BARLAAM AND IOSAPH.

• DĀNEŠ-SARĀ-YE MOQADDAMĀTĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See EDUCATION.

• ERDMANN, KURT

  Jens Kr

  (b. Hamburg, 9 September 1901; d. Berlin, 30 September 1964), leading historian of Sasanian and Islamic art.

• FERDOWSI, ABU’L-QĀSEM ii. Hajw-nāma

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

• MENTOR and MEMNON

  Ernst Badian

  Rhodian brothers, condottieri of the late Achaemenid period.

• SAḤĀB, ʿAbbās

  Firouz Firooznia

  founder of Sahab Geographic and Drafting Institute (q.v.; SGDI); considered by many as the father of modern Persian cartography.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GARCIN DE TASSY

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ʿABDALLĀH B. MAYMŪN AL-QADDĀḤ

  H. Halm

  Legendary founder of the Qarmatian-Ismaʿili doctrine and alleged forefather of the Fatimid dynasty.

• AMOGHAPĀŚAHṚDAYA

  R. E. Emmerick

  “the heart or essence of the Amoghapāśa ritual,” the name of a Buddhist text belonging to the Mahayanist Tantric tradition. 

• BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN ʿĀMELĪ

  E. Kohlberg

  , SHAIKH MOḤAMMAD B. ḤOSAYN BAHĀʾĪ, Imami scholar and author, a prolific writer, in Imami circles regarded as one of the leading lights of his age (1547-1621).

• CAVALRY

  Cross-Reference

  See ASB; ASB-SAVĀRĪ.

• ḎU’L-RĪĀSATAYN

  Cross-Reference

  See FAŻL B. SAHL.

• KISH ISLAND

  D. T. Potts

  (Ar. Qeys), small island in the lower Persian Gulf, noted for its palm gardens.

• ḤĀʾERI, ʿABD-AL-KARIM YAZDI

  Hamid Algar

  , Shaikh (1859-1937), an influential “source of emulation” (marjaʿ-e taqlid) as well as founder of the institution of religious teaching and guidance (Ḥawza-ye ʿelmiya) in Qom. His literary legacy was relatively meager, the result of his preoccupation with administering the Ḥawza and teaching.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĀM (1)

  Majd-al-din Keyvani

  a mountainous region on the way from Kabul to Herat, and a historically important village in the province of Ghur (Ḡur) in western Afghanistan.

• AḤMAD ČARMPŪŠ

  S. H. Askari

  (ČERAMPŌŠ), Sohravardī poet-saint of 14th century Bihar (d. 26 Ṣafar 755/22 March 1354).

• AŠI

  B. Schlerath, P. O. Skjærvø

  Avestan feminine noun meaning “thing attained, reward, share, portion, recompense” and, as a personification, the goddess “Reward, Fortune.”

• BĒṮ DARAYĒ

  Michael Morony

  (Arabic Bādarāyā), a district southeast of the lower Nahrawān canal in Gōḵē (Arż Jūḵā), Iraq.

• DĀRĀB (2)

  Massoud Kheirabadi, Dietrich Huff, Georgina Herrmann

  the name Dārāb refers both to a šahrestān (subprovince) of Fārs province and to its chief city.

• EʿTEMĀD-AL-SALṬANA, MOḤAMMAD-ḤASAN KHAN MOQADDAM MARĀḠAʾĪ

  Abbas Amanat

  or ṢANĪʿ-AL-DAWLA (1843-1896), Qajar statesman, scholar, and author.

• FICTION, i

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. TRADITIONAL FORMS. This article deals with all kinds of stories written for specifically literary purposes up to the time when narrative prose in the modern style, derived from the West, was introduced in Persia.

• HELMET ii. In the Islamic Period

  M. V. Gorelik

  By the time the Muslims conquered the Iranian world (the territory now occupied by Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Azerbaijan), two helmet types were already known: egg-shaped and conical.

• X~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  There are no figures or plates in letter X entries at this time.

• ḠAŻĀʾERĪ RĀZĪ, ABŪ ZAYD MOḤAMMAD

  François de Blois

  or ḠAŻĀYERĪ RĀZĪ, b. ʿALĪ, Persian poet of the early 11th century.

• ḤOSAYN-E KORD-E ŠABESTARI

  Ulrich Marzolph

  Persian popular romance narrating the exploits of a Kurdish warrior from Šabestar known solely by the name of Ḥosayn.

• ABGAR

  J. B. Segal

  dynasty of Edessa, 2nd century B.C. to 3rd century A.D.

• COSTE, Pascal-Xavier

  Cross-Reference

  (1787-1879), French architect, famous for the illustrated account of his travels in Persia. See FLANDIN AND COSTE.

• BAHMAN MĪRZĀ BAHĀʾ-AL-DAWLA

  ʿA. Navāʾī

  37th son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah, born 1811 of Golbadan Bājī, originally a (Georgian?) slave girl of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah’s mother Mahd-e ʿOlyā. His diary contains notes on Qajar history.

• ČERĀḠ

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  lamps. Various kinds of lamps were used in Persia before the introduction of electric light. The simplest and cheapest was the čerāḡ-e mūšī “mouse lamp,” so called probably because of its small size and poor light.

• DYAKONOV, MIKHAIL MIKHAĬLOVICH

  Boris Litvinsky

  (b. St. Petersburg, 26 June 1907, d. Moscow, 8 June 1954), Russian scholar of Iranian studies.

• MOḤAMMAD B. NOṢAYR

  Yaron Friedman

  Abu Šoʿayb al-Nomayri/al-Namiri (d. after 868), the founder and eponym of the Nomayriya/Namiriya sect.

• QARABAGH

  Alessandro Monsutti

  (Qarabāḡ), a district (woloswāli) of Ghazni Province in Afghanistan.

• HAGIOGRAPHIC LITERATURE

  Jürgen Paul

  in Persia and Central Asia. Hagiographic literature may be defined broadly as a biographical genre devoted to individuals enjoying an exclusive religious status as “saints” or “holy men” in the eyes of the authors.

• JĀN MOḤAMMAD KHAN

  Bāqer ʿĀqeli

  , AMIR ʿALĀʾI (1886-1951), brigadier general and commander of Khorasan army during the early Reżā Shah period, noted for his ruthlessness but eventually undone due to a mutiny of unpaid  troops.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḤSĀʾĪ, SHAIKH AḤMAD

  D. M. MacEoin

  (1753-1826), Shiʿite ʿālem and philosopher and unintending originator of the Šayḵī school of Shiʿism in Iran and Iraq.

• ASP-SAVĀRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ASB-SAVĀRĪ.

• BĪDĀD

  Hormoz Farhat

  a melody (gūša) in the modal system (dastgāh) Homāyūn, one of the twelve modal systems of the contemporary tradition of Persian classical music.

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• DARĪGBED

  Richard N. Frye

  title of a low-ranking official at the Sasanian court.

• ESKANDAR MĪRZĀ

  Cross-Reference

  pro-Persian member of the royal family of Georgia (b. 1770, d. after 1830).See ALEXANDER, PRINCE.

• FĪRŪZĀBĀDĪ, ABŪ ṬĀHER MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-reference

  See Supplement.

• SYRIAC LANGUAGE i. IRANIAN LOANWORDS IN SYRIAC

  Claudia A. Ciancaglini

  Syriac, originally the eastern Aramaic dialect of the city of Edessa, became the most important language spoken and written by Christian communities during the Sasanian era from Egypt and Asia Minor to Syria, Iran, and Mesopotamia.

• KASHAN ix. THE MEDIA DIALECTS OF KASHAN (2) URBAN JEWISH DIALECT

  Habib Borjian

  Kashan may be characterized as exclusively Persian speaking and Muslim from the time when the city was abandoned by its Jewry, who spoke a variety of Central dialects (q.v.).

• GEMCUTTING

  Parviz Mohebbi

  (Pers. ḥakkākī), the process of shaping and polishing faceted gemstones. The first-known reference in Persian to gem cutting is found in an anonymous treatise on jewelry, Jowhar-nāma-ye neẓāmī, written in 1195-96 under the last Ḵᵛārazmšāh. According to the sources, gem cutting and polishing were both done by the same machine—the grinding wheel or čarḵ-e ḥakkākī.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HUNNIC COINAGE

  Michael Alram

  coins struck from the late fourth to the early eighth century by successive Central Asian invaders (so-called Iranian Huns) of northeastern Iran and northwestern India. It must be emphasized that our knowledge of these Central Asian nomads is, to a certain extent, still vague; and the research on their history is controversial.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ĀBŠĪNA HAMADĀN RŪD

  E. Ehlers

  name of a drainage system that covers several streams and small rivers along the eastern flank of the Alvand Kūh; it flows north into the kavīr of Qom.

• ANGALYŪN

  J. P. Asmussen

  Persian rendering of the title of the Gospel of Mani.

• BAHRĀMŠĀH B. ṬOḠRELŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See SALJUQS OF KERMĀN.

• CHARMS

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  originally verbal formulas recited to prevent or ward off potential harm by magical power but now also denoting written and even talismanic magic.

• EBN BĀBĀ KĀŠĀNĪ (Qāšānī), ABU’L-ʿABBĀS

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (d. Marv, 1116-17), Persian writer and boon-companion (nadīm), whose manual for courtiers preserves otherwise lost information on the later Ghaznavids.

• SIBERIAN ELM

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀZĀD.

• KANGAVAR

  Wolfram Kleiss

  town in eastern Kermanshah Province, on the modern road from Hamadan to Kermanshah, identical with a trace of the silk road. Isidorus of Charax (1st century CE) referred to it as Congobar and mentioned a temple of Anāhitā (Anaitis) there. The site has ruins of debated date and nature.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤAKIM ATĀ

  Devin DeWeese

  a Central Asian Sufi; he is usually named as a direct disciple of Aḥmad Yasavi, and would therefore have lived in the early 13th century.

• JĀSP

  cross-reference

  See MAḤALLĀT.

• ĀJOR

  Cross-Reference

  See BRICK.

• ĀŠTĀD YAŠT

  P. O. Skjærvø

  Yt. 18, though dedicated to Aštād, the goddess of rectitude, does not mention her.

