Table of Contents

• JABA

  Peter Jackson

  (Jebe), 13th-century Mongol general of the Besüt (Bisut) tribe under Čengiz Khan. His original name was Jirḡoʾadai,

• JABAL ʿĀMEL

  RULA ABISAAB

  , SHIʿITE ULAMA OF, in the Safavid Period. The Safavid monarchs sought prominent clerics who would strengthen their rule by promoting a standard urban system of  Shiʿite worship.

• JABAL-E SERĀJ

  Erwin Grötzbach

  a small town in the province of Parvān in Afghanistan, located at the mouth of the Sālang valley in Kabul Kohestān to the north of the city of Charikar (Čārikār).

• JABBĀR ḴĒL

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  the leading lineage of the Solaymān Ḵēl Paxtun tribe of the Ḡalzi/Ḡilzi (q.v.) tribal confederation of eastern and southeastern Afghanistan.

• JABBĀRA

  P. Oberling

  a group of Shiʿite Arabs in Fārs province who, together with the Šaybāni, form the Arab tribe of the Ḵamsa tribal confederation.

• JĀBER JOʿFI

  Maria Dakake

  , ABU ʿABD-ALLĀH,  a Kufan traditionist and companion of the fifth and sixth Shiʿite Imams, Moḥammad al-Bāqer and Jaʿfar al-Ṣādeq.

• JĀBERI

  Colin Pual Mitchell

  , MIRZĀ SALMĀN, vizier and prominent statesman during the reigns of Shah Esmāʿil II (1576-77) and Shah Moḥammad Ḵodābanda (1577-88).

• JABḠUYA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Arabo-Persian form of the Central Asian title yabḡu. Although it is best known as a Turkish title of nobility, it was in use many centuries before the Turks appear in the historical record.

• JACKAL

  Steven C. Anderson

  , Golden or Asiatic (Canis aureus, MPers. tōrag, NPers. tura, šaḡāl), a medium-size member of the dog family (Canidae) occurring throughout Afghanistan and Iran. Scavenging supplies a small percentage of the diet, especially in habitats away from humans; and carrion consists mainly of road kill and, around villages, garbage. Jackals are omnivorous, opportunistic feeders, eating fruits and vegetables as well as hunting small animals.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JACKSON, ABRAHAM VALENTINE WILLIAMS

  William W. Malandra

  (1862-1937), pioneer of Iranian studies in America and prominent Iranist for half a century. The most important book of Jackson perhaps was Zoroaster, the Prophet of Ancient Iran (1898). He was not among those who belittled indigenous traditions, nor did he embrace positivistic historiography. He had an abiding faith in the basic historicity of these sources.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JADE

  Manuel Keene

  (nephrite; Pers. yašm, yašb, yašf, yaṣb). An extremely small range of pre-Islamic Iranian jades have thus far been published, despite the very ancient employment of jade in eastern Iran. The known material is often of extraordinary refinement, and testifies to an extensive influence on other jadecarving cultures, including the Chinese.

• JADE i. Introduction

  Manuel Keene

• JADE ii. Pre-Islamic Iranian Jades

  Manuel Keene

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JADE iii. Jade Carving, 4th century B.C.E to 15th century C.E.

  Manuel Keene

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JADIDISM

  K. Hitchens

  a movement of reform among Muslim intellectuals in Central Asia, mainly among the Uzbeks and the Tajiks, from the first years of the 20th century to the 1920s.

• JAF (JĀF)

  M. Reza Fariborz Hamzeh’ee

  a once large Kurdish nomadic confederation living in south Iraqi Kurdistan and in the Sanandaj area of Iranian Kurdistan.

• JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ

  Multiple Authors

  ABU ʿABD-ALLĀH (ca. 702-765), the sixth imam of the Imami Shiʿites.

• JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ i. Life

  Robert Gleaves

• JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ ii. Teachings

  Robert Gleaves

• JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ iii. And Sufism

  Hamid Algar

• JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ iv. And Esoteric sciences

  Daniel De Smet

• JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ v. And herbal medicine

  Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi

• JAʿFAR B. MANṢUR-AL-YAMAN

  Hamid Haji

  a high-ranking Ismaʿili author who flourished in the 10th century, during the reigns of the first four Fatimid caliphs.

• JAʿFAR B. MOḤAMMAD B. ḤARB

  Joseph van Ess

  , ABU’L-FAŻL AL-HAMDĀNI (d. 850), also called al-Ašajj ("scar-face" or "skull-broken"), Muʿtazilite theologian who lived in Baghdad.

• JAʿFAR B. YAḤYĀ BARMAKI

  cross-reference

  See BARMAKIDS.

• JAʿFAR ḴĀN AZ FARANG ĀMADA

  MARYAM SHARIATI

  acclaimed satirical drama in one act by ʿAli Nowruz, a pen name of the playwright Ḥasan Moqaddam (1895-1925).

• JAʿFAR KHAN AZ FARANG ĀMADEH

  cross-reference

  See MOQADDAM, ḤASAN. Forthcoming, online.

• JAʿFAR KHAN BAḴTIĀRI

  cross-reference

  See BAḴTIĀRI (1).

• JAʿFARI, ŠAʿBĀN

  H. E. Chehabi

  (1921-2006), athlete, and rightwing political agent from the early 1940s to the early 1950s.

• JAʿFARQOLI KHAN BAḴTIĀRI

  cross-reference

  See BAḴTIĀRI (1).

• JAFR

  Gernot Windfuhr

  a term of uncertain etymology used to designate the major divinatory art in Islamic mysticism and gnosis—the art  of discovering the predestined fate of nations, dynasties, religions, and individuals by a variety of methods.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAGARḴWIN

  Keith Hitchins

  (or Cegerxwin), pseudonym of Şêxmûs Hesen (1903-1984), considered by many the leading Kurdish poet of the 20th century writing in Kurmanji.

• JAḠATU

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  an archeological site in Ḡazni province, Afghanistan, situated about 20 km north of Ḡazni on the route between Ḡazni and Wardak.

• JAGHATAY

  cross-reference

  See CHAGHATAYID DYNASTY.

• JAḠMINI, MAḤMUD

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  b. Moḥammad b. ʿOmar  (d. 1344), the author of a brief Arabic survey of mathematical astronomy.

• JĀḠORI

  A. Monsutti

  a term of uncertain etymological origin for both a tribal section of the Hazāras and a district (woluswāli) of Ḡazni province in Afghanistan.

• JAHĀN TIMÜR

  Charles Melville

  recognized briefly as Il-khan in Iraq and Mesopotamia in 1339-40 during the period of the collapse of the Il-khanate.

• JAHĀN-E ZANĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (Women’s World), short-lived magazine, 1921.

• JAHĀN-MALEK ḴĀTUN

  Dominic Parviz Brookshaw

  (d. after 1382), Injuid princess, poet, and contemporary of Ḥāfeẓ.

