Table of Contents

• GABAE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  the name of two places in Persia and Sogdiana.

• GABAIN, ANNEMARIE VON

  Peter Zieme

  (1901-1993), German scholar who worked in the field of Central Asian (primarily Turkic) studies, first as a linguist but later as an art historian.

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• GABBA

  Jean-Pierre Digard and Carol Bier

  a hand-woven pile rug of coarse quality and medium size (90 × 150 cm or larger) characterized by an abstract design that relies upon open fields of color and a playfulness with geometry. This kind of rug is common among the tribes of the Zagros (Kurdish, Lori-speaking ethnic groups, Qašqāʾīs).

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• GABR

  Mansour Shaki

  a New Persian term used from the earliest period as a technical term synonymous with mōḡ (magus). With the dwindling of the Zoroastrian community,  the term came to have a pejorative implication.

• GABRA

  Cross-Reference

  See GŌR.

• GABRI WARE

  Cross-Reference

  See CERAMICS.

• GABRIEL, ALFONS

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• GABRIELI, FRANCESCO

  Giuliano Lancioni

  (1904-1996), Italian Arabist and orientalist, who contributed to the study of Persian literature.

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• GAČ

  Cross-Reference

  See GYPSUM.

• GAČ-BORĪ

  Sheila S. Blair

  plasterwork or stucco. Gypsum plaster has been used as a building material in Persia for more than 2,500 years. Originally it may have been applied as a rendering to mud brick walls to protect them from the weather, but it was soon exploited for its decorative effects.

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• GAČSAR

  Minu Yusof Nezhad

  a village in the Karaj district, situated at an altitude of 2,210 m at 110 km northwest of Tehran and 7 km south of the Kandavān Tunnel on the main road to the Caspian coast.

• GAČSĀRĀN

  Eckart Ehlers

  town and oilfield in the province of Ḵūzestān, southwestern Persia.

• GADĀʾĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See BEGGING.

• GÄDIATỊ (SEḰAYỊ FỊRT) COMAQ

  Fridrik Thordarson

  (1883-1931), Ossetic writer.

• ḠADĪR ḴOMM

  Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi

  lit. “pool of Ḵomm”; the name of a pool near a small oasis along the caravan route between the cities of Mecca and Medina, near an area currently known as Joḥfa.

• GADŌTU

  Cross-Reference

  a demon. See UDA.

• ḠAFFĀRĪ, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN ḠAFFĀRĪ.

• ḠAFFĀRĪ, FARROḴ KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪN-AL-DAWLA, ABŪ ṬĀLEB FARROḴ KHAN ḠAFFĀRĪ.

• ḠAFFĀRĪ, ḠOLĀM-ḤOSAYN KHAN

  Kambiz Eslami

  (1859-1947), Qajar official from the time of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah to that of Aḥmad Shah, considered one of the more congenial figures of the Qajar bureaucracy. His inability to deal effectively with critical situations was often a political liability. His collection of Qajar photographs is impressive in size and for the explanatory captions.

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• ḠAFFARĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-Reference

  a prominent Qajar painter. See KAMĀL-AL-MOLK.

• ḠAFFĀRĪ, MOḤAMMAD-EBRĀHĪM KHAN

  Kambiz Eslami

  (1859/60-1918), Qajar diplomat and minister during the reigns of the last four Qajar kings.

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• ḠAFFĀRĪ, NEẒĀM-AL-DĪN

  Kambiz Eslami

  (1844-1915), Qajar minister and engineer.

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• ḠAFFĀRĪ, ṢANĪʿ-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN ḠAFFĀRĪ.

• GAFUROV, BOBODZHAN GAFUROVICH

  Boris A. Litvinsky

  (1908-1977), Tajik statesman, academician, and historian. His energy and administrative skills were instrumental in establishing Tajikistan’s first State University in 1948, and in inaugurating its national Academy of Sciences in 1951. In spite of his many administrative duties, he published more than 500 works in Russian, Tajik, and other languages.

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• GAGIK

  Cross-Reference

  See ARTSRUNI and BAGRATIDS.

• GĀH

  Mary Boyce

  a Middle Persian, Parthian, and New Persian word meaning either “place” or “time.”

• GĀH-ŠOMĀRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See CALENDARS.

• GĀHAMBĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See GĀHĀNBĀR.

• GĀHĀNBĀR

  Mary Boyce

  Middle Persian name for the feasts held at the end of each of the six seasons of the Zoroastrian year.