• BĪRJAND

  Moḥammad-Ḥasan Ganjī

  town and district in the southeastern part of the province of Khorasan (lat 32°52’  N, long 59°13’ E).

• DARYĀ-YE ḴAZAR

  Cross-Reference

  See CASPIAN SEA.

• ESMĀʿĪL ZĀDA, ḤOSAYN KHAN

  Moḥammad-Taqī Masʿūdīya

  (d. 1941), teacher and master player of the kamānča.

• BĪRŪNĪ, ABŪ RAYḤĀN v. Pharmacology and Mineralogy

  Georges C. Anawati

  Bīrūnī, a traveler proficient in several Asian languages and an inquisitive and attentive ob­server, was interested all his life in gathering precise information on plants and their medicinal uses.

• MOḴTĀR-NĀMA

  Daniela Meneghini

  a wide-ranging collection of quatrains (2,088 in number) attributed to the mystic poet Farid-al-Din ʿAṭṭār (d. ca. 1221).

• GEOY TEPE

  Ezat O. Negahban

  a rich archeological site located in western Azerbaijan about 7 km south of the town of Urmia (Reżāʾīya) plain made known through the aerial survey of ancient sites in Persia carried out by Erich F. Schmidt in the 1930s.

• IDEOGRAPHIC WRITING

  N. Sims-Williams, D. Testen

  the representation of language by means of “ideograms,” that is, symbols representing “ideas,” rather than (or usually side by side with) symbols which represent sounds. i. Terminology and conventions. ii. Ideographic writing in the Ancient Near East.

• ABŪ BAKR MARVAZĪ

  A. A. Ivanov

  7th/13th century metalworker.

• ANJOMAN-E KETĀB

  I. Afshar

  (the Book Society of Iran), founded in 1336 Š./1957 in Tehran by Ehsan Yarshater  in collaboration with Iraj Afshar (Īraǰ Afšār), ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Zarrīnkūb, and a number of concerned scholars, to foster interest in good publications.

• BAḴTĪĀRĪ TRIBE

  J.-P. Digard, G. L. Windfuhr, A. Ittig

  The Baḵtīārī tribe (īl) is one of the two biggest in Iran, the other being the Qašqāʾī. In the 1970s, the Baḵtīārīs numbered in all approximately 600,000, and about one third of them were nomadic.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CHRISTENSEN, ARTHUR EMANUEL

  Jes P. Asmussen

  (b. Copenhagen 9 January 1875, d. Copenhagen 31 March 1945), Danish orientalist and scholar of Iranian philology and folklore.

• EBN HENDŪ, ABU’L-FARAJ ʿALĪ

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  b. Ḥosayn, also known as Ostāḏ (b. in Ṭabarestān, no later than the early 960s; d. in or after 1031), author of, inter alia, propaedeutic epistles on philosophy and medicine and of a gnomology of Greek wisdom, and generally renowned as a litterateur.

• KALĀRESTĀQ i. The District and Sub-District

  Habib Borjian

  This predominantly mountainous district extends along the Caspian coast from the Namakābrud (Namakāvarud) river on the west to the Čālus river on the east.

• SHIʿITES IN LEBANON

  Sabrina Mervin

  Shiʿites, that is, Muslims adhering to the Twelver (eṯnāʿašari) or Imamite persuasion of Shiʿism, form the single largest denominational community of Lebanon. Their number is estimated at 1.5 million.

• ḤAMAYD

  Pierre Oberling

  an Arab tribe of Ḵuzestān. In the early 1900s, it dwelled mostly in the boluk of Ḥamayd, on the left bank of the Kārun river.

• JÉQUIER, GUSTAVE

  Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam

  Swiss archeologist (1868-1946). He excavated hundreds of ancient artifacts at Susa. The most important among these was the third fragment of the Code of Hammurabi.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AḴTAR, AḤMAD BEG GORJĪ

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  a poet of the era of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah Qāǰār (1212-50/1797-1834).

• ATĀBAK

  C. Cahen

  Turkish atabeg, lit. “father-chief,” a Turkish title of rank which first appears, at least under this name, with the early Saljuqs.

• BOJNŪRD

  Eckart Ehlers, C. Edmund Bosworth

  a town and district in Khorasan. i. The town and district. ii. History. The town (1976: 47,719 inhabitants; lat  37°29’ N, long 57°17’ E)  is situated at the foot of the Ālādāḡ.

• DASTŪR

  Mansour Shaki

  in the Sasanian period dastwar had a wide range of meanings, primarily denoting “one in authority, having power”; from that time, the semantic range was increasingly widened to convey different meanings at different times.

• ETHIOPIA

  E. van Donzel

  RELATIONS WITH PERSIA.

• ARMENIA AND IRAN ii. The pre-Islamic period

  M. L. Chaumont

• ḴAṢIBI

  Yaron Friedman

  (d. 969), founder of Noṣayrism.

• GIANTS, THE BOOK OF

  Werner Sundermann

  a book mentioned as a canonical work of Mani in the Coptic Kephalaia, in the Homilies and Psalms, as well as in the Chinese compendium of Mani’s teachings.

• ABU’L-FATḤ MĪRZĀ

  H. Algar

  (d. 1330/1912), Qajar prince who held a number of governorships.

• ANŪŠA MOḤAMMAD

  G. L. Penrose

  B. ABU’L-ḠĀZĪ, ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR, Khan of Ḵīva 1663-87.

• BALḴI, ABU’L-MOʾAYYAD

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’l-MOʾAYYAD BALḴI.

• CIRCUMCISION

  Ebrāhīm Šakūrzāda and Mahmoud Omidsalar

  Pers. ḵatna, sonnat (formally also taṭhīr or ḵetān), ḵatnakonān, and sonnatkonān; the last two terms also refer to the festivities associated with the circumcision ritual.

• EBN NAWBAḴT, ABŪ SAHL

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ SAHL NAWBAḴTĪ.

• TALMUD ii. RABBINIC LITERATURE and MIDDLE PERSIAN TEXTS

  Yaakov Elman

• OSRUŠANA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a district of medieval Islamic Transoxania lying to the east of Samarqand (q.v.) on the upper reaches of the Zarafšān river or Nahr-e Ṣogd.

• HAOMA

  Dieter Taillieu, Mary Boyce

  Avestan name for a plant and its divinity.

• JORBĀDAQĀN

  cross-reference

  See GOLPĀYAGĀN.

• ĀL-E MOẒAFFAR

  Cross-Reference

  See MOZAFFARIDS, forthcoming online.

• ATROPATES

  M. L. CHAUMONT

  the satrap of Media, commander of the troops from Media, Albania, and Sacasene at the battle of Gaugamela in 331 B.C.

• BONYĀD-E PAHLAVĪ

  cross-reference

  See PAHLAVI FOUNDATION.

• DAWLATĀBĀDĪ, SAYYED ʿALĪ-MOḤAM-MAD

  Cyrus Amir-Mokri

  (b. Dawlatābād, 1868, d. Tehran, Šawwāl May-June 1923), prominent politician and deputy of the Persian parliament.

• EV-OḠLĪ family

  Kathryn Babayan

  (or Īv-ōḡlī), name of a family that served three Safavid kings (ʿAbbās I, Ṣafī, and ʿAbbās II) as ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī of the harem, for a period of twenty-seven years (1617-43).

• AZERBAIJAN xi. Music of Azerbaijan

  J. During

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• LION RUGS

  Parviz Tanavoli

  (gabba-ye širi), a group of Persian rugs with the image of the lion as the main motif. he majority of the existing lion rugs are the work of Baḵtiāri and Qašqāʾi tribes in southwest Iran and were woven during the 19th and 20th centuries.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GIŌNI

  Colin MacKinnon

  or Giāni; a Persian dialect of the Northern Lor type, spoken in the village of Giān/Giō, 12 km west of the city of Nehāvand.

• INDO-IRANIAN RELIGION

  Gherardo Gnoli

  Indo-Iranian comparative studies enable us to distinguish a fund of religious concepts, beliefs, and practices that are common to ancient Iran and ancient India.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN MOSTAWFĪ

  F. Gaffary

  painter and historian of the 12th/18th century from Kāšān, son of Mīrzā Moʿezz-al-dīn Moḥammad Ḡaffārī.

• ĀQĀ KHAN KERMĀNĪ

  M. Bayat

  (1270-1314/1854-55 to 1896), Iranian writer and intellectual, and an outstanding example of a first-generation secular nationalist. 

• BANDAR-E ʿABBĀS(Ī)

  X. De Planhol

  a port city in the ostān of Hormozgān, on the Persian Gulf, 16 km northwest of Hormoz island and 85 km from the coast of Oman. It is successor to the emporium of old Hormoz, the seaport of Kermān and Sejestān.

• CLOVER

  Cross-Reference

  See ŠABDAR.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ESMĀʿĪL

  Sheila S. Blair

  Safavid architect mentioned on two tiles: one in the dome of the tomb of Shaikh ʿAbd-al-Ṣamad at Naṭanz and another, dated 1661-62, in the south wall of the south ayvān of the congregational mosque at Isfahan.

• KANI, ḤĀJ MOLLĀ ʿALI

  Hamid Algar

  Shiʿi scholar whose power and prominence in the affairs of Tehran for more than four decades earned him the semi-official title of raʾis al-mojtahedin (“chief of the mojtaheds”), as well as accusations of inordinate greed.

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• LULUBI

  Ran Zadok

  country of a people who probably originated in southern Kurdistan; the form of the name is identical in both Sumerian and Akkadian, namely Lulubi and Lulubum respectively.

• HARZANI

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-SALṬANA

  Ḥ. Maḥbūbī Ardakānī

  Qajar diplomat and minister (d. 14 Ramażān 1336/23 June 1918).

• AWĀʾEL AL-MAQĀLĀT

  M. J. McDermott

  a Shiʿite doctrinal work written in Baghdad.

• BORZŪYA

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  (also transcribed Burzōē), a physician of the time of Ḵosrow I (r. 531-79) and responsible for a translation of the Pañcatantra from Sanskrit to Pahlavi, the Persian translation of which is known as the Kalīla wa Demna.