• JAHĀNĀRĀ BEGUM

  Stephen Dale

  (1614-81), the eldest surviving daughter of the Mughal Emperor Šāh Jahān and his favorite wife, Momtāz Mahal.

• JAHĀNBEGLU

  P. Oberling

  (or Jānbeglu), one of several Kurdish tribes transplanted from northwestern Persia to Māzandarān by Āḡā Moḥammad Khan Qajar (r. 1789-97).

• JAHĀNGAŠT

  cross-reference

   See BOḴĀRI, SHAIKH JALĀL-AL-DIN.

• JAHĀNGIR

  Lisa Balabanlilar

  the fourth Mughal emperor, the first of his dynasty to have been born in India (1569-1627).

• JAHĀNGIR KHAN ŠIRĀZI

  cross-reference

  See ṢUR-E ESRĀFIL.

• JAHĀNGOŠĀ-YE JOVAYNI

  Charles Melville

  , TĀRIḴ-E,  title of the history of the Mongols composed in 1252-60 by the Il-khanid Persian vizier, ʿAlāʾ-al-Din Abu’l-Moẓaffar ʿAṭā-Malek Jovayni.

• JAHĀNGOŠĀ-YE NĀDERI

  Ernest Tucker

  , TĀRIḴ-E (or Tāriḵ-e nāderi), one of the most important chronicles of the reign of Nāder Shah Afšār (r. 1736-47) by his court secretary, Mirzā Moḥammad-Mahdi Khan EEstrābādi/Astarābādi.

• JAHĀNŠĀH QARĀ QOYUNLU

  Cross-Reference

  See QARĀ QOYUNLU DYNASTY. Forthcoming.

• JĀḤEẒ

  Michael Cooperson

  , ABU ʿOṮMĀN ʿAMR B. BAḤR (b. ca. 776; d. 868-9), the leading Arabic prose writer of the 9th century.

• JAHM B. ṢAFWĀN

  Joseph van Ess

  , ABU MOḤREZ, Islamic theologian of the Umayyad period (d. 746). Documentation about him is scarce and not entirely reliable.

• JAHN, KARL EMIL OSKAR

  J. T. P. DE Bruijn

  (1906-1985), Czech orientalist who specialized in Central Asian history, Persian historiography, and Turcology.

• JAHROM

  SHIVA JA’FARI

  city and sub-province (šahrestān) in central Fārs Province, covering an area of 4,517 sq. km.

• JAIPUR

  Catherine B. Asher

  city in northwestern India, founded in 1727 by the Kachhwaha prince (raja) and Mughal officer Sawai Jai Singh Kachhwaha (1688-1743). He had a passionate interest in astronomy and, inspired by Ulugh Beg’s (1394-1449) astronomical observations and tables (zij), he wrote the Zij-e Moḥammad-Šāhi and built an observatory in Jaipur with enormous instruments for observing and calculating celestial phenomena

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĀJARMI

  Anna Livia Beelaert

  , MOḤAMMAD B. BADR, 14th-century Persian poet and anthologist.

• JĀJRUD

  Bernard Hourcade

  a major river of the southern slopes of the central Alborz in the Central Plateau (140 km. long, basin of 1,890 km²).

• JĀKI

  P. Oberling

  a group of Lor tribes in the Kuhgiluya region of eastern Khuzestan.

• JAKKADI

  Maria Sabaye Moghaddam

  a dance style performed by Persian women, as documented in Sanskrit treatises of the 16th and 17th centuries.

• JALĀL-AL-DIN ABU’L-QĀSEM TABRIZI

  Farhan Nizami

  (d. 1244-45), a prominent Sufi of the Sohravardiya Order.

• JALĀL-AL-DIN DAVĀNI

  cross-reference

  See DAVĀNI.

• JALĀL-AL-DIN ḤASAN III

  FARHAD DAFTARY

  (b. 1166-67; d. 1221), Nezāri Ismaʿili imam and the sixth lord of Alamut.

• JALĀL-AL-DIN ḴvĀRAZMŠĀH(I) MENGÜBIRNI

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  the last Ḵᵛārazmšāh of the line of Anuštigin Ḡarčaʾi, reigned in 1220-31 as the eldest son and successor of ʿAlāʾ-al-Din Moḥammad.

• JALĀL-AL-DIN MIRZĀ

  Abbas Amanat and Farzin Vejdani

  Qajar historian and freethinker (1827-1872). Born at the court in Tehran, he was the fifty-fifth son of Fatḥ-ʿAli Shah (r. 1797-1834). Besides European influences, the intellectual sources of his freethinking are not entirely known. He associated with Mirzā Malkom Khan (1833-1908) and his secret society, the Farāmuš-ḵāna (‘house of oblivion’), which made strident efforts to recruit members.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JALĀL-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD BALḴI, MAWLAWI

  cross-reference

  See RUMI. Forthcoming, online.

• JALĀL-AL-DIN TURĀNŠĀH

  cross-reference

  See MOZAFFARIDS.

• JALĀL-AL-MOLK

  cross-reference

  See IRAJ MIRZĀ.

• JALĀLĀBĀD

  Shah Mahmoud Hanifi

  a city, a valley, and an administrative unit of fluctuating scope within the Afghan state structure.

• JALĀLI

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe of eastern Anatolia and northwestern Persia.

• JALĀLZĀDA

  Tahsın Yazici

  , MOṢṬAFĀ ÇELEBI, also known as “Koja Nişancı” (Ḵᵛāja Nešānči), Ottoman historian and administrator (b. ca. 1490-94; d. 1567).

• JALĀYER

  cross-reference

  See KHORASAN i. ETHNIC GROUPS.

• JALĀYER, ESMĀʿIL KHAN

  Manouchehr Broomand

  a prominent painter of the Qajar era, during the reign of Nāṣer-al-Din Shah (r. 1848-96). He was  noted for his work in the genres of irāni-sāzi (Iranian subjects, relatively unaffected by European influences) and ṭabiʿat-sāzi (fauna and flora in a European naturalistic mode).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JALĀYER-NĀMA

  cross-reference

  See QĀʾEM-MAQĀM.

• JALAYERIDS

  Peter Jackson

  dynasty of Mongol origin which ruled over Iraq, and for several decades also over northwestern Persia, from the collapse of the Il-khanate in the late 1330s until the early 9th/15th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JALIL, RAHIM

  K. Hitchins

  Soviet Tajik writer (1909-1989), a master of the short story.

• JALILAVAND

  Pierre Oberling

  a small Laki-speaking tribe inhabiting the Kermānšāh and Lorestān regions, most of whom belong to the Ahl-e Haqq sect.

• JĀLINUS

  Hormoz Ebrahimnejad

  (Galen), the Arabic form of Greek Galenos, the name of the illustrious 2nd-century authority on medicine of ancient Greece.

• JALLĀD

  Forthcoming, online.

• JALULĀ

  Klaus Klier

  the site of a major battle between the Sasanian and Muslim forces. This locale is a medium-sized town in the Diāla Province of Iraq, situated on the middle course of the Diāla River.