• GAHĪZ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  weekly newspaper published in Kabul from January 1968 to April 1973, owned, edited, and published by Menhāj-al-Dīn Gahīz (1922-73), who was apparently assassinated by Soviet agents.

• GALBANUM

  Hushang Aʿlam

  (Pers. bārīja, bārzad), a slightly bitter odorous gum resin obtained from several Asian umbelliferous plants, for which numerous medicinal uses have been recorded.

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• ḠĀLEB DADA, MOḤAMMAD ASʿAD

  Tahsın Yazici

  also known as Mehmed Esad Galib Dede, Shaikh Ḡāleb, or Şeyh Galib (b. Istanbul, 1757; d. Galata, 1799) poet in Turkish and Persian.

• ḠĀLEB, Mīrzā ASAD-ALLĀH Khan

  Munibur Rahman

  (b. Agra, 1797; d. Delhi, 1869), one of the greatest poets of Muslim India who wrote poems in both Persian and Urdu.

• GALEN

  Cross-Reference

   See JĀLINUS.

• GALERIUS

  Cross-Reference

  See NARSEH.

• GĀLEŠĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See GĪLĀN x. LANGUAGES

• GALĪN QAYA

  Cross-Reference

  dialect. See HARZANDĪ.

• GALLIMARD PRESS

  Cross-Reference

  See PUBLISHING HOUSES.

• ḠALYĀN

  Shahnaz Razpush and EIr

  or QALYĀN (nargileh); a water pipe chiefly used in the Middle East and Central Asia for smoking tobacco. It is composed of several parts: the bādgīr (chimney); sar-e ḡālyān or sarpūš (the top bowl; sar-ḵāna in Afghanistan); tana (the body); mīlāb (the immersion pipe); ney-e pīč (hose); and kūza (the reservoir of water).

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• ḠALZĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠILZĪ.

• ḠAMĀM HAMADĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠEMĀM HAMADĀNĪ.

• GAMASĀB

  Cross-Reference

  See KARḴA RIVER, forthcoming online.

• GAMBRA

  Cross-Reference

  See BANDAR-e ʿABBĀS(Ī).

• GAMBRON

  Cross-Reference

  See BANDAR-e ʿABBĀS(Ī).

• GAMES

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀZĪ.

• GAN(N)ĀG MĒNŪG

  Cross-Reference

  See AHRIMAN.

• GANĀVA

  Minu Yusofnezhad

  county (šahrestān) and port city on the Persian Gulf in the province of Būšehr.

• GANDĀPŪR

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  one of two Šērānī Pashtun/Paxtun tribal segments (the other being the Baḵtīār), who claim origin in southwestern Afghanistan.

• GANDĀPŪR, ŠĒR MOḤAMMAD KHAN

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  b. Mehrdād Khan b. Āzād Khan, author of the Persian Tawārīḵ-e ḵoršīd-e jahān, an important chronicle containing genealogical accounts and tables of Pashtun/Paxtun tribal groups.

• GAṆDARƎBA

  Antonio Panaino

  (Mid. Pers. Gandarw/Gandarb), a term attested the Avesta as the name of a monster living in the lake Vourukaṧa.

• GANDHĀRA

  Willem Vogelsang

  (OPers. Gandāra), a province of the Persian empire under the Achaemenids. The name of Gandhāra or Gandhārī occurs in ancient Indian texts as the name of a people.

• GANDHĀRAN ART

  B. A. Litvinsky

  : Iranian contribution and Iranian connections. The region of Gandhāra attained its peak of prosperity in the Kushan period (1st to 3rd centuries CE), when it became one of the strongholds of Buddhism.

• GĀNDHĀRĪ LANGUAGE

  Richard Salomon

  The language of ancient Gandhāra, the area around the Peshawar Valley in the modern North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan, lying near the border of the Indian and Iranian linguistic areas.

• GANDOM

  Daniel Balland and Marcel Bazin

  “wheat,”  both the plant and the grain. Wheat bread has been the staple of local diets throughout Iranian plateau for millennia. A very broad range of bread wheat varieties has traditionally been grown in the Iranian lands, especially in Afghanistan.

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• GANDOMAK, TREATY OF

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  an agreement between Amir Moḥammad-Yaʿqub of Afghanistan (r. February to October 1879) and Major Pierre Louis Napolıon Cavagnari, representing the British Government of India.

• GĀNEMĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• GANG DEŽ

  Cross-Reference

  See KANGDEŽ.

• ḠANĪ

  G. L. Tikku and EIr

  Pen name of Mollā MOḤAMMAD-ṬĀHER KAŠMĪRĪ (1630-69), one of the most celebrated poets of Kashmir who wrote in the Indian Style (sabk-e hendī).

• ḠANĪ, QĀSEM

  Abbas Milani

  (1893-1952), physician, diplomat, and well-known scholar on the poet Ḥāfeẓ.

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• ḠANĪMAT KONJĀHĪ

  Arif Naushahi

  Persian poet from the Indian subcontinent, famous for composing Nīrang-e ʿešq (d. ca 1713).

• ḠANĪZĀDA, MAḤMŪD

  Hassan Javadi

  b. Mīrzā Ḡanī Dīlmaqānī, liberal journalist, historian, and poet (1879-1936).

• GANJ DAREH TEPE

  Cross-Reference

  See ECBATANA.

• GANJ-ʿALĪ KHAN

  Mohammad-Ebrahim Bastani Parizi

  a military leader and governor of Kermān, Sīstān, and Qandahār under Shah ʿAbbās I (996-1038/1588-1629). 

• GANJ-E ARŠADĪ

  S. H. Askari

  An Indo-Persian collection of sayings (malfūẓāt) of the Češtī saint of Jaunpour Aršad Badr-al-Ḥaqq (1047-1113/1637-1701).

• GANJ-E BĀDĀVARD

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  (the treasure brought by the wind), name of one of the eight treasures of the Sasanian Ḵosrow II Parvēz (r. 591-628 C.E.) according to most Persian sources.

• GANJ-E ŠAKAR, Farid-al-Din Masʿud

  Gerhard Böwering

  Popularly known as Bābā Farid, a major Shaikh of the Češtīya mystic order, born in the last quarter of the 6th/12th century in Kahtwāl near Moltān, Punjab.

• GANJ-E ŠĀYAGĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement

• GANJ-NĀMA

  Stuart C. Brown

  (lit. treasure book), location in a pass at an altitude of about 2,000 m across the Alvand Kūh leading westward to Tūyserkān, 12 km southwest of Hamadān.

• GANJA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (Ar. Janza), the Islamic name of a town in the early medieval Islamic province of Arrān (the classical Caucasian Albania, Armenian Alvankʿ).

• GANJA, TREATY OF

  Cross-Reference

  See NĀDER SHAH.

• GANJAʾĪ, REŻĀ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  (1918-1995), journalist, cabinet member, and university professor.

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• GANJAFA

  Cross-Reference

  See CARD GAMES.

• GANJAK

  Cross-Reference

  See GANZAK.

• GANJĪNA-YE FONŪN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a biweekly magazine published in Tabrīz for a year (1903-04). It was the first scholarly Persian periodical published in Persia.

• GANZABARA

  Matthew W. Stolper

  (treasurer), title of provincial and sub-provincial financial administrators in the Achaemenid empire, extended to workers attached to Achaemenid treasuries.

• GANZAK

  Mary Boyce

  a town of Achaemenid foundation in Azerbaijan. The name means “treasury” and is a Median form (against Pers. gazn-), adopted in Persian administrative use.

• GAOTƎMA

  Bernfried Schlerath

  an Avestan proper name only attested in Yt. 13.16: “An eloquent man will be born, who makes his words heard in verbal contests, ... victorious over the defeated Gaotəma.”

• ḠĀR

  Ezzat O. Negahban

  (cave) and Stone Age cave dwellers in Iran. Caves and rock shelters were particularly attractive living places for the hunter gatherers of the early Paleolithic period. The geographic situation of the Iranian Plateau with its bordering mountain system meant that there were many cave sites which would have been suitable for early cave dwelling man.

• GARAMAIOI

  Cross-Reference

  See BĒT GARMĒ.

• ḠARB-ZADEGĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ḠARČESTĀN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  name of a region in early Islamic times, situated to the north of the upper Harīrūd and the Paropamisus range and on the head waters of the Moṟḡāb.

• GARCIN DE TASSY

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• GARDANE MISSION

  Jean Calmard

  (1807-9), a diplomatic and military project between France and Persia which represented Napoleon’s last attempt to realize his Oriental ambitions. From late 1795, Persia became part of French projects against British India. From the renewal of Franco-Ottoman relations (June 1802), he sought information on Persia.