• DEATH (2)

  Cross-Reference

  IN RELIGIONS OTHER THAN ZOROASTRIANISM. See CORPSE and BURIAL.

• FĀʾEQ ḴĀṢṢA, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (d. Khorasan 999), Turkish eunuch and slave commander of the Samanid army in Transoxania and Khorasan during the closing decades of that dynasty’s power.

• BOUNDARIES i. With the Ottoman Empire

  Keith McLachlan

  The boundary separating the Ottoman and Iranian empires was shaped by conflict over an ill-defined strip of territory with constantly shifting outlines extending from the Caucasus to the Persian Gulf.

• AHMAD SERHENDI (2)

  Demetrio Giordani

  , Shaikh (1564-1624), Indian Sufi known as Mojadded-e alf-e Ṯāni, the Renovator of the second millennium (of Islam).

• GOL O BOLBOL

  Layla S. Diba

  lit. “rose and nightingale,” a popular literary and decorative theme. Together, rose and nightingale are the types of beloved and lover par excellence; the rose is beautiful, proud, and often cruel, while the nightingale sings endlessly of his longing and devotion.

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• ABŪ MAʿŠAR

  D. Pingree

  astronomer and astrologer, born in Balḵ on 20 Ṣafar 171/10 August 787. 

• ARABIC LANGUAGE

  Multiple Authors

  The profound influence of Arabic in Iran can be traced to its social, religious, and political significance in the wake of the Muslim conquest, when it became the language of the dominant class, the language of religion and government administration, and by extension, the language of science, literature, and Koranic studies.

• BANŪ SĀSĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a name frequently applied in medieval Islam to beggars, rogues, charlatans, and tricksters of all kinds, allegedly so called because they stemmed from a legendary Shaikh Sāsān.

• COMMERCE

  Multiple Authors

   within Persia and between Persia and other region.

• FEKETE, Lajos

  ANDRÁS BODROGLIGETI

  (1891-1969), Hungarian historian and specialist of Turkish-Persian paleography.

• TURKO-SOGDIAN COINAGE

  Larissa Baratova

  issues of the khaqans (ḵāqāns) of the Western Turkic khanate in Central Asia between the 6th and 8th centuries CE, so called because the Turkic rulers issued them with Sogdian inscriptions.

• HAŠTPĀY

  Antonio Panaino

  name of a game from the Sasanian era which has not been precisely identified.

• KAʿBA-YE ZARDOŠT

  Gerd Gropp

  “Kaʿba of Zoroaster,” an ancient building at Naqš-e Rostam near Persepolis.

• ALEXANDER, PRINCE

  G. Bournoutian

  (known in Persian as ESKANDAR MĪRZĀ), pro-Persian member of the royal family of Georgia (b. 1770, d. after 1830).

• ĀYANDAGĀN

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton and P. Mohajer

  a daily morning newspaper that first appeared in Tehran on 16 December, 1967.

• BRAZIER

  Asadullah Souren Melikian-Chirvani, Jaʿfar Šahrī

  two distinct types of utensil traditionally used in Iran. One type is a closed container on legs, a kind of stove that holds slowly burning coals for heating.

• DELDĀR-ʿALĪ

  Juan R. I. Cole

  b. Moḥammad-Moʿīn NAṢĪRĀBĀDĪ, Sayyed Ḡofrān-maʾāb (b. Naṣīrābād near Lucknow, 1753, d. Lucknow ca. 1820), Shiʿite cleric of northern India who helped to establish the Shiʿite form of Friday prayers and propagated the rationalist Oṣūlī school of jurisprudence in the Avadh region.

• FĀL-NĀMA

  Īraj Afšār

  a book of presages and omens. The narrower and more common use of the term, equivalent to “bibliomancy,” is confined to texts used as material for divination by the reader directly or through a fortune-teller.

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• KALĀNTAR

  Willem Floor

  “chief, leader,” from the late 15th century onwards, particularly the local official (mayor) in charge of the administration of a town.

• GOLESTĀN PALACE LIBRARY

  Cross-Reference

  See BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES; ROYAL LIBRARY.

• ABU’L-QĀSEM KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ

  D. MacEoin

  Fourth head of the Kermānī branch of the Šayḵī school of Shiʿism (19th-20th centuries).

• ARBELA

  J. F. Hansman

  capital of an ancient northern Mesopotamian province located between the two Zab rivers.  

• BARBIER DE MEYNARD, CHARLES ADRIEN CASIMIR

  Ch. Pellat

  French orientalist (1826-1908). Among his works, the Tableau littéraire du Khorassan and Dictionnaire géographique attest the excellence of his Persian scholarship.

• COOPERATIVES

  Amir I. Ajami

  (šerkat-e taʿāwonī), economic organizations owned jointly by and operated for the benefit of groups of individuals. Such cooperatives were first introduced and recognized in Persia under the Commercial code (Qānūn-e tejārat) of 1303 Š./1924, which provided for both production (tawlīd) and consumer (maṣraf) cooperatives.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ŠERVĀNŠAHS

  C. E. Bosworth

  (Šarvānšāhs), the various lines of rulers, originally Arab in ethnos but speedily Persianized within their culturally Persian environment, who ruled in the eastern Caucasian region of Šervān from mid-ʿAbbasid times until the age of the Safavids.

• FOREIGN EXCHANGE

  Cross-reference

  See ECONOMY.

• HAZĀRA i. Historical geography of Hazārajāt

  Arash Khazeni

  Hazārajāt, the homeland of the Hazāras, lies in the central highlands of Afghanistan, among the Kuh-e Bābā mountains and the western extremities of the Hindu Kush. Its boundaries have historically been inexact and shifting, and in some respects Hazārajāt denotes an ethnic and religious zone rather than a geographical one–that of Afghanistan’s Turko-Mongol Shiʿites.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĪ B. MOḤAMMAD B. ʿALĪ

  cross-reference

  ASTARĀBĀDĪ. See ŠARĪF JORJĀNĪ.

• ĀZĀḎBEH B. BĀNEGĀN

  C. E. Bosworth

  a dehqān (landowner) of Hamadān, marzbān (governor) in the former Lakhmid capital of Ḥīra in central Iraq during the years preceding the Arab conquest of that province.

• BŪF-E KŪR

  Michael C. Hillmann

  (The blind owl), the chef d’œuvre of Ṣādeq Hedāyat (1903-51) and one of the first major modernist Persian novels. 

• DERAFŠ-E KĀVĪĀN

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  the legendary royal standard of the Sasanian kings.

• CHINESE TURKESTAN v. Under the Khojas

  Isenbike Togan

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BAZAR i. General

  Michael E. Bonine

  The Iranian bāzār is a unified, self-contained building complex of shops, passageways, and caravanserais, interspersed with squares, religious buildings, bathhouses, and other public institutions.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GŌMAL

  Shah Mahmoud Hanifi

  or Gōmāl:  a sub-province (woloswāli) and village in Paktiā province, eastern Afghanistan; a river originating in the Ḡazni province and flowing southeast through the Wazirestān tribal agency and  the North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan; and a passage linking the eastern foothills of the Solaymān mountain range with the Indus plains.

• IRANIAN STUDIES

  Cross-Reference

  See under the names of individual countries and universities.

• ABŪ ŠOJĀʿ FANĀ ḴOSROW

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAŻOD-AL-DAWLA.

• ARDESTĀNI

  P. Lecoq

  the dialect spoken in the small town of Ardestān.

• BARMĀYA

  Dj. Khaleghi Motlagh

  in the traditional history, the name of a cow associated with Ferēdūn and eventually killed by Żaḥḥāk.

• COW

  Cross-Reference

  See CATTLE.

• EḤYĀ-YEʿOLŪM-AL-DĪN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠAZĀLĪ ii.

• FARḠĀNĪ, AḤMAD

  David Pingree

  b. Moḥammad b. Kaṯīr (fl. ca. 950 C.E.), Muslim astronomer.

• MEYMA i. The District

  Habib Borjian

  district in central Persia, on the road leading north from Isfahan to Qom

• HEDGEHOG

  Steven C. Anderson

  (ḵār-pošt, juja-tiḡi, čula), member of the Erinaceinae sub-family of the Erinaceidae family of insectivores; animals the size of a small rabbit. The various species of hedgehogs are found in deciduous woodlands, cultivated fields, and desert regions. They are primarily nocturnal. Hedgehogs are omnivorous, but they prefer animal food.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABBĀS (I)

  R. M. Savory

  Shah Abbas, Safavid king of Iran (996-1038/1588-1629). Styled "Shah ʿAbbās the Great," he was the third son and successor of Solṭān Moḥammad Shah.

• ALI KOSH

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪKOŠ.

• ĀZĪN JOŠNAS

  A. Tafażżolī

  (ĀḎĪN JOŠNAS), a military commander of the Sasanian Hormazd IV (r. 579-90), killed in Hamadān on his way to fight the rebellious general Bahrām Čōbin.

• BŪZJĀNĪ, ABU’L-WAFĀʾ

  Cross-reference

  See ABU’L-WAFĀʾ BŪZJĀNĪ.

• DEŽ-E RŪYĪN

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  or Rūyīn-dež, lit. "brazen fortress"; castle belonging to the Turanian king Arjāsb and conquered by Esfandīār, son of the Kayanid king Goštāsb.

• QAŠQĀʾI TRIBAL CONFEDERACY ii. LANGUAGE

  Michael Knüppel

  Qašqāʾi is a language of southwestern or Oghuz branch of Turkic languages, spoken in the Iranian provinces of Hamadan and Fārs, especially in the region to the north of Shiraz.

• GORGĀN iv. Archeology

  Muhammad Yusof Kiani

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ISAIAH, BOOK OF

  Shaul Shaked

  one of the books of the Hebrew Bible, traditionally arranged among those of the latter Prophets.

• ABYĀNA

  E. Yarshater

  Village in the Barz-rud subdistrict (dehestan) in Naṭanz county (šahrestān).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ARISTAGORAS

  P. Tozzi

  tyrant of Miletus (late 6th-early 5th centuries B.C.).