• JAM

  M. Reza Fariborz Hamzeh’ee

  name given to a religious ceremony performed among two important religious communities living traditionally in the same historical region on the Zagros Mountain chain.

• JĀM (1)

  Majd-al-din Keyvani

  a mountainous region on the way from Kabul to Herat, and a historically important village in the province of Ghur (Ḡur) in western Afghanistan.

• JĀM (2)

  “cup” in Persian Art and Literature. Forthcoming online.

• JĀM MINARET

  F. B. Flood

  pre-eminent 12th-century monument of the Šansabāni sultans of Ḡur in central Afghanistan. The minaret stands 65 meters high near the confluence of the Harirud and Jāmrud rivers in a remote mountain valley once protected by a series of defensive towers.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAM, MAḤMUD

  Ali Sadeghi

  , titled Modir-al-Molk (1885-1969), prime minister under Reżā Shah.

• JAMĀL-AL-DIN ʿASADĀBĀDI

  cross-reference

  See AFGANI.

• JAMĀL-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD EṢFAHĀNI

  D. DURAND-GUÉDY

  poet and painter of the second half of the 12th century.

• JAMĀLI ṢUFI

  Maryam Ekhtiari

  , PIR YAḤYĀ, calligrapher of the mid-8th/14th century who worked in Shiraz in the 740s/1340s.

• JAMĀLI, ḤĀMED B. FAŻL-ALLĀH

  A. A. Seyed-Gohrab

  Persian-speaking Indian poet (b. Delhi, ca. 862/1457; d. Gujarat, 942/1535).

• JAMALZADEH, MOHAMMAD-ALI

  Multiple Authors

  prominent Iranian intellectual, a pioneer of modern Persian prose fiction and of the genre of the short story (1892-1997).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAMALZADEH, MOHAMMAD-ALI i. Life

  Nahid Mozaffari

• JAMALZADEH, MOHAMMAD-ALI ii. Literature

  Hassan Kamshad and Nahid Mozaffari

• JAMALZADEH, MOHAMMAD-ALI iii. Bibliography

  Nahid Mozaffari

• JĀMĀSP

  Jamsheed K. Choksy, Nikolaus Schindel

  Sasanian king. He ascended to the throne in 496 (or possibly early 497) when his brother, the king of kings Kawād I, was deposed.  Jāmāsp, like Kawād, was a son of the Sasanian ruler Pērōz (r. 459-84).  

• Jāmāsp i. REIGN

  JAMSHEED K. CHOKSY

• Jāmāsp ii. Coinage

  NIKOLAUS SCHINDEL

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĀMĀSP-NĀMA

  Cross-Reference

  See AYĀDGĀR I JĀMĀSPIG.

• JĀMĀSPA

  W. W. Malandra

  an official at the court of Vīštāspa and an early convert of Zarathushtra, who, in the tradition became widely known for his wisdom.

• JĀMĀSPASA, Dastur JAMASPJI MINOCHERJI

  Ramiyar P. Karanjia and Michael Stausberg

  (1830-1898), Parsi priest and Iranologist, offspring of a priestly family from Navsari in Gujarat, India. As a high priest he guided and supervised the consecration of several fire temples, not only in Bombay but all over India. He possessed a vast collection of important Zoroastrian manuscripts, and his publication Pahlavi texts (1897-1913) made these  available to a larger audience.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĀMĀSPI

  Cross-Reference

  See AYĀDGĀR I JĀMĀSPIG.

• JĀMEʿ AL-ḤEKĀYĀT

  Dariush Kargar

  (lit. Compiler of stories), one of the oldest and most common titles of mostly anonymous Persian story collections, dating from the 13th to the 19th century.

• JĀMEʿ AL-ḤEKMATAYN

  cross-reference

  See NĀṢER-E ḴOSROW.

• JĀMEʿ AL-ʿOLUM

  cross-reference

  See ENCYCLOPAEDIAS, PERSIAN.

• JĀMEʿ AL-TAMṮIL

  Ulrich Marzolph

  a collection of Persian proverbs and their stories compiled in 1045/1644 by Moḥammad-ʿAli Ḥablarudi.

• JĀMEʿ AL-TAWĀRIḴ

  Charles Melville

  (The Compendium of chronicles), historical work composed i1300-10 by Ḵᵛāja Rašid-al-Din Fażl-Allāh Ṭabib Hamadāni, vizier to the Mongol Il-khans Ḡāzān and Öljeitü.

• JĀMEʿ al-TAWĀRIḴ ii. Illustrations

  Sheila S. Blair

  Just as the text of Rašid-al-Din Fażl-Allāh’s Jāmeʿ al-tawāriḵ can be regarded as groundbreaking historically, so too the illustrations to it are seminal for the study of art history.

• JĀMEʿ-E ʿABBĀSI

  Sajjad Rizvi

  a Persian manual on foruʿ al-feqh (positive rules derived from the sources of legal knowledge) in Shiʿism.

• JĀMEʿA

  cross-reference

  See ZIĀRAT-E JĀMEʿA.

• JĀMEʿA-YE LISĀNSIAHĀ-YE DĀNEŠ-SARĀ-YE ʿĀLI

  Ahmad Birashk

   the Association of graduates of the Teacher Training College, founded in 1932 by its first two graduating classes.

• JĀMI

  Multiple Authors

  , ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN NUR-AL-DIN b. Neẓām-al-Din Aḥmad-e Dašti, Persian poet, scholar, and Sufi (1414-1492). Over almost fifty years, he turned his hand to every genre of Persian poetry and penned numerous treatises on a wide range of topics in the humanities and religious sciences.

• JĀMI i. Life and Works

  Paul Losensky

• JĀMI ii. And Sufism

  Hamid Algar

• JĀMI iii. And Persian Art

  Chad Kia

• JĀMI RUMI

  OSMAN G. ÖZGÜDENLI

  (or Jāmi Meṣri), AḤMAD, Ottoman official, poet, and translator (fl. 10th/16th century).

• JAMʿIYAT-E MOʾTALEFA-YE ESLĀMI

  Ali Rahnema

  (Society of Islamic Coalition), a religious-political organization founded in 1963 to propagate Ayatollah Khomeini’s vision of an Islamic-Iranian state and society and to mobilize the population to implement that vision. This society was initially

• JAMḴĀNA

  cross-reference

  See AḤL-E ḤAQQ.

• JAMKARĀN

  Jean Calmard

  village near Qom, located 6 km south of it on the Qom-Kashan highway.

• JAMSHIDI TRIBE

  Christine Noelle-Karimi

  (Jamšidi) one of several semi-nomadic, Persian-speaking, Hanafite Sunni groups of northwestern Afghanistan known as aymāq.

• JAMŠID (JAMSHID)

  Multiple Authors

  (or JAM), mythical king of Iran; Avestan Yima (Old Indic Yama), with the epithet xšaēta.