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• GARDEN

  Multiple Authors

  referring to a garden estate, intended primarily for pleasure rather than permanent residence or production of crops, formally laid out, usually incorporating architectural elements, such as ornamental pools, gate-houses, and pavilions.

• GARDEN i. ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Mehrdad Fakour

  Since the first millenium B.C.E., the garden has been an integral part of Persian architecture, be it imperial or vernacular.

• GARDEN ii. ISLAMIC PERIOD

  Lisa Golombek

  Donald Wilber’s study of the Persian garden remains the most comprehensive, to which should be added the articles by Ettinghausen and Pinder-Wilson in the proceedings of the Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium on the Islamic Garden.

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• GARDEN iii. INFLUENCE OF PERSIAN GARDENS IN INDIA

  Howard Crane

  Traces of Sultanate period gardens in the Persian style survive around Delhi in the citadel (Kōṭlā) of the Tughluqid Fīrūzšāh III (1351-88) and at Vasant Vihar (14th century). Mughal landscape architecture, which was characterized by terraced sites, čahārbāḡ  plans, and raised walks, is perhaps most renowned for its dramatic and inventive use of moving water.

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• GARDEN iv. BOTANICAL GARDENS

  Borhan Riazi

  In Persia there are only three botanical gardens (bāḡ-e gīāh-šenāsī) in the exact scientific sense of this term.

• GARDEN vi. IN PERSIAN ART

  Lisa Golombek

  For the decorative arts, the “garden carpet” is the quintessential re-creation of the garden, while paintings depict the garden as a setting for events. Vegetal motifs as ornament may be understood as generic allusions to the garden. In special circumstances, these allusions may be viewed as allusions to paradise themes.

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• GARDĪZ

  Daniel Balland

  (Gardēz), a city in the Solaymān Mountains of eastern Afghanistan, 122 km south of Kabul. The city is situated at 2,300 m above sea-level, in a large intramountainous depression watered by the upper course of the Rūd-e Gardīz.

• GARDĪZĪ, ABŪ SAʿĪD ʿABD-al-ḤAYY

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Żaḥḥāk b. Maḥmūd, Persian historian of the early 5th/11th century. He was clearly connected with the Ghaznavid court and administration and close to the sultans.

• GARDŌY

  Cross-Reference

  sister of Bahrām Čōbīn. See BAHRĀM (2) vii.

• GARGAR RIVER

  Cross-Reference

  See KĀRŪN RIVER.

• GARLIC

  Etrat Elahi

  or allium sativum; a species in the onion family Alliaceae used as an ingredient in a variety of Persian dishes mainly as a condiment.

• GARMAPADA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  name of the fourth month (June-July) of the Old Persian calendar.

• GARMSĀR

  Bernard Hourcade

  a region (Qešlāq and Garmsār) in the province of Semnān situated beyond the Caspian Gates, known particularly as a stopover on the great road to Khorasan.

• GARMSĪR AND SARDSĪR

  Xavier de Planhol

  lit. "warm zones and cold zones"; two terms identifying regional entities that form a major geographical contrast deeply affecting the popular conscience in Persia.

• GARŌDMĀN

  William W. Malandra

  the Pahlavi name for heaven and paradise.

• GARRETT COLLECTION

  Kambiz Eslami

  one of the finest collections of Near Eastern manuscripts, bequeathed to the Princeton University Library by Robert Garrett (1875-1961), a graduate a trustee of the university.

• GARRŪS

  Cross-Reference

  See under KURDISTAN, forthcoming online.

• GARRŪSĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See KURDISH DIALECTS, forthcoming online.

• GARRŪSĪ, AMĪR NEẒĀM

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪR NEẒĀM GARRŪSĪ.

• GARRŪSĪ, FAŻEL KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See FĀŻEL KHAN GARRŪSĪ, MOḤAMMAD

• GARŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See GAYŌMART.

• GARŠĀSP

  Cross-Reference

  See KARŠĀSP.

• GARŠĀSP-NĀMA

  François de Blois

  or Karšāsp-nāma; a long heroic epic by Asadī Ṭūsī (d. 1072/73) completed, as the author says in the epilogue, in 1066, and dedicated to a ruler of Naḵjavān by the name of Abū Dolaf.

• GARSĒVAZ

  Cross-Reference

  See KARSĒVAZ.

• GAS, NATURAL

  Forthcoming

  natural gas industry in Persia. See Supplement.