• BASILIUS OF CAESAREA

  J. P. Asmussen

  or Basilius the Great (ca. A.D. 330-79), bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia from 370, after Eusebius, who wrote regarding the Magi.

• CUMONT, FRANZ VALÉRY MARIE

  Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin

  classical philologist and historian of religions, whose research resulted in a substantial contribution to the understanding of Mithraism and other oriental reli­gions in the Roman empire.

• ELEPHANT i. IN THE NEAR EAST

  François De Blois

   i. IN THE NEAR EAST

• FARĪBORZ

  Cross-Reference

  b. Salār. See ŠARVĀNŠĀH.

• BANDARI

  Mikhail Pelevin

  the dialect spoken by the native population of Bandar ʿAbbās, administrative center of the Hormozgān province, and of its environs.

• KAŠF AL-MAḤJUB of Sejzi

  Hermann Landolt

  (“Unveiling the hidden”), the Persian version of an Ismaʿili treatise originally written in Arabic by the 10th century dāʾi. 

• FREEMASONRY i. INTRODUCTION

  Hasan Azinfar, M.-T. Eskandari, and Edward Joseph

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• HEMP

  cross-reference

  See BANG.

• ʿABD-AL-BĀQĪ TABRĪZĪ

  ʿAbd-al-ʿAlī Kārang

  religious scholar and notable of Azerbaijan (d. 1039/1629-30).

• ʿALĪŠĀH BOḴĀRĪ

  D. Pingree

  7th/13th century astronomer.

• BĀBĀ JĀN ḴORĀSĀNI

  Priscilla Soucek

  16th-century calligrapher, poet, and craftsman.

• ČAHĀRBĀḠ

  David Stronach

  lit. “four gardens,” a rectangular garden divided by paths or waterways into four symmetrical sections.

• DĪN MOḤAMMAD KHAN

  EIr

  b. Olūs Khan, the Uzbek prince who, with his brother ʿAlī Solṭān, joined Shah Ṭahmāsb’s camp in 943/1536-37 during the latter’s campaign in Khorasan against ʿObayd-Allāh Khan, the Uzbek ruler of Bukhara.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION iii. The Constitution

  Said Amir Arjomand

• KHARIJITES IN PERSIA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  sect of early Islam which arose out of the conflict between ʿAli b. Abi Ṭāleb (r. 656-61) and Moʿāwiya b. Abi Sufyān (r. 661-80).

• GOWHAR ḴĀTUN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a Saljuq princess who became the second wife of the Ghaznavid Sultan Masʿud III (r. 1099-1115).

• ĀDAR

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀDUR.

• ARSEN, KOCOYTỊ

  F. Thordarson

  Ossetic author (1872-1944).

• BAYĀT-E KORD

  M. Caton

  or KORD-e BAYĀT, a part of the modal system (dastgāh) of Šūr in Persian music.

• DABESTĀN-E MAḎĀHEB

  Fatḥ-Allāh Mojtabāʾī

  (school of religious doctrines), an important text of the Āḏar Kayvānī pseudo-Zoroastrian sect, written between 1645 and 1658.

• EMĀM-E ḠĀʾEB

  Cross-Reference

  "The Hidden Imam." See ḠAYBA and ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM.

• FARROḴĀN-E KŪČAK

  Cross-Reference

  See DĀBŪYĪDS.

• KOH-I-NOOR

  Iradj Amini

  (Kuh-e Nur; lit. “Mountain of Light”), the most celebrated diamond in the world, with rich legendary and historical associations.

• PUR BAHĀʾ JĀMI, TĀJ-AL-DIN

  George Lane

  poet, pun master, satirist, and often scathing social commentator.

• GABR

  Mansour Shaki

  a New Persian term used from the earliest period as a technical term synonymous with mōḡ (magus). With the dwindling of the Zoroastrian community,  the term came to have a pejorative implication.

• HERMITAGE MUSEUM i. COLLECTION OF THE PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  B. I. Marshak and A. B. Nikitin

  Among the most ancient objects of Iranian art in the Hermitage collection are 55 Elamite painted vessels of the late 4th-3rd millennium BCE.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿABD-AL-KARĪM ḴᵛĀRAZMĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  Poet and calligrapher in western Iran (15th century).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• AMAL AL-ĀMEL

  J. van Ess

  biographical dictionary of Shiʿite (Etnāʿašarī) scholars originating from the Jabal ʿĀmel in south Lebanon, composed by Moḥammad b. Ḥasan b. ʿAlī Mašḡarī, known as Ḥorr-e ʿĀmelī (1033-1104/1624-1693).

• BABYLON

  G. Cardascia

  :  under the Achaemenids. The economic and cultural history of Babylon under Persian rule matched the vicissitudes of its political life.

• ŠAFAQ

  Nasserddin Parvin

  a newspaper published in Tabriz, 3 October 1910 to 18 December 1911. It was an organ of the Democrat Party (Ḥezb-e demokrāt), with a strong nationalist orientation.

• ĀDUR BURZĒN-MIHR

  M. Boyce

  an Ātaš Bahrām, i.e., a Zoroastrian sacred fire of the highest grade. 

• ARTABAZANES

  C. J. Brunner

  autonomous ruler of Armenia who submitted to the Seleucid king Antiochus III in 220 B.C., when the latter invaded his country.

• BĀZA-ḴŪR

  D. Huff

  (Baz-e Hur), a village and site of some important Sasanian structures on the road from Mašhad to Torbat-e Ḥaydarīya.

• DADYSETH ATAS BAHRAM

  Mary Boyce and Firoze M. Kotwal

  the oldest Ātaš Bahrām of Bombay, consecrated and installed according to Kadmi rites in the district of Fanaswadi on the day of Sarōš, month of Farvardīn 1153 A.Y./29 September 1783.

• ENAMEL

  EIr, Layla S. Diba

  a heat-fused glass paste colored by metal oxides and used to decorate metal surfaces. Enamel was associated with lapidary, glassworking, and goldmithing crafts and was probably used primarily in place of precious stones before the 17th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FARZĀD, MASʿŪD

  Ahmad Karimi Hakkak

  (b. Sanandaj, 1906; d. London, 1981), Persian litterateur and poet.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• NASAFI, ʿAZIZ

  Hermann Landolt

   b. Moḥammad, 7th/13th-century mystical thinker and scholar from Nasaf (Naḵšab) in Transoxania (present Qarshi or Karshi in Uzbekistan), author of many works in Persian.

• SHADDADIDS

  Andrew Peacock

  Caucasian dynasty of Kurdish origin reigning from about 950 until 1200, first in Dvin and Ganja, later in Ani.

• GAČSĀRĀN

  Eckart Ehlers

  town and oilfield in the province of Ḵūzestān, southwestern Persia.

• ḤESBA

  cross-reference

  See MOḤTASEB.

• ʿABD-AL-RĀFEʿ HERAVĪ

  Żīā-al-dīn Sajjādī

  poet, grammarian, and physician, first attached to the court of Ḵosrow Malek (555-82/1160-76), the last Ghaznavid sultan.

• ʿAMĪD, ABŪ ʿABDALLĀH

  C. E. Bosworth

  known as Kolah (said to be an opprobrious term), secretary and official in northern Persia and Transoxania during the 4th/10th century.

• BAḎḎ

  Ḡ. -Ḥ. Yūsofī

  or BAḎḎAYN (perhaps two places), a mountainous region (kūra) in Azerbaijan, site of the castle  headquarters of Bābak Ḵorramī during his revolt against the ʿAbbasid caliphate (816-37).

• ČANGRANGHĀČA-NĀMA

  Žāla Āmūzgār

  a narrative work in Persian verse by Zartošt or Zarātošt, son of Bahrām-e Paždū, a poet of the 7th/13th century.

• DOLICHĒ

  Erich Kettenhofen

  city in the Roman province of Syria conquered together with the surrounding area by Šāpūr I  during his second campaign against Rome in 252 or 253.

• EPIGRAPHY v. Inscriptions from the Indian subcontinent

  Ziyaud-Din A. Desai

• ZOROASTER vi. AS PERCEIVED BY LATER ZOROASTRIANS

  Jenny Rose

  This entry treats the development of the concept and image of Zoroaster among the Zoroastrians of Persia and India after the Islamic conquest (10th century onwards).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GRYUNBERG TSVETINOVICH, ALEKSANDR LEONOVICH

  Vladmir Kushev

  (b. St. Petersburg, 1930; d. St. Petersburg, 1995), Russian linguist who specialized in Iranian languages.

• JABA

  Peter Jackson

  (Jebe), 13th-century Mongol general of the Besüt (Bisut) tribe under Čengiz Khan. His original name was Jirḡoʾadai,

• AFŠĀN

  P. P. Soucek

  (“sprinkling”), the decoration of paper with flecks of gold and silver, sometimes called zarafšān “gold sprinkling.”

• ʿARŪSĪ

  A. Betteridge

  the secular wedding celebration which follows the wedding contract ceremony (ʿaqd).

• BEGTOḠDÏ

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Turkish slave com­mander of the Ghaznavid sultans Maḥmūd and Masʿūd (d. 1040).

• ḎAKAʾ-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See FORŪḠĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ʿALĪ; FORŪḠĪ, MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN.

• EPIDEMICS

  Cross-Reference

  See PLAGUES.

• FAYŻ-E KĀŠĀNĪ, MOLLĀ MOḤSEN-MOḤAMMAD

  Hamid Algar

  b. Šāh Mortażā b. Šāh Maḥmūd (b. 1598-9, d. 1679), prolific and versatile scholar of the Safavid period, celebrated chiefly for his Sufi inclinations.

• RUDĀBA

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  princess of Kabul, wife of Zāl, and mother of Rostam in the Šāh-nāma.
  

• MOḠĀN

  Richard Tapper

  (or Dašt-e Moḡān, also Muqān), a lowland steppe in Azerbaijan.

• GAMBRON

  Cross-Reference

  See BANDAR-e ʿABBĀS(Ī).

• ḤODUD AL-ʿĀLAM

  C. EDMOND Bosworth

  a concise but very important Persian geography of the then known world, Islamic and non-Islamic, begun in 982-83 by an unknown author from the province of Guzgān (in northern Afghanistan).

• ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ

  D. MacEoin

  fifth head of the Kermānī branch of the Šayḵī school of Shiʿism.

• AMĪNĪ, SHAIKH ʿABD-AL-ḤOSAYN

  H. Algar

  also known as ʿAllāma-ye Amīnī (1320-90/1902-70), Shiʿite scholar and author of the encyclopedic al-Ḡadīr fi’l-ketāb wa’l-sonna wa’l-adab.

• BĀḠ-E BĀLĀ

  cross-reference

  See BĀḠ iv.

• ČĀROḠ

  Cross-Reference

  or čāroq, etc. See CLOTHING xx, xxv, xxviii.

• DOTĀR

  Jean During

  long-necked lute of the tanbūr family, usually with two strings (do tār). The principal feature is the pear-shaped sound box attached to a neck that is longer than the box and faced with a wooden soundboard. Dotārs can be classified in several different types.

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• BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI i. Achaemenid Period

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  At the beginning of the Achaemenid period, the institution of slavery was still poorly developed in Iran. In Media a custom existed whereby a poor man could place himself at the disposal of a rich person if the latter agreed to feed him. The position of such a man was similar to that of a slave.

• KÖROĞLU i. LITERARY TRADITION

  Hasan Javadi

  early-17th-century folk hero and poet, whose stories are mainly known among the Turkic peoples but have also passed into other folk literatures and circulate in Azerbaijan and Khorasan. Bards usually perform the Köroǧlu/Goroḡli epic to the accompaniment of a string instrument, such as the sāz, the dambura, or the dutār.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GUŠYĀR GILĀNI, ABU’L-ḤASAN B. LABBĀN

  David Pingree

  Arabicized Kušyār; an astronomer and mathematician from Gilān, whence his nesba Jili/Gilāni (fl. late 10th-early 11th cent.).

• JAHĀNGIR KHAN ŠIRĀZI

  cross-reference

  See ṢUR-E ESRĀFIL.

• AGATHIAS

  M.-L. Chaumont

  Byzantine historian, b. 536 or 537 in Myrina, a small village in Asia Minor, d. about 580.

• ĀṢAF-AL-DAWLA, ALLĀHYĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• BELGRĀMĪ, ʿABD-AL-JALĪL

  cross-reference

  See ʿABD-AL­-JALĪL BELGRĀMĪ.

• DĀNEŠ, TAQĪ

  Īraj Afšār

  (b. Tabrīz, 1861, d. Tehran 24 February 1948), poet and govern­ment official.

• ĒRĀN-XWARRAH-YAZDGERD

  Rika Gyselen

  lit. "Ērān, glory of Yazdegerd"; Sasanian province probably created by Yazdegerd II (438-457).

• FEQH

  Norman Calder

  lit. "jurisprudence"; term used to designate the processes of exposition, analysis, and argument which constitute human effort to express God’s law (šarīʿa).

• MAḤMUD MIRZĀ

  Dominic Parviz Brookshaw

  (b. 1799, d. between 1854 and 1858), fifteenth son of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah Qajar (r. 1797-1834), calligrapher, poet, and anthologist.

• MAGOPHONIA

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  An appropriate Iranian word for magophonia is the Sogdian mwγzt- (killing of the Magi).

• GAOTƎMA

  Bernfried Schlerath

  an Avestan proper name only attested in Yt. 13.16: “An eloquent man will be born, who makes his words heard in verbal contests, ... victorious over the defeated Gaotəma.”

• ʿABDALLĀH B. ʿĀMER

  J. Lassner

  Arab general and governor active in Iran, b. in Mecca in 4/626.

• ʿAMMĀRA

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAMĀRA.

• BAHĀʾ-ALLĀH

  Juan Cole

  (1817-92), MĪRZĀ ḤOSAYN-ʿALĪ NŪRĪ,  founder of the Bahai religion or Bahaism. 

• CATTLE

  Jean-Pierre Digard, Mary Boyce

  the word “cattle” has no precise equivalent in Iranian languages, in which bovines are commonly designated by the words for “cow,” “bull,” and “calf."

• ḎU’L-NŪN MEṢRĪ, ABU’L-FAYŻ ṮAWBĀN

  Gerhard Böwering

  b. Ebrāhīm (b. Aḵmīm in Upper Egypt, ca. 791, d. Jīza [Giza], between 859 and 862), early Sufi master.

• LUṬI

  Willem Floor

  A Persian term with a variety of meanings, with both positive and negative connotations.

• ḴᵛĀJAVAND

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe in the Caspian province of Māzandarān. According to L. S. Fortescue, the tribe “was originally brought from Garrūs and Kurdistān by Nādir Shāh.”

• JĀLINUS

  Hormoz Ebrahimnejad

  (Galen), the Arabic form of Greek Galenos, the name of the illustrious 2nd-century authority on medicine of ancient Greece.

• AḤMAD B. QODĀM

  C. E. Bosworth

  a military adventurer who temporarily held power in Sīstān during the confused years following the collapse of the first Saffarid amirate and the military empire of ʿAmr b. Layṯ in 287/900.

• ASFĀR B. ŠĪRŪYA

  C. E. Bosworth

  a military leader from Lāhīǰān in Gīlān.

• BESṬĀMĪ, ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN

  Hamid Algar

  b. Moḥammad b. ʿAlī [Basṭāmī], al-Ḥanafī, al-Ḥorūfī (d.1454), Ottoman polymath of Khorasanian ancestry.

• DĀRĀ

  Michael Weiskopf

  the name of a Parthian city and of a Byzan­tine garrison town of the Sasanian period.

• EʿTEDĀLĪ, ḤEZB-E

  Cross-Reference

  See EJTEMĀʿĪYŪN.

• FEUVRIER, JEAN-BAPTISTE

  Jean Calmard

  (1842-1926), Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah’s personal physician (1889-1892), author of Trois ans à la cour de Perse, with engravings from photographs in the collections of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah and his retinue, Feuvrier’s own drawings, and Persian contemporary paintings. The book is a major source of information, notably on the Tobacco Concession and its aftermath.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS xiii. Eastern Iranian Migrations to China

  Étienne de la Vaissière

• Z~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the Z entries

• GAZ (1)

  B. Grami, M. R. Ghanoonparvar

  common term in Persian for several species of the genera Tamarix (desert trees) and Astragalus (spiny shrubs of gavan); also the name of a confection made with the sweet exudate (gaz-angobīn) produced on Astragalus.

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• ḤOSAYN KARBALĀʾI

  Leonard Lewisohn

  TABRIZI BĀBĀ-FARAJI, popularly known as Ebn Karbalāʾi, a major Persian historian of Sufis and Sufism of 16th-century Persia and a poet (d. 1589).

• ʿABDĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ

  M. Dabīrsīāqī and B. Fragner

  (1513-80), poet.

• ANABASIS

  R. Schmitt

   title of ancient campaign accounts stylistically influenced by the so-called Periplus books.

• CENSUS

  Firuz Tawfiq, Daniel Balland

  (Pers. sar-šomārī). No census for the purpose of ascertaining the population and acquiring statistical data was taken in Persia until the present century.

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• DŪST-MOḤAMMAD MOṢAWWER

  Chahryar Adle

  (d. ca. 1560), master painter, known in the Indo-Persian world and even among the Ottomans as a painter (moṣawwer), paper cutter (qāṭeʿ), calligraphic tracer/outliner (moḥarrer), and perhaps binder (saḥḥāf) and gilder (moḏahheb).

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• OUSELEY, William

  Peter Avery and EIr

  (1767-1842), officer and orientalist.

• HAFTĀNBŌXT

  Mansour Shaki

  traditional reading of the name of a legendary warlord in southern Persia, mentioned in the Kār-nāmag ī Ardašīr ī Pābagān (The exploits of Ardašīr son of Pābag).

• JAMʿIYAT-E MOʾTALEFA-YE ESLĀMI

  Ali Rahnema

  (Society of Islamic Coalition), a religious-political organization founded in 1963 to propagate Ayatollah Khomeini’s vision of an Islamic-Iranian state and society and to mobilize the population to implement that vision. This society was initially

• AḤMADZĪ

  C. M. Kieffer

  “descendants of Aḥmad” (sing. Aḥmadzay), a Paṧtō clan and tribal name.

• ASOŁIK

  M. van Esbroech

   “the singer,” the usual name of Stephen of Tarōn.

• BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES

  Multiple Authors

  i. In the West. ii. In Iran. This series of articles covers the catalogues of manuscripts and bibliographies of printed works on Iran compiled by scholars in Iran, Europe (including Russia) and North America.

• DARGAZĪNĪ

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  nesba (attributive name) for Dargazīn (or Darjazīn, q.v.), borne by several viziers of the Great Saljuqs in the 12th century.

• ESKĀFĪ, ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD

  Josef van Ess

  b. ʿAbd-Allāh, Muʿtazilite theologian of the 9th century (d. 854).

• FĪRŪZ MAŠREQĪ

  Aḥmad Edāračī Gīlānī

  (or Pīrūz; not Mošrefī as in Majmaʿ al-foṣaḥāʾ, p. 946), poet at the court of the Saffarids Yaʿqūb b. Layṯ (r. 867-78) and his brother ʿAmr b. Layṯ.

• QODSI MAŠHADI

  Paul Losensky

  , ḤĀJI MOḤAMMAD JĀN (b. Mashad, ca. 1582; d. Lahore, 1646), Persian poet of the first half of the 17th century.

• GĒL

  Cross-Reference

  tribes in the Arsacid and Sasanian periods. See GĪLĀN.

• HUMATA HŪXTA HUVARŠTA

  Mary Boyce

  three Avestan words which encapsulate the ethical goals of Zoroastrianism. In form verbal adjectives,  they were substantivized to mean “good thought, good word, good act.”

• ABRĪŠAM

  W. Eilers, M. Bazin and C. Bromberger, D. Thompson

  "Silk," originally from China, has been known in Iran since ancient times.

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• ANDḴŪY

  D. N. Wilber

  a commercial town in northwestern Afghanistan.

• BAHRĀM PAŽDŪ

  Ž. Āmūzgār

  Zoroastrian poet of the 13th century. His only surviving poem celebrates spring, Nowrūz and those who had propagated the Zoroastrian religion.