• JAMŠID B. MASʿUD ḠIĀṮ-AL-DIN KĀŠI

  cross-reference

  See KĀŠI.

• JAMŠID i. Myth of Jamšid

  PRODS OKTOR SKJÆRVØ

• JAMŠID ii. In Persian Literature

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

• JĀN MOḤAMMAD KHAN

  Bāqer ʿĀqeli

  , AMIR ʿALĀʾI (1886-1951), brigadier general and commander of Khorasan army during the early Reżā Shah period, noted for his ruthlessness but eventually undone due to a mutiny of unpaid  troops.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JANĀB

  cross-reference

  See ALQĀB VA ʿANĀWIN.

• JANĀB DAMĀVANDI

  S. A. Mir ʿAlinaqi

  (1867-1973), popular name of Moḥammad Fallāḥi, a vocalist of the late Qajar period.

• JAND

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a medieval Islamic town on the right bank of the lower Jaxartes in Central Asia some 350 km from where the river enters the Aral Sea.

• JANDAQ

  M. Badanj

  a town and rural district (dehestān) in the Ḵor and Biābānak district (baḵš) of Nāʾin sub-province in the province of Isfahan.

• JANGALI MOVEMENT

  Pezhmann Dailami

  (1915-20), under the leadership of Mirzā Kuček Khan Jangali, in response to the political decay during World War I and the occupation of Iran by Anglo-Russian and Ottoman troops.

• JĀNI BEG KHAN BIGDELI ŠĀMLU

  Rudi Matthee

  (d. 1645), išik-āqāsi-bāši (master of ceremony) and qurči-bāši (head of the tribal guards) under the Safavid Shah Ṣafi I (r. 1629-42) and Shah ʿAbbās II (r. 1642-66).

• JANNĀBA

  Cross-Reference

  term used by early Muslim geographers to refer to the county (šahrestān) and port city on the Persian Gulf in the province of Būšehr. See GANĀVA.

• JANNĀBI, ABU SAʿID

  Cross-Reference

  11th-century vizier and man of letters. See, ĀBI, ABU SAʿID.

• JAPAN

  Multiple Authors

  AND ITS RELATIONS WITH IRAN. The subject of contact between the two countries will be discussed in the following sub-entries.

• JAPAN i. Introduction

  C. J. Brunner

  Direct contact and observation of each other by Persians and Japanese would wait for the establishment of Japan’s relations with the world by the modernizing administration of the Meiji period (1868-1912).

• JAPAN ii. Diplomatic and Commercial Relations with Iran

  Nobuaki Kondo

  Although it is not clear when Iran initiated diplomatic contact with Japan, it is believed to have been in 1873, when Nāṣer-al-Din Shah, on his first trip to Europe, met Naonobu Sameshima of Satsuma, who was the then Japanese ambassador to Paris, France. The shah did not include many details about the meeting in his memoir.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• Japan iii. Japanese Travelers to Persia

  Tadahiko Ohtsu and Hashem Rajabzadeh

  It was only in 1854 that relations with foreign countries were resumed. This process gathered pace with the advent of the Meiji period (1868-1912), when the Japanese were allowed to go on official visits abroad.

• JAPAN iv. Iranians in Japan

  Toyoko Morita

  Among the foreigners in Japan, Iranians total about 5,000 people, constituting a small minority group.

• JAPAN v. ARCHEOLOGICAL MISSIONS TO PERSIA

  Toh Sugimura

  After World War II Japanese archeologists could not continue their work on sites in Korea and China, and their expertise became available for research in the Middle East and Persia.

• JAPAN vi. IRANIAN STUDIES IN JAPAN, PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Takeshi Aoki

  Ancient Iranian studies in Japan started at the beginning of the 20th century in Tokyo and Kyoto independently.

• JAPAN vii. IRANIAN STUDIES, ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Cross-Reference

   Forthcoming, Online.

• JAPAN viii. SAFAVID STUDIES IN JAPAN

  Masashi Haneda

  The genesis of Safavid studies in Japan was an outgrowth of the interest in the history of the Mongols and the Turkic people, which is a significant point characterizing Safavid studies there.

• JAPAN ix. Centers for Persian Studies in Japan

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  Formal undergraduate and graduate programs of Persian studies in Japan are offered at Osaka University School of Foreign Studies and Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.

• JAPAN x. COLLECTIONS OF PERSIAN BOOKS IN JAPAN

  Cross-Reference

  Forthcoming, online.

• JAPAN xi. COLLECTIONS OF PERSIAN ART IN JAPAN

  Toh Sugimura

  Persian works of art in Japanese collections may be classified into (1) artifacts brought through China and Korea up to early modern times, (2) purchases in art markets since the 19th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAPAN xii. TRANSLATIONS OF PERSIAN WORKS INTO JAPANESE

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  Japanese readers were introduced to the Persian classics with translations of ʿOmar Ḵayyām’s Robāʿiyāt and Ferdowisi’s Šāh-nāma.

• JAPAN xiii. TRANSLATIONS OF JAPANESE WORKS INTO PERSIAN

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  Introduction of Japan to Persian readers began when Japanese military victories over China (1894-95) and, especially, Russia (1904-05) excited the interest of Iranians.

• JĀRČI

  Charles Melville

  a public crier, announcer or herald, derived from the Mongol jar (proclamation, announcement). Criers or heralds naturally have a role in both civilian and military capacities.

• JĀRČI-E MELLAT

  EIr.

  a weekly satirical newspaper published in Tehran, 1910-28 (with long interruptions).

• JARQUYA

  Habib Borjian

  district located in the eastern region of Isfahan Province. i. The district. ii. The dialect.

• JARQUYA i. The District

  Habib Borjian

  Separated from Isfahan by the Šāhkuh range, Jarquya spreads over 6,500 km², stretching in a northwest-southeast direction to the wasteland that separates it from Abarquh.

• JARQUYA ii. The Dialect

  Habib Borjian

  The dialect of Jarquya, together with those of Rudašt and Kuhpāya to its north, belongs to the Isfahani (Provincial) subgroup of the Central Dialects.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JARRĀḤI RIVER

  cross-reference

  See KHUZESTAN i. Geography.

• JĀRUDIYA

  cross-reference

  See ZAIDIS.

• JĀS

  D. T. Potts

  also written Jāšk (‘Jasques’ in English East India Company sources), a small Baluchi port on the Makrān coast with palm gardens.

• JĀSK

  Daniel T. Potts

  a small Baluchi port on the Makrān coast with palm gardens, considered part of the Hormozgan province.

• JAŠN

  cross-reference

  See GĀHANBĀR; FESTIVALS ii.

• JĀSP

  cross-reference

  See MAḤALLĀT.

• JĀT

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  a contested and ambiguous label for several non-food-producing peripatetic, itinerant communities in Afghanistan and the surrounding region.

• JĀTAKASTAVA

  Mauro Maggi

  a Khotanese religious poem in praise (Skt. stava-) of the Buddha’s former births (Skt. jātaka-).