• ḠAṢB

  Forthcoming

  concept in Shiʿite law, meaning usurpation or unlawful seizure. See Supplement.

• GASTEIGER, ALBERT JOSEPH

  HELMUT SLABY

  also known as Gāstager Khan (b. Innsbruck, 1823; d. Bozen, 1890, baron of Ravenstein and Kobach, Austrian engineering officer, instructor at the Dār al-fonūn, and the manager of all civilian and military buildings of the Persian government from 1860 to 1888.

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• GATE

  Cross-Reference

  See DARVĀZA.

• GATHAS

  Multiple Authors

  or GĀΘĀS; the core of the great Mazdayasnian liturgy, the Yasna, consisting of five gāθās, or modes of song (gā) that comprise seventeen songs composed in Old Avestan language, and arranged according to their five different syllabic meters.

• GATHAS i

  Helmut Humbach

  Each single song covers one chapter (Av. hāiti-, Phl. hā) of the Yasna.

• GATHAS ii

  William W. Malandra

  Of the entire corpus of the Avesta, the Gathas have been translated far more frequently than any of its other divisions.

• GAUB(A)RUVA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  The reading of the Old Persian form cannot be ascertained with reliability, mainly because the Babylonian form suggests an original with -bar- and the Greek rendering is just against this.

• GAUDEREAU, MARTIN

  Jacqueline Calmard-Compas

  (b. Langeais, 1663; d. Paris, 1743), French missionary priest (and later Abbé) who left valuable observations on Persia and played a part in Franco-Persian relations.

• GAUGAMELA

  Ernst Badian

  site of one of the greatest battles in history, resulting in the decisive victory of Alexander the Great over Darius III on 1 October 331 B.C.E.

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• GAUMĀTA

  Pierre Briant

  according to the Bīsotūn inscriptions, the Magian pretender who seized the Achaemenid throne by claiming to be Bardiya (Smerdis), the son of Cyrus the Great.

• GĀV

  Cross-Reference

  See CATTLE.

• GĀV-ZABĀN

  Hushang Aʿlam

  lit. ”ox-tongue” (in reference to the rough, tongue-shaped leaves of the plant); the popular designation for several medicinal species of the borage family (Boraginaceae).

• GAVA

  Cross-Reference

  See SOGHDIA.

• GĀVĀHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See PLOW.

• ḠĀVĀL

  Jean During

  or daf; the most widespread percussion instrument in the Republic of Azerbaijan, played as much in artistic as in popular music and professional ensembles.

• GAVAN

  Cross-Reference

  the plant tragant (Astragalus). See KATĪRA.

• GĀVĀN GĪLĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See MAḤMŪD GĪLĀNĪ.

• GAVAZN

  Cross-Reference

  See RED DEER.

• GĀVBAND

  Amir Ismail Ajami

  the owner of the oxen (gāv) in the traditional farming system of Persia.

• GĀVBĀRA

  Cross-Reference

  See DABUYIDS.

• GĀVBĀZĪ

  Christian Bromberger

  arranged fights between bulls. These now take place only in the Caspian provinces of Gīlān and Mazandarān. In the past, however, they were common throughout Persia and formed part of the entertainment in local festivities along with other games involving pitting animals and creatures of all kinds against each other.

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• GĀVMĪŠ

  Cross-Reference

  buffalo. See CATTLE.

• GAVOR QALʿA

  Cross-Reference

  See GYAUR KALA.

• GĀW Ī ĒWDĀD

  William W. Malandra

  or ēwagdād; the name of the primordial Bovine in Zoroastrian mythology.

• ḠAWṮ KHAN, NAWWĀB MOḴTĀR-AL-MOLK

  Cross-Reference

  See NAWWĀB-E DAKHAN.

• ḠAWṮĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  K. A. Nizami

  b. Ḥasan b. Mūsā Šaṭṭārī MANDOVĪ (b. Mandu, 1554), author of Golzār-e-abrār, a Persian hagiography of Indian saints.

• ḠAYBA

  Said Amir Arjomand

  (Pers. ḡaybat) lit. "absence"; term used by the Shiʿites to refer to the occultation of the Hidden Imam.

• ḠĀYER KHAN

  Peter Jackson

  b. Tekeš (d. 1220), Turkish general of the Ḵᵛārazmšāh ʿAlāʾ-al-Dīn Moḥammad.