• CHARCOAL

  Willem Floor

  car­bonized wood and other vegetal material, an important household and industrial fuel in Persia and Afghanistan.

• EBN ʿARABŠĀH, ŠEHĀB-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ʿABBĀS AḤMAD

  John E. Woods

  b. Moḥammad … Ḥanafī ʿAjamī (b. Damascus, 1389, d. Cairo, 1450), literary scholar and biographer of Tamerlane (Tīmūr).

• QUAL

  Cross-Reference

  See BELDERČĪN.

• CALMEYER, Peter

  W. Kleiss and A. Shapur Shahbazi

  German archaeologist and Iranologist (b. 5 September 1930 in Halle, d. 22 November 1995 in Berlin).

• HAJJI BABA OF ISPAHAN

  Abbas Amanat

  hero of The Adventures of Hajji Baba of Ispahan by James Justinian Morier (3 vols., London, 1824), the most popular Oriental novel in the English language and a highly influential stereotype of the so-called “Persian national character” in modern times. 

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• JARQUYA ii. The Dialect

  Habib Borjian

  The dialect of Jarquya, together with those of Rudašt and Kuhpāya to its north, belongs to the Isfahani (Provincial) subgroup of the Central Dialects.

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• ʿAJEZ, NARAYAN KAUL

  A. Mattoo

  Kashmiri Brahman of the 17th-18th centuries, a poet and compiler of Moḵtaṣar-e tārīḵ-e Kašmīr (1710-11).

• AŠŠURBANIPAL

  J. A. Delaunay

  king of Assyria 666-25 BCE.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• BIOGRAPHIES

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• DARVĪŠ ʿALĪ, AMĪR NEẒĀM-AL-DĪN KüKäLTĀŠ KETĀBDĀR

  M. E. Subtelny

  Timurid amir under Solṭān-Ḥosayn Bāyqarā (1469-1506) and younger brother of ʿAlī-Šīr Navāʾ.

• ESMĀʿĪL KHAN QAŠQĀʾĪ, ṢAWLAT-AL-DAWLA, SARDĀR-E ʿAŠĀYER

  See ṢAWLAT-AL-DAWLA.

• FREEMASONRY v. In Exile

  Hasan Azinfar, M.-T. Eskandari, and Edward Joseph

• ʿID-E ḠADIR

  cross-reference

  See ḠADĪR ḴOMM.

• ABŪ BAKR B. ABĪ ṢĀLEḤ

  C. E. Bosworth

  vizier of the Ghaznavids in the 5th/11th century.

• ANJOMAN-E ĀṮĀR-E MELLĪ

  ʿĪ. Ṣadīq

  (AAM), The National Monuments Council of Iran, established in 1301 Š./1922 to promote interest in and to preserve Iran’s cultural heritage.  

• ŠĀBUHRAGĀN

  Christiane Reck

  (Šāpurāḵān, Šāburāḵān, Šāburḵān), one of the books written by Mani (216-274/7 CE), founder of the Manichean religion, in which he summarized his teaching systematically.

• CHODŹKO, ALEKSANDER BOREJKO

  Jean Calmard

  (b. 30 August 1804, in Krzywicze, Poland [now in the Lithuanian S.S.R.], d. Noisy-le-Sec, near Paris, 19 December 1891), Polish poet and diplomat, the first European scholar to work on Persian folklore.

• EBN AL-FOWAṬĪ, KAMĀL-AL-DĪN ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ

  Charles Melville

  b. Aḥmad, librarian and historian (b. 1244; d. Baghdad, 1323).

• JAKKADI

  Maria Sabaye Moghaddam

  a dance style performed by Persian women, as documented in Sanskrit treatises of the 16th and 17th centuries.

• SUSA iv. THE SASANIAN PERIOD

  G. Gropp

  The satrap of Susa (Šuš) had been loyal to the Parthian king Artabanus V, and the city was forcibly conquered by Ardašir (qq.v.) in 224 after his victory over King Šād-Šāpur of Isfahan.

• HAMADĀNI, BADIʿ-AL-ZAMĀN

  cross-reference

  See BADIʿ-AL-ZAMĀN HAMADĀNI.

• JEM SOLṬĀN

  Osman G. Özgüdenli

  (or Šāhzāda Jem, 1459-1495), Ottoman prince and poet.

• AḴSĪKATĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See AṮĪR AḴSĪKATĪ.

• ʿĀŠŪRĀʾ

  M. Ayoub

  tenth day of Moḥarram, the first month of the Islamic calendar; for Sunnis it is a day on which fasting is recommended, and for Shiʿites a day of mourning for the martyrdom of Imam Ḥosayn.

• BOHLŪL

  L. P. Elwell-Sutton

  a weekly comic illustrated paper, published in Tehran from 1911.

• DASTGERD

  Philippe Gignoux

  lit. “made by hand, handiwork”; a term originally designating a royal or seigneurial estate.

• ESTEḴĀRA

  Cross-Reference

  See DIVINATION.

• ARABIC LANGUAGE i. Arabic elements in Persian

  A. A. Ṣādeqī

• BALUCHISTAN iiia. Balochi Poetry

  Joseph Elfenbein

  The clearest way to describe Baluchi poetry is by dividing it into 4 periods: (1) classical, from ca. 1550-1700; (2) post-classical, from 1700-1800; (3) 19th century to early 20th century; (4) modern, after ca. 1930.

• GHURIDS

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  or Āl-e Šansab; a medieval Islamic dynasty of the eastern Iranian lands.

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• INCEST AND INBREEDING

  Geert Jan Van Gelder

  Incest and inbreeding are two different but related aspects of marriage and human reproduction.

• ABU’L-FATḤ EṢFAHĀNĪ

  D. Pingree

  An early 6th/12th century astronomer.

• ANTIOCH (1)

  M. L. Chaumont

  town in northern Syria founded in 300 B.C. by Seleucus I Nicator. It was the capital of the Seleucids and became one of the main centers of caravan traffic.

• BALḴ

  X. de Planhol, C. E. Bosworth, V. Fourniau, D. Balland, F. Grenet

  city and province in northern Afghanistan. i. Geography. ii. From the Arab conquest to the Mongols. iii. From the Mongols to modern times. iv. Modern town. v. Modern province. vi. Monuments.

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• CINNAMUS

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  putative rival of Artabanus II (12-38) as king of the Arsacids.

• EBN MOSTAWFĪ, ABU’L-BARAKĀT ŠARAF-AL-DĪN MOBĀRAK

  Ihsan Abbas

  b. Aḥmad b. Mobārak Erbelī (1168-1239), historian of Erbel.

• QALA d-ŠRARA

  Eden Naby

  (The voice of truth) was a monthly publication of the mainly French Catholic Lazarist Mission in Urmia and ran from 1897 to 1915.

• MINING IN IRAN i. MINES AND MINERAL RESOURCES

  Mansur Qorbani and Anoshirvan Kani

  The ancient and pre-modern period is evidenced by abandoned mines,  which can be grouped into three categories based on the materials extracted: (1) mines of metallic ores: iron, copper, gold, lead, zinc, and silver; (2) non-metallic mines and quarries of china clay (used in ceramic and tile making), gel-e saršuy (a variety of bentonite used as soap), and bentonite and serpentine (used in clayware); (3) mines of precious and semi-precious stones.

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• HANG-E AFRĀSIĀB

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  in the national epic, the cave in which Afrāsiāb, the fugitive king of Turān, spent his last days.

• JONAYD

  Kathryn Babayan

  B. EBRĀHIM, a patrilineal descendant of Shaikh Ṣafi-al-Din (d. 1334), the founder of the Ṣafaviya order in Ardabil. Jonayd played the central role in expanding the membership of the order.

• ĀL-E KAṮĪR

  J. Qāʾem-Maqāmī

  an Arab tribe of Ḵūzestān composed of two subtribes, Bayt Saʿd and Bayt Karīm and inhabiting two sectors of Šūš and Dezfūl.

• ʿAṬR

  F. Aubaile-Sallenave

  “perfume” (Arabic ʿeṭr, plur. ʿoṭūr; in Persian also ʿaṭrīyāt, perfumes), a Semitic term also attested in Syriac and Amharic.

• BONGĀH-E TARJOMA WA NAŠR-E KETĀB

  Edward Joseph

  “The [Royal] Institute for Translation and Publication,” founded 1953, since 1986 called the Scientific and Cultural Publication Company (Šerkat-e Entešārāt-e ʿElmī wa Farhangī).

• DAWĀMĪ, ʿABD-ALLĀH

  DĀRYŪŠ ṢAFVAT

  (b. Ṭā near Tafreš, 1891; d. Tehran, 10 January 1981), a master of classical Persian vocal music with a perfect command of the radīf (repertoire), as well as a gifted player of the Persian drum (tonbak) and a virtuoso of rhythmic (żarbī) pieces and songs (taṣnīf).

• EVANGELION

  Cross-Reference

  See ANGALYŪN; MĀNĪ; MANICHEISM.

• KHORASAN i. ETHNIC GROUPS

  Pierre Oberling

  The population of Khorasan is extremely varied, consisting principally of Persians, Arabs, Turks, Kurds, Mongols, Baluch, and smaller groups of Jews, Gypsies, and Lors.

• GILANENTZ CHRONICLE

  Ina Baghdiantz McCabe

  a compendium of reports collated as a journal by Petros di Sarkis Gilanentz (Gilanencʿ), which constitutes an important source for the history of events in Transcaucasia and Persia during the period March 1722 to August 1723, notably the Afghan invasion and siege of Isfahan.

• INDIGO

  Carol Bier

  (Pers. nil), the common name of a broad genus, Indigofera, with numerous species. Many tribal groups in Persia have relied on the use of indigo to achieve a stable blue color for the wool of carpets and kilims.

• ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN ARDALĀN

  Ḥ. Maḥbūbī Ardakānī

  (b. 1279/1862-63), government official under the late Qajars.

• AQA

  D. O. Morgan

  Mongolian title, essentially meaning “elder brother” and by extension “senior member of the family.”