• JAUBERT, PIERRE AMÉDÉE ÉMILIEN-PROBE

  Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam

  (1779-1847), French orientalist, who also served as interpreter and diplomat at Napoleon Bonaparte’s court.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JAVĀNMARDI

  Mohsen Zakeri

  also fotowwa, denoting a wide variety of amorphous associations with initiation rituals and codes in the Islamic world, primarily in its eastern regions.

• JAVĀNRUD

  ʿAbd-Allāh Marduḵ and EIr.

  a city and a sub-province (šahrestān) in the northwest of Kermānšāhān Province near the border with Iraq at about 110 km southwest of Sanandaj sub-province.

• JAVĀNŠIR QARĀBĀḠI, JAMĀL

  George Bournoutian

  (1773-1853), a leader of the Javānšir tribe and an office-holder in Qarābāḡ and Dagestan.

• JĀVDĀN-NĀMA

  Orkhan Mir-Kasimov

  the major work of Fażl-Allāh Astarābādi (d. 1394), the founder of the Ḥorufi movement.

• JĀVID, ʿABD-AL-AḤMAD

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (1927-2002), educator and scholar of Persian literature and history.  

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĀVID-NĀMA

  David Matthews

  (Pers. Jāved-nāma), title of a Persian maṯnawi by Muhammad Iqbal, often rendered into English as “The Song of Eternity,” first published in 1932.

• JAWĀHER AL-ʿAJĀYEB

  Maria Szuppe

  a short, rare kind of taḏkera in Persian, containing biographies of female poets and specimens of their verses (mostly in Persian, some in Chaghatay Turkish).

• JAWĀHER-E ḴAMSA

  Carl W. Ernst

  title of a Persian work on Sufi meditation practices composed by the well-known and controversial Šaṭṭārī saint, Moḥammad Ḡawṯ Gwāleyārī (1500-1563).

• JAWĀHER-NĀMA

  Yves Porter

  the title of several Persian works on precious stones, gems, minerals, and metals, as well as on crafts related to them.

• JAWĀLIQI, HEŠĀM

  Abbas Kadhim

  b. Sālem, an Imami jurist and theologian of the 8th century. He was a close associate of the Imams Jaʿfar al-Ṣādeq and Musā al-Kāẓem.

• JAWĀMEʿ AL-ḤEKĀYĀT

  Dariush Kargar

  the earliest and the most comprehensive collection of stories in the Persian language, compiled by Sadid-al-Din Moḥammad ʿAwfi (d. after 1232).

• JAWHARI, ABU ʿABD-ALLĀH AḤMAD

  Abbas Kadhim

   b. Moḥammad b. ʿObayd-Allāh b. Ḥasan b. ʿAyyāš, 10th-century Imami transmitter of Hadith (d. 1010).

• JAXARTES

  Cross-Reference

  river in Central Asia. See SYR DARYA, forthcoming online.

• JAZĀʾERI, NEʿMAT-ALLĀH ŠOŠTARI

  See forthcoming, online.

• JAZI, ʿABBĀS

  Habib Borjian

  , DARVIŠ (1847-1905), poet in the dialect of Gaz (q.v.), an oasis north of Isfahan.

• JAZIRI

  Joyce Blau

  , SHAIKH AḤMAD, or Malâ-ye Jizrî, early Kurdish poet.

• JAŽN-Ā JAMĀʿIYA

  Khalil Jindy Rashow

  (Feast of the Assembly), the great communal festival of the Yazidis.

• JEBĀL

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  in Arabic, the plural of jabal “mountain,” a geographical term used in early Islamic times for the western part of Persia, roughly corresponding to ancient Media (Ar. māh).

• JEBHE-YE MELLI

  cross-reference

  See NATIONAL FRONT.

• JEBRIL B. ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH

  cross-reference

  See BOḴTIŠUʿ.

• JEH

  Albert de Jong

  name of a female demon in a small number of Zoroastrian Middle Persian texts. The name of Jeh is commonly, but with little justification, translated as “whore.”

• JEJEEBHOY, JAMSETJEE

  Jesse S. Palsetia

  , Sir (1783-1859), Parsi businessman and philanthropist. He was a product of the age of partnership and commercial collaboration begun with the introduction of European imperialism in Asia in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The consignment of Indian opium to East Asia constituted his major business enterprise. His charitable projects and loyalty to the British garnered him honors and public acclaim.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JELD

  cross-reference

  See BOOKBINDING 1; BOOKBINDING 2.

• JELWA, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  Mahdi Khalaji

  b. Moḥammad Ṭabāṭabāʾi (1823-1897), a leading Shiʿite scholar and master teacher of philosophy and mathematics.

• JELWA, KETĀB AL-

  Philip Kreyenbroek

  (Kurd. Kitēba jilwe “the Book of splendor”), title of a notional sacred text in Yazidism.

• JEM SOLṬĀN

  Osman G. Özgüdenli

  (or Šāhzāda Jem, 1459-1495), Ottoman prince and poet.

• JEMĀLI

  Osman G. Özgüdenli

  Ottoman poet and writer of the 15th century.

• JEN-NĀMA

  Mohammad Reza Ghanoonparvar

  (The book of jinn, Sweden, 1998), the last novel and, arguably, magnum opus ofHushang Golshiri.

• JENJĀN

  Daniel T. Potts

  coll. Jenjun, “Jinjun,” village in western Fārs, small archeological site of the Achaemenid period. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JENKINSON, ANTHONY

  Stephan Schmuck

  (1529-1611), merchant and traveler. On 2 November 1562, he arrived in Qazvin, the seat of Shah Ṭahmāsp (r. 1524-76). But the shah did not wish to jeopardize his recently concluded peace with the Ottoman empire, so that Jenkinson was neither well received at court nor did he obtain the desired documents. In his writings, Jenkinson succinctly described his journeys to regions never before visited by English travelers.

• JENN

  cross-reference

  See GENIE.

• JÉQUIER, GUSTAVE

  Nader Nasiri-Moghaddam

  Swiss archeologist (1868-1946). He excavated hundreds of ancient artifacts at Susa. The most important among these was the third fragment of the Code of Hammurabi.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JERGA

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  an assembly or council of local adult men, among the settled and nomadic Pashtun tribal communities of Afghanistan and Pakistan.

• JERUSALEM AND IRAN

  Hagith Sivan

  Twice Jerusalem came under Persian rule, the first time in the sixth century BCE, the second during the westward expansion of the Sasanian state in the early seventh century CE.

• JESUITS IN SAFAVID PERSIA

  Rudi Matthee

  The Fathers of the Society of Jesus were the first European missionaries to enter the Persian Gulf in the 16th century.

• JEVDET PASHA

  Osman G. Özgüdenli

  (1823-1895), Ottoman writer, historian, jurist, and statesman.

• JEVDET, ʿABD-ALLĀH

  Osman G.