• GAYḴĀTŪ KHAN

  Peter Jackson

  (1291-95) fifth Mongol Il-khan of Persia; his coins also bear the name Īrinjīn Dūrjī (Tibetan Rin-chen rDo-rje, lit. “Jewel Diamond”) bestowed upon him by Buddhist lamas.

• GAYŌMART

  Mansour Shaki

  or Gayūmarṯ, Kayūmarṯ; the sixth of the heptad in Mazdean myth of creation, the protoplast of man, and the first king in Iranian mythical history.

• GAYSĀTA

  Hiroshi Kumamoto

  the name of a town in Khotanese documents in the A. F. R. Hoernle, Mark Aurel Stein, Sven Hedin, and N. F. Petrovsky collections.

• GAZ (1)

  B. Grami, M. R. Ghanoonparvar

  common term in Persian for several species of the genera Tamarix (desert trees) and Astragalus (spiny shrubs of gavan); also the name of a confection made with the sweet exudate (gaz-angobīn) produced on Astragalus.

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• GAZ (2)

  Minu Yusofnezhad

  or Jaz; a town in the province of Isfahan, of the šahrestān of Barḵᵛār and Mayma, situated 18 km north of the city of Isfahan at an altitude of 1,578 m above sea level.

• ḠAZĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See ISLAM IN IRAN xi. JIHAD IN ISLAM.

• GAZA

  Cross-Reference

  See GANZAK.

• ḠAŻĀʾERĪ

  Etan Kohlberg

  nesba of two Imami authors and traditionists (10th-11th centuries).

• ḠAŻĀʾERĪ RĀZĪ, ABŪ ZAYD MOḤAMMAD

  François de Blois

  or ḠAŻĀYERĪ RĀZĪ, b. ʿALĪ, Persian poet of the early 11th century.

• GAZACA

  Cross-Reference

  See GANZAK.

• ḠAZAL i. HISTORY

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  the most important Persian lyric, adopted also by literatures influenced by the classical Persian tradition, in particular Turkish and Urdu poetry. OVERVIEW of entry: i. History, ii. Characteristics and Conventions.

• ḠAZAL ii. CHARACTERISTICS AND CONVENTIONS

  Ehsan Yarshater

  The Persian ḡazal, especially the Hafezian and the post-Hafezian, does not usually follow a sustained narrative, but consists of a number of lines and statements largely independent of each other.

• ḠAZĀLĪ MAŠHADĪ

  Munibur Rahman

  (b. Mašhad, 1526-27, d. Ahmadabad, 1572), poet laureate in Persian (malek-al-šoʿarāʾ) at the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar.

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD

  Multiple Authors

  b. Moḥammad Ṭūsī (1058-1111), one of the greatest systematic Persian thinkers of medieval Islam and a prolific Sunni author on the religious sciences (Islamic law, philosophy, theology, and mysticism) in Saljuq times. Overview of entry: i. Biography, ii. The Eḥyāʾ ʿolum al-dīn, iii. The Kīmīā-ye saʿādat, iv. Minor Persian works, v. As a Faqīh, vi. Ḡazālī and Theology, vii. Ḡazālī and the Bāṭenīs, viii. Impact on Islamic Thought.

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD i

  Gerhard BÖWERING

  A man of Persian descent, Ḡazālī (variant name Ḡazzālī; Med. Latin form, Algazel; honorific title, Ḥojjat-al-Eslām"The Proof of Islam”), was born at Ṭūs in Khorasan in 450/1058 and grew up as an orphan together with his younger brother Aḥmad Ḡazālī (d. 520/1126; q.v.).

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD, ii, iii

  W. Montgomery Watt

  ii. The Eḥyāʾ ʿolum al-dīn, iii. The Kīmīā-ye saʿādat. 

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD, iv

  Nasrollah Pourjavady

  iv. Minor Persia works.

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD, v

  Wael B. Hallaq

  v. As a Faqīh.

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD, vi

  Michael E. Marmura

  vi. Ḡazālī and Theology.

• ḠAZĀLĪ, ABŪ ḤĀMED MOḤAMMAD, vii, viii

  Wilferd Madelung

  vii. Ḡazālī and the Bāṭenīs, viii. Impact on Islamic thought.

• ḠAZĀLĪ, MAJD-AL-DĪN Abu’l-Fotūḥ AḤMAD

  Nasrollah Pourjavady

  b. Moḥammad b. Aḥmad (ca. 1061-1126), outstanding mystic, writer, and eloquent