• BAND-E AMĪR (2)

  X. De Planhol

  the chain of natural lakes 90 km west of Bāmīān in Afghanistan (lat 30°12’ N, long 66°30’ E).

• CLIME

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  (kešvar), ancient division of the earth’s surface.

• EBN YAMĪN, AMĪR FAḴR-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak

  b. Amir Yamīn-al-Dīn Ṭoḡrāʾī, a poet of the 14th century.

• DASTUR AL-MOLUK

  M. Ismail Marcinkowski

  a manual of administration in Persian from the end of the Safavid period.

• HĀRUN B. ALTUNTAŠ

  C. E. Bosworth

  son of a Turkish slave commander of Maḥmud of Ghazna who served as governor in Kᵛārazm 1032-35, first for the Ghaznavids, and then as an independent ruler.

• JUB-E GOWHAR

  Bruno Overlaet

  an archeological site in the Eyvān plain, Ilām province (Poštkuh, Lorestān). A total of sixty-six tombs of a partially plundered graveyard were excavated in 1977 by the Belgian Archeological Mission in Iran, directed by Louis Vanden Berghe.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿALĀʾ-AL-DĪN MONAJJEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪŠĀH BOḴĀRĪ.

• AVICENNA

  Multiple Authors

  celebrated philosopher and physician philosopher (d. 1037).

• BORŪJERDĪ, ḤOSAYN

  Hamid Algar

  b. Moḥammad-Reżā Ḥosaynī, Shiʿite scholar of the Qajar period (d. ca. 1860); his main work was  a collection of chronograms on the deaths of famous transmitters of ḥadīṯ.

• DE BRUIN, CORNELIS

  Willem Floor

  or de Bruyn, also known as Corneille Le Brun or Le Bruyn (b. The Hague 1652, d. Utrecht 1726 or 1727), Dutch painter and author of two accounts of his travels in Persia and other eastern lands.

• ʿEZZAT PĀŠĀ, MOḤAMMAD

  Tahsın Yazici

  (1843-1914), author of a Persian-Turkish dictionary and translator of Persian literary works.

• BIBLE v. Sogdian Translations

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  The following manuscripts containing biblical texts in Sogdian have been made known. None of them survives in anything like complete form, and some are mere fragments.

• MUSIC HISTORY i. Pre-Islamic Iran

  Bo Lawergren

  The documentation is largely archeological with a sprinkling of textual sources, and some evidence is here assembled to outline Iran’s pre-Islamic music history.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḠOJDOVĀNI

  Cross-Reference

   See ʿABD-AL-ḴĀLEQ ḠOJDOVĀNI.

• IQĀN

  cross-reference

  See KETĀB-E IQĀN.

• ABŪ MANṢŪR ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ

  Dj. Khaleghi-Motlagh

  a dehqān (landowner) of Ṭūs, official under the Samanids, and patron of a lost prose Šāh-nāma (Šāh-nāma-ye Abū Manṣūrī).

• ARAB-SASANIAN COINS

  M. Bates

  Arab-Sasanian is a term applied to several different coinages of early Islamic Iran which were issued under Arab authority using the design and inscriptions of the preceding Sasanian coinage.

• BANŪ MONAJJEM

  D. Pingree

  a family of intellectuals, closely connected to the caliphs of the 9th-10th centuries and claiming descent from an ancient Iranian lineage.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• COLOGNE MANI CODEX

  Werner Sundermann

  or Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis, a lump of parchment fragments the size of a matchbox, containing a portion of the life and teachings of Mani, discovered in 1969 at an indeterminate spot in the area of Asyūṭ (ancient Lycopolis) in upper Egypt, the smallest ancient codex known to date.

• EBRĀHĪM ṬEHRĀNĪ

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  also known as Mīrzā ʿAmū, a 19th century calligrapher specializing in the nastaʿlīq script.

• EBN BAQIYA

  C. E. Bosworth

  called Naṣir-al-Dawla and Nāṣeḥ "Counselor,” vizier of the Buyids in Iraq, b. 314/926, d. 367/978.

• STEIN, (Marc) Aurel

  Susan Whitfield

  , Sir, Hungarian–British archeologist and explorer (b. Pest, Hungary, 26 November 1862; d. Kabul, 28 October 1943).

• ḤASANVAND

  Pierre Oberling

  a Lor tribe of the Piškuh region in Lorestān. In the 1870s it numbered some 2,500 families distributed among 16 tiras.

• JUNGE, PETER JULIUS

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  German ancient historian and Iranologist (1913-1943).

• ALBUQUERQUE, ALFONSO DE

  J. Aubin

  (ca. 1460-1515), admiral in the Indian Ocean (1504, 1506-08), second governor of Portuguese India (1509-15), a great conqueror, and the real founder of the Portuguese empire in the Orient.

• AYĀDGĀR Ī WUZURGMIHR

  S. Shaked

  a popular-religious andarz composition in Pahlavi, attributed to one of the best-known sages of the Sasanian period, Wuzurgmihr (Bozorgmehr) ī Buxtagān, who was active at the court of Ḵosrow I Anōšīravān (531-79 A.D.).

• BOZPAYIT

  James R. Russell

  Middle Persian name, attested only in Armenian, of a Zoroastrian school or body of religious teaching in the Sasanian period.

• DEJLA

  Cross-Reference

  See ARVAND-RŪD; TIGRIS.

• FALAKĪ ŠARVĀNĪ, Abu’l-Neẓām Moḥammad

  François de Blois

  or ŠERVĀNĪ, a Persian poet of the first half of the 12th century.

• CENTRAL ASIA xv. Modern Literature

  Keith Hitchins

• TAʿLIM O TARBIAT

  Nassereddin Parvin

  monthly periodical published by the Ministry of Culture (April 1925-March 1927, April 1934-July 1938). 

• GOLDEN HORDE

  Peter Jackson

  name given to the Mongol Khanate ruled by the descendants of Joči (Juji; d. 1226-27), the eldest son of Čengiz (Genghis) Khan.

• ABU’L-QĀSEM HĀRŪN

  K. A. Luther

  Vizier of Atabeg Ozbek b. Moḥammad b. Eldagōz, ruler of Azerbaijan, 607-22/1210-25.

• ARBĀB ROSTAM GĪV

  Cross-Reference

  See GĪV.

• BARAŠNOM

  M. Boyce

  the chief Zoroastrian purification rite, consisting of a triple cleansing, with gōmēz (cow’s urine), dust, and water, followed by nine nights’ seclusion.

• CONVERSION

  Multiple Authors

  the act of adopting another religion.

• SABALĀN MOUNTAIN

  Eckart Ehlers

  Kuh-e-Sabalān; 4,740 m), the highest and spatially most extended volcano in northwestern Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FOQQĀʿ

  Sayyed Mohammad Dabirsiaghi

  an effervescent drink preserved in heavy and usually rounded clay vessels.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ḤAYYA ʿALĀ ḴAYR AL-ʿAMAL

  Meir M. Bar-Asher

  a religious formula, meaning “Come to the best of actions,” included in the call to prayer (aḏān) by all three major branches of Shiʿism, Twelvers, Zaydis and Ismaʿilis.

• AB-ANBĀR

  R. Holod, M. Sotūda

  "Water reservoir,” a term commonly used throughout Iran as a designation for roofed underground water cisterns.

• ʿALĪ B. ʿĪSĀ B. MĀHĀN

  Ch. Pellat

  (d. 812), officer in the service of the ʿAbbasids.

• ĀZĀD BELGRĀMĪ

  M. Siddiqi

  Major Indo-Muslim poet, biographer, and composer of chronograms, also known as Ḥassān-al-Hend (fl. 1116-1200/1704-86).

• BŪDANA

  cross-reference

  See BELDERČĪN.

• DENŠAPUH

  James Russell

  short form of Vehdenšapuh; Sasanian hambārakapet (quartermaster) involved in the campaign of Yazdagerd II (438-57) to force Christian Armenians to abjure their faith and return to Zoroastrianism; a gem bearing his name is preserved in the British Museum in London.

• CHINESE-IRANIAN RELATIONS xi. Mutual Influence of Chinese and Persian Ceramics

  Oliver Watson

• DUMÉZIL, Georges

  Bruce Lincoln

   (1898-1986), French comparatist philologist and religious studies scholar. Among the most significant later modifications in Dumézil's views was his decision to abandon the claim that Indo-European society was originally divided into three functional groupings, whose defining characteristics were then inscribed in myth, ritual, and the structure of the pantheon. Rather, he came to regard the tripartite system as an “ideology,” a collective ideal.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GOLŠANI, MOḤYI MOḤAMMAD

  Tahsin Yazici

  b. Fatḥ-Allāh b. Abi Ṭāleb (1528/29-1606/7), scholar and author in Persian and Turkish and inventor of an artificial language.

• IRANIAN IDENTITY i. PERSPECTIVES

  Ahmad Ashraf

  Perspectives on Iranian identity have been influenced by competing views on the origins of nations.

• ABŪ ṢĀLEḤ MANṢŪR (I) NŪḤ

  C. E. Bosworth

  (350-66/961-76), Samanid ruler in Transoxania and Khorasan and successor of his brother ʿAbd-al-Malek after the latter’s death in Šawwāl, 350/November, 961.

• ARDAŠĪR-ḴORRA

  C. E. Bosworth

  one of the five administrative divisions (kūra) of Fārs, in Sasanian and early Islamic times.

• BARLAAM AND IOSAPH

  J. P. Asmussen

  Persian Belawhar o Būdāsaf, a Greek Christian or Christianized novel of Buddhist origins. All the manuscripts are later than 1500. Being extremely popular it received various accretions and was often translated.

• COUP D’ETAT OF 1299/1921

  Niloofar Shambayati

  the military coup that eventually led to the founding of the Pahlavi dynasty.

• EḤSĀN-AL-ʿOLŪM

  Cross-Reference

  See FARĀBĪ.

• FĀRES

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  the Arabic term for “rider on a horse, cavalryman,” connected with the verb farasa/farosa “to be knowledgeable about horses, be a skillful horseman” and the noun faras “horse."