  (1869-1932), Ottoman poet, writer, translator, and thinker.

• JEVRI, AHISKALI

  Osman G. Özgüdenli

  (1805-1875), Ottoman poet and translator, a professional soldier.

• JEVRI, EBRĀHIM ČELEBI

  Osman G.

  (d. 1654), Ottoman poet and calligrapher.

• JEWISH EXILARCHATE

  Jacob Neusner

  position of the head of the Jewish community in Babylonia in talmudic and medieval times, recognized in Sasanian times as an ethnarch, ruler of the ethnic group.

• JEWS OF IRAN

  cross-reference

  See JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES.

• JEYḤUNĀBĀDI

  Mojan Membrado

  , ḤĀJJ NEʿMAT-ALLĀH MOKRI (1871-1920), an influential mystic whose stated mission was to collect and record the previously oral traditions of the Ahl-e Ḥaqq.

• JEZYA

  Vera B. Moreen

  the poll or capitation tax levied on members of non-Muslim monotheistic faith communities (Jews, Christians, and, eventually, Zoroastrians), who fell under the protection (ḏemma) of Muslim Arab conquerors.

• JIHAD

  cross-reference

  See ISLAM IN IRAN xi.

• JIHOṆIKA

  O. Bopearachchi

  a ruler in northwestern India known to us from his coins and an inscription (1st cent. CE).

• JIROFT

  Multiple Authors

  sub-province (šahrestān), town, and dam in Kerman Province. i. Geography. ii. Human geography and environment. iii. General survey of excavations. iv. Iconography of chlorite artifacts.

• JIROFT i. Geography of Jiroft Sub-Province

  M. Badanj and EIr.

  Located in the south of Kerman Province, the sub-province of Jiroft is bound by those of Kermān (north), Bam (east), ʿAnbarābād and Kahnuj (south), and Bāft (west).

• JIROFT ii. HUMAN GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENT

  Eric Fouache

  Jiroft is the regional capital of the middle section of the Halil Rud valley, southern Kerman Province. The valley, oriented northwest to southeast, 400 km long, takes its source in the Zagros mountain range north of Jiroft and ends in the endorheic Jaz-murian basin.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JIROFT iii. GENERAL SURVEY OF EXCAVATIONS

  Oscar White Muscarella

  All the artifacts known to date that are accorded the Jiroft label have not been excavated; they have in fact been plundered.

• JIROFT iv. ICONOGRAPHY OF CHLORITE ARTIFACTS

  Jean Perrot

  In the region of Jiroft, a large number of stone (chlorite) vases and objects, carrying human and animal motifs inlaid with semi-precious stones, have recently been discovered. Technical variations, notably in the inlaying method of colored stones, point to the existence of several workshops. Considering style, the aesthetic ratio of the whole is comparatively high.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JĪVAKAPUSTAKA

  Mauro Maggi

  a medical text in Sanskrit and Khotanese belonging to the Indian Ayurvedic tradition.

• JIWĀM

  Firoze M. Kotwal and Jamsheed K. Choksy

  “(consecrated) milk,” the designation for one of the organic items—now a mixture of milk and consecrated water—used in the  high or inner liturgical rituals of the Zoroastrians.

• JÑĀNOLKADHĀRAṆĪ

  Mauro Maggi

  “Spell of [the Buddha] Jñānolka,” the name of a short Buddhist text of the Mahayanist tradition containing two magic spells (dhāraṇī) aimed at the protection and deliverance of beings.

• JOBBĀʾI

  Sabine Schmidtke

  the name of two Muʿtazilite theologians, Abu ʿAli Moḥammad b. ʿAbd-al-Wahhāb (849-915) and his son Abu Hāšem ʿAbd-al-Salām (890-933).

• JOČI

  Michal Biran

  (in Persian and Turkic also Tuši, Duši, ca. 1184-1227), the eldest son of Čengiz Khan (d. 1227) and the ancestor of the khans of the Golden Horde, the westernmost Mongolian khanate.

• JOFT-E GĀV

  Cross-Reference

  "pair of oxen," term used in traditional farming system of Iran. See GĀVBAND.

• JOḠD

  cross-reference

  See BUF.

• JOLLĀBI, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  cross-reference

  See HOJVIRI, ABU’L-ḤASAN.

• JOMUR

  P. Oberling

  (also angl. Jumur), a small Sunnite Kurdish tribe of northern Lorestān.

• JONAS, Hans

  Kurt Rudolph

  (1903-1993), philosopher who significantly contributed to 20-century research on gnosticism.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JONAYD

  Kathryn Babayan

  B. EBRĀHIM, a patrilineal descendant of Shaikh Ṣafi-al-Din (d. 1334), the founder of the Ṣafaviya order in Ardabil. Jonayd played the central role in expanding the membership of the order.

• JONAYD-E NAQQĀŠ

  Barbara Brend

  a painter of the 14th century, known from one reference and one picture.

• JONDIŠĀBUR

  cross-reference

  See GONDĒŠĀPUR.

• JONES, WILLIAM

  Michael J. Franklin

  , Sir (1746-1794), orientalist and judge, noted for his enduring commitment to a syncretic East-West synthesis and unshakeable belief in cultural pluralism.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JONG

  David J. Roxburgh

  literary miscellany of Persian prose and poetry, and album of pictures and illustrations. Inventiveness in the production of jongs peaked in Persia in the 1400s and continued into the 1500s, when techniques such as découpage, gold-sprinkled, stenciled, and/or painted borders, and  colored inks or outline for calligraphy were introduced.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JONG-E ESFAHĀN

  Jalil Doostkhah

  (Isfahan anthology), an independent, avant-garde literary periodical, established in Isfahan in 1965 by a circle of literary men, irregularly producing 11 issues from 1965 to 1973. 

• JORBĀDAQĀN

  cross-reference

  See GOLPĀYAGĀN.

• JORBĀDAQĀNI, ABU’L-ŠARAF

  cross-reference

  See ABU’L-ŠARAF JORBĀDAQĀNI.

• JORDAN, SAMUEL MARTIN

  Michael Zirinsky

  (known in Iran as Dr. Jordan; 1871-1952), teacher, Presbyterian minister, missionary, founder and president of the American College of Tehran (later Alborz College).

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JORJĀN

  cross-reference

  See GORGĀN.

• JORJĀNI, ZAYN-AL-DIN ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALI

  Josef van Ess

  B. MOḤAMMAD B. ʿALI AL-ḤOSAYNI (1340-1413), prolific author and scholar of the early Timurid period.

• JORJĀNI, ZAYN-AL-DIN ESMĀʿIL

  Hušang Aʿlam

  , ZAYN-AL-DIN ESMĀʿIL b. Ḥasan, better known as Sayyed Esmāʿil Jorjāni (b. Gorgān, 1043-44?; d. Marv, 1136-37), physician who served two Khwarazmshahs (Ḵᵛārazmšāhs), Qo

• JOSEPH

  Asghar Dadbeh, Annabel Keeler, Chad Kia

  (Ar. Yusof), son of the biblical patriarch Jacob. The story of Joseph has always been a source of attractive subject matters for the exegetists of the Qurʾān, poets, miniaturists, and popular tales.

• JOSEPH i. IN PERSIAN LITERATURE

  Asghar Dadbeh

  As a love story with religious overtones, the romance of Yusof and Zolayḵā has always been among the very favorite themes of Persian poets.

• JOSEPH ii. In Qurʾānic Exegesis

  Annabel Keeler

  In the Qurʾān, the story of the prophet Joseph is unique in being related as one continuous narrative, making up almost the entirety of chapter (sura) 12.

• JOSEPH iii. IN PERSIAN ART

  Chad Kia

  The popularity of Joseph as a subject in the visual arts is by and large a reflection of the popularity of the story of Joseph in Islamic literatures.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JOSTANIDS

  Manouchehr Pezeshk

  also referred to as Āl-e Jostān and Āl-e Vahsudān, a local dynasty that ruled from Rudbār in Deylam, the mountainous district of Gilān during the late 8th and early 9th centuries.

• JOURNALISM IN IRAN

  Negin Nabavi, Hossein Shahidi

  the collection and editing of news for presentation through the public press during the Qajar, Pahlavi, and Post-Revolutionary periods.

• JOURNALISM i. Qajar Period

  Negin Nabavi

  For much of the Qajar period, journalism was a state-run domain. In the second half of the period,  newspapers began to appear increasingly.

• JOURNALISM ii. Pahlavi Period

  cross-reference

  See forthcoming online.

• JOURNALISM iii. Post-Revolution Era

  Hossein Shahidi

  At the time of the 1978-79 Revolution, there were about 100 newspapers in Iran, of which twenty-three were dailies. Within two years of the revolution, 700 new titles had appeared.

• JOVAYN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  name of three historical localities: a village in Fārs, a fortress o the northeast of Lake Zereh in Sistān, and especially the district of that name in Khorasan.

• JOVAYNI FAMILY

  Hashem Rajabzadeh

  a family of men of the pen and statesmen of the 13th and 14th centuries in Iran. Men of this family held high positions in the government under the Saljuq, Ḵᵛārazmšāh, and Il-khanid dynasties.

• JOVAYNI, ʿALĀʾ-AL-DIN

  George Lane

  ʿAṬĀ-MALEK b. Moḥammad (1226-1283), governor of Iraq under the Il-khanids, author of Tāriḵ-e jahān-gošāy,  a major primary source for the history of Central Asia and the Mongol conquests.

• JOVAYNI, EMĀM-AL-ḤARAMAYN

  Paul L. Heck

  , Abu’l-Maʿāli ʿAbd-al-Malek b. ʿAbd-Allāh b. Yusof (1028-1085), a noted Shafiʿite scholar.

• JOVAYNI, ṢĀḤEB DIVĀN

  Michal Biran

  ŠAMS-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD b. Moḥammad (d. 1284), Persian statesman of the early Il-khanid period, the younger brother of the historian  ʿAlāʾ-al-Din ʿAṭā-Malek Jovayni.

• JOVIAN

  Erich Kettenhofen

  (Flavius Iovianus; 331-364), Roman emperor, r. 363-64. The present article confines discussion to the events related to the Persian campaign of 363.

• JOWŠAQĀN

  Habib Borjian

  district in Isfahan Province in central Persia, best known for its carpets and for its dialect.

• JOWŠAQĀN i. The District

  Habib Borjian

  Jowšaqān is located at 65 miles northwest of Isfahan, where the western foothills of the Karkas Mountain range break down into plain.

• JOWŠAQĀN ii. The Dialect

  Habib Borjian

  Jowšaqāni, spoken in the township of Jowšaqān, is a variety of the local dialects of Kāšān, a subgroup of the Central Dialect.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JOWZJĀN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Arabicized form of Persian Gowzgān(ān), a district of eastern Khorasan in early Islamic times, now roughly corresponding to the northwest of modern Afghanistan.

• JOWZJĀNI, ABU ʿOBAYD

  Robert Wisnovsky

  (Juzjāni), ABU ʿOBAYD ʿABD-AL-WĀḤED b. Moḥammad, companion, literary secretary, and biographer of Avicenna.

• JOWZJĀNI, MIR JUJOK

  R. D. McChesney

  a late 16th-century literary figure given the title malek al-šoʿarāʾ at Balkh by the Shibanid (Šaybānid) ruler there, ʿAbd-al-Moʾmen Khan (r. at Balkh 1583-98).

• JUB-E GOWHAR

  Bruno Overlaet

  an archeological site in the Eyvān plain, Ilām province (Poštkuh, Lorestān). A total of sixty-six tombs of a partially plundered graveyard were excavated in 1977 by the Belgian Archeological Mission in Iran, directed by Louis Vanden Berghe.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUBAN

  Ali Hakemi

  village and excavation site in Gilan Province. It is located 54 km south of Rasht, 4 km south of Kalvarz, and 12 km from Rudbār. In 1966, after three months of excavations (mid-spring to mid-summer), the archeological association of Rudbār discovered here the remains of a civilization dating from the beginning to the middle of the first millennium BCE.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUBĀRA

  cross-reference

  See ISFAHAN xviii. JEWISH COMMUNITY

• JUDAKI

  Pierre Oberling

  a small Lor tribe of the Ḵorramābād region in western Persia.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES

  Multiple Authors

   OF IRAN, one of the oldest Jewish populations in the Diaspora. 

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES i. INTRODUCTION

  Houman Sarshar

  Jewish communities have been living upon the Persian plateau since ca. 721 BCE, when King Sargon II (r. 721-705 BCE) relocated large communities of conquered Israelites.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES ii. ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Mayer I. Gruber

  The most significant chapter in the story of Jews and Judaism in Persia began 15 March 597 BCE, when King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylonia conquered Jerusalem.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES iii. PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS

  Jacob Neusner

  By the time the Parthians reached Babylonia, Jews had lived there, under Babylonian, Achaemenid, and Seleucid rule for more than four and a half centuries.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES iv. MEDIEVAL TO LATE 18TH CENTURY

  Vera Basch Moreen

  The Arab conquest of Iran (636 CE) and the end of the 18th century are convenient, if artificial, dates to demarcate the “Middle Ages” in a diachronic approach to the history of the Jews in Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES v. QAJAR PERIOD (1)

  Daniel Tsadik

  The socio-economic and legal status of the Jews of Iran in early Qajar times was, to an extent, a continuation of the legacy of Safavid times. With the passage of time, however, and largely due to the increasing intervention of the great powers and foreign Jews, certain changes started to be seen.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES v. QAJAR PERIOD (2)

  Mehrdad Amanat

  In the latter part of the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries there occurred a relatively widespread mass movement of Persian Jews to the Bahai community.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES vi. THE PAHLAVI ERA (1925-1979)