• ABRAHAM OF CRETE

  George A. Bournoutian

  (Kretatsʾi; b. Kandia, Crete, ?- d. Ejmiatsin, 18 April 1737), a leader of the Armenian Church and the author of a chronicle about Nāder Shah Afšār.

• EBTEHAJ, ABOLHASSAN

  Geoffrey Jones

  (1899-1999), prominent banker, economic planner, and one of the most important and powerful figures in the economic history of Iran during the middle decades of the 20th century.

• FRAHANG Ī PAHLAWĪG

  D. N. MacKenzie

  lit. “a Pahlavi dictionary,” is rather a description than the title of an anonymous glossary of some five hundred mostly Aramaic heterograms (ideograms), in the form used by Zoroastrians in writing Middle Persian (Book Pahlavi), each explained by a “phonetic” writing of the corresponding Persian word.

• ABARSĀM

  E. Yarshater

  (APURSĀM in Middle Persian), a dignitary and high-ranking officeholder of the court of the Sasanian king Ardašīr I (A.D. 226-42).

• ʿALĪ HERAVĪ

  P. P. Soucek

  also known as MĪR ʿALĪ KĀTEB ḤOSAYNĪ, a calligrapher active in Herat, Mašhad, and Bukhara from the late 9/15th century to 951/1544-45.

• AZHAR-E ḴAR

  L. P. Smirnova

  “Azhar the ass,” nickname of AZHAR B. YAḤYĀ B. ZOHAYR B. FARQAD, third cousin, and military commander of the Saffarid amirs Yaʿqūb and ʿAmr b. Layṯ.

• BŪSTĀNĪ, MĪRZĀ MOḤAMMAD

  Yuri Bregel

  ʿABD-AL-ʿAẒĪM SĀMĪ, poet and historian of Bukhara (b. ca. 1840, d. after 1914).

• DEŽ

  Nasseraddin Parvin

  a weekly of news and politics associated with the Tudeh Party that began publication on 27 May 1943 in Tehran and continued with some interruptions until June 1953.

• CLEANSING ii. In Islamic Persia

  Hamid Algar

• LEYLI O MAJNUN

  A. A. Seyed-Gohrab

  narrative poem of approximately 4,600 lines composed in 584/1188 by the famous poet Neẓāmi of Ganja.

• GORDUENE

  Cross-Reference

  See KORDUK.

• IRON AGE

  Oscar White Muscarella

  In Iran the term Iron Age is employed to identify a cultural change that occurred centuries earlier than the time accorded its use elsewhere in the Near East, and not to acknowledge the introduction of a new metal technology.

• ABŪ ZAYD KĀŠĀNĪ

  O. Watson

  a potter who signed a ceramic bowl in the enameled (mīnāʾī) technique dated 4 Moḥarram 582/26 March 1186.

• ARIARAMNEIA

  A. Sh. Shahbazi

  a city in Cappadocia mentioned in an inscription.

• BASAWAL

  Sh. Kuwayama

  the site of a Buddhist cave temple complex in eastern Afghanistan. The caves, 150 in all, are partly hewn out in two rows and arranged in seven groups, which presumably corre­spond to the seven monastic institutions of Buddhist times.

• ČŪB ḴAṬṬ

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yusofi

  a stick 20-30 cm long formerly used by neighborhood shopkeepers, especially butchers and bakers, to keep accounts.

• ELBURZ COLLEGE

  Cross-Reference

  See ALBORZ COLLEGE.

• FARHANG O ZENDAGĪ

  Nasserddin Parvin

  a periodical published in 28 issues from winter 1969 to spring 1978 by the Secretariat of the High Council of Culture and Art (Dabīr-ḵāna-ye Šūrā-ye ʿalī-e farhang o honar).

• BABYLONIAN CHRONICLES

  M. Dandamayev

  as sources for Iranian history. In a number of cases Babylonian chronicles provide valuable information about the political history of Iran. They began with the reign of Nabu-nāṣir (747-734 BCE) and continued as far as the reign of Seleucus II (245-226 BCE).

• KARTIR

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  a prominent Zoroastrian priest  in the second half of the 3rd century CE, known from his inscriptions and mentioned in Middle Persian, Parthian, and Coptic Manichean texts.

• FRAWARDĪN YAŠT

  Mary Boyce

  the thirteenth of the Zoroastrian yašt hymns, devoted to the fravašis.

• HELMET

  B. A. Litvinsky, M. V. Gorelik

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. In Pre-Islamic Iran. ii. In the Islamic period.

• ʿABD-AL-ʿAZĪZ QARA ČELEBIZĀDA

  T. Yazici

  Ottoman historian and translator (1591-1658).

• BĀBĀ AFŻAL-AL-DĪN

  William Chittick

  poet and author of philosophical works in Persian (d. ca. 1213-14).

• ČAHĀR DOWLĪ

  Pierre Oberling

  (Davālī), or ČĀR DOWLĪ, a tribe of western Iran.

• DIEZ, ERNST

  Jens Kröger

  (b. 27 January 1878, d. 8 July 1961), Austrian historian of Iranian and Islamic art.

• COMMUNISM iii. In Persia after 1953

  Torāb Ḥaqšenās

• BUKHARA i. In Pre-Islamic Times

  Richard N. Frye

  The site or town of Bukhara was one of many settlements in the large oasis formed by the mouths of the Zarafshan (Zarafšān) river in ancient Sogdiana.

• GOUVEA, ANTONIO DE

  Rudi Matthee

  (b. Beja, Portugal, 1575; d. Manzanares, Spain, 1628), Augustinian missionary and Portuguese envoy who visited Persia three times between 1602 and 1613 and who wrote on Persia.

• ADAB AL-ṢAḠĪR

  I. Abbas

  an Arabic book of wisdom aud advice, based on Middle Persian works.

• ARŠĀMA

  E. Bresciani

  name of several Achaemenid notables.

• BAYĀN (2)

  D. M. MacEoin

  term applied to the writings of the Bāb in general and to two late works in particular, the Bayān-e fārsī and al-Bayān al-ʿarabī.

• WHEAT

  Cross-Reference

  See GANDOM.

• ʿEMĀD ḤASANĪ, MĪR, ʿEMĀD-AL-MOLK

  Kambiz Eslami

  b. Ebrāhīm (ca. 1554-1615), celebrated calligrapher. His rendition of nastaʿlīq, with smooth lines, many curves, very occasional diacritical marks, symmetry of letters and words, and usually excellent choice of decorations surrounding the words, had widespread appeal during his lifetime and after his death.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• FARRANT, FRANCIS

  Denis Wright

  , Colonel (b. 1803 [?]; d. 1868), British soldier and diplomat.

• KĀŠI, ḠIĀṮ-AL-DIN

  George Saliba

  ḠIĀṮ-AL-DIN JAMŠID B. MASʿUD B. MOḤAMMAD (ca. 1386-1429), mathematician, astronomer, and scientific instrument-maker of the highest rank.

• EBN ʿABBĀD, Esmāʿil, al-Ṣāḥeb Kāfi al-Kofāt

  Maurice Pomerantz

  vizier and belletrist.

• GARŠĀSP

  Cross-Reference

  See KARŠĀSP.

• HERMENEUTICS

  B. Todd Lawson

  of pre-modern Islamic and Shiʿite exegesis, the principles and methods, or philosophy, of scriptural interpretation, as distinct from the act of interpretation.

• ʿABD-AL-KARĪM ʿALAVĪ

  N. H. Zaidi

  Early 19th century Indo-Persian historian (d. ca. 1851).

• ALVĪRĪ

  E. Yarshater

  a dialect spoken in the village of Alvīr and belonging to the Central group of Iranian dialects.

• BĀBOR, ẒAHĪR-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  F. Lehmann

  (1483-1530), Timurid prince, military genius, and literary craftsman, founder of the Mughal Empire in India.

• CALIPHS AND THE CALIPHATE

  Hamid Algar

  as viewed by the Shiʿites of Persia.

• DĪVĀN

  François de Blois

  archive, register, chancery, government office; also, collected works, especially of a poet.

• COURTS AND COURTIERS v. Under the Timurid and Turkman dynasties

  Monika Gronke

• ADRĀVVŪN

  M. F. Kanga

   Gujarati term for the Parsi betrothal ceremony (in Persian nāmzadī). 

• AMARANTH

  Cross-Reference

  See BOSTĀNAFRŪZ.

• BAYTUZ

  C. E. Bosworth

  a Turkish commander who controlled the town of Bost in southern Afghanistan during the middle years of the 10th century.

• DADISOʿ QATRAYA

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  (late 7th century), Nestorian author of ascetic literature in Syriac.

• EMLĀ BOḴĀRĀʾĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Jirí Bečka

  b. ʿAlāʾ-al-Dīn (b. 1688, Sangārak, Afghanistan; d. 1749, Bukhara), Sufi poet of Arab descent.

• FĀRYĀBĪ, ẒAHĪR-AL-DĪN ABU’L-FAŻL ṬĀHER

  J.T.P. de Bruijn

  b. Moḥammad, twelfth century Persian poet who used Ẓahīr as his pen name.

• MOḤAMMAD b. ʿABD-ALLAH

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  , Abu’l -ʿAbbās (b. 824-25, d. 867), high official in Iraq and the central lands of the caliphate.

• DERAḴT-E ANJIR-E MAʿĀBED

  LOQMĀN TADAYON-NEŽĀD

  the last and highly acclaimed work of fiction by Ahmad Mahmud.

• GABRIEL, ALFONS

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• HERZFELD, ERNST v. HERZFELD AND THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT IRAN

  Josef Wiesehöfer

  Herzfeld’s classical education, giving him familiarity with Greek and Latin literature, and his training in Oriental philology as well as in archeology and architectural techniques proved of great benefit in his study of pre-Islamic Iranian history and culture.

• ʿABD-AL-QĀHER B. ṬĀHER

  Cross-Reference

  See BAḠDĀDĪ, ʿABD-AL-QĀHER.

• ʿĀMELĪ EṢFAHĀNĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  H. Corbin

  Shiʿite theologian and author (d. Najaf, 1138/1726). 

• BADAŠT

  M. Momen

  small village of about 1,000 inhabitants, site of a conference  convened on the instructions of the Bāb in 1848.