  Orly R. Rahimiyan

  Reza Shah (r. 1925-41) was not motivated by a positive attitude towards religious minorities (except Zoroastrians), but all minorities indirectly benefited from his reforms. He favored a modern Iran, free of foreign influence, united, and strong militarily. He opposed a nation of tribal groups and wanted one people, a people with a well-developed historical and national consciousness founded on a culture whose sources lay mainly in pre-Islamic Iran.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES vii. THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC

  Cross-Reference

  See forthcoming online.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES viii. JUDEO-PERSIAN LANGUAGE

  Thamar E. Gindin

  a group of very similar, usually mutually comprehensible, dialects of Persian, spoken or written by Jews in greater Iran over a period of more than a millennium.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES ix. JUDEO-PERSIAN LITERATURE

  Amnon Netzer

  Most of the inscriptions and documents written in Judeo-Persian at the beginning of the Islamic period were discovered in the 19th century. They are important for the study of the development of early New Persian, and their existence proves that Jews lived and were active in all areas within and beyond the borders of historical Persia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES x. JUDEO-PERSIAN JARGON (LOTERĀʾI)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  Loterāʾi is the secret jargon used by the Jewish communities of Iran and Afghanistan when they do not want the content of their talk to be understood by non-Jews.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES xi. MUSIC (1)

  Houman Sarshar

  This section is divided into four sub-sections: introduction, religious music, para-liturgical music, and secular Persian Jewish music.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES xi. MUSIC (2)

  Houman Sarshar

  This section is divided into: moṭrebs (hired popular musicians), Persian classical music, instrument makers, and popular music. Existing scholarship and historical documents suggest that Jews were the most prevalent minority engaged as moṭrebs.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES xii. PERSIAN CONTRIBUTION TO JUDAISM

  Jacob Neusner

  While the Jews of the Parthian and Sasanian empires spoke (eastern) Aramaic, not Middle Persian, Persian influence on Judaism through the Babylonian Talmud (Bavli) is by no means negligible.

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS

  Multiple Authors

  i. Achaemenid systems.  ii. Parthian and Sasanian judicial system. iii. Sasanian legal system. iv. Judicial system, advent of Islam through the 19th century. v. Judicial system, 20th century. vi. Legal system, Islamic period.

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS i. ACHAEMENID JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS

  F. Rachel Magdalene

  This article will address principally the sources of our knowledge of the judicial and legal system in the Achaemenid period, as well as the nature of the court system, which persons had standing to sue, and legal procedure.

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS ii. PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN JUDICIAL SYSTEMS

  Mansour Shaki

  In Sasanian times, and by extrapolation in previous periods, there were courts of justice at various levels all over the empire, in every rural area, district, and city.

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS iii. SASANIAN LEGAL SYSTEM

  Maria Macuch

  A great number of treatises on jurisprudence must have existed in the Sasanian age, called dādestān-nāmag “Lawbooks,” but only one text from this period has survived.

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS iv. JUDICIAL SYSTEM FROM THE ADVENT OF ISLAM THROUGH THE 19TH CENTURY

  Willem Floor

  From the beginning of Islamic rule in Persia, a secular and a religious judiciary co-existed: the ʿorfi court applying the common law, the tribunal of religious judge (qāẓi) applying the sacred law (šariʿa).

• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS v. JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN THE 20TH CENTURY

  Willem Floor

  Twentieth-century Iran experienced dramatic changes to its judicial system during the following periods: (1) Constitutional Period, (2) Pahlavi Period, (3) Post-revolution Period. Judges still applied pre-revolution laws and regulations until 11 August 1982, when Ayatollah Khomeini ordered judges to use their knowledge of Islamic law in cases where no new Islamic laws had yet been formulated.

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• JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS vi. LEGAL SYSTEM, ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Cross-Reference

  See forthcoming, online. See also AḴBĀRIYA; CIVIL CODE; CONSTITUTION; CONTRACT; FEQH; HADITH.

• JUKES, ANDREW

  Shireen Mahdavi

  British East India Company surgeon and political agent (1774-1821).

• JULFA

  Multiple Authors

  short for New Julfa, a large settlement on the southwestern edge of Isfahan, established by Armenian refugees in 1605. The modern town is still mostly populated by Armenians.

• JULFA i. SAFAVID PERIOD

  Vazken S. Ghougassian

  The original Julfa (Arm. ǰuła) is a very old village in the province of Nakhijevan (Naḵjavān), in historical Armenia.  In early summer of 1605, the Julfa deportees to Iran were given temporary shelter in Isfahan, and they began with the building of New Julfa on the right bank of the Zāyandarud. For the first decades after its foundation, New Julfa was exclusively populated by Armenians from Old Julfa.

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• JULFA ii. THE 18TH AND THE 19TH CENTURY

  Vazken S. Ghougassian

  The Afghan occupation of Isfahan between 1722 and 1729 struck a most devastating blow to the Armenians of New Julfa, although the city was spared total destruction and massive killings of its population. Nāder Shah Afšār (d. 1747) was even more brutal. Karim Khan Zand (d. 1779) treated the Armenian community fairly well and tried to encourage the return of expatriate Julfan merchants.

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• JULFA iii. THE 20TH CENTURY

  Vazken S. Ghougassian

  The Constitutional Revolution of 1905-11 had a profound impact on Persian society as a whole. Armenians were actively involved in the constitutional movement.

• JULFA iv. ARCHITECTURE AND PAINTING

  Armen Haghnazarian

  By 1640 New Julfa had grown into an important cultural center with many public buildings, including churches, markets, and bath houses.

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• JULFA v. ARMENIANS IN INDIA

  Sebouh Aslanian

  In the 17th century, Julfan merchants expanded their trade network in South Asia, and at the beginning of the 18th century the Primate of New Julfa had jurisdiction over the Armenian congregations in India and Java.

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• JULIAN

  Erich Kettenhofen

  (Flavius Claudius Iulianus), Roman emperor (r. 361-63). The present article deals only with Julian’s military campaign against the Sasanians up to his death.

• JUNGE, PETER JULIUS

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  German ancient historian and Iranologist (1913-1943).

• JUNKER, HEINRICH FRANZ JOSEF

  Werner Sundermann

  scholar of Iranian, Indo-European, Korean, and general linguistics (1889-1970). Junker’s interest in exotic scripts and in languages in general inspired him to take up Iranian studies.

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• JUSTI, FERDINAND (WILHELM JAKOB)

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  German scholar of Oriental, particularly Iranian, studies, comparative philologist, and folklorist (1837-1907).

• JUSTINIAN I

  Erich Kettenhofen

  (Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Justinianus), Eastern Roman emperor, 527-65; his rule was marked by several military conflicts with the Sasanian empire under Kawād I and Chosroes (Ḵosrow) I.

• JUYBĀRIS

  R. D. McChesney

  prominent Bukharan family dynasty, whose leading social position lasted more than 500 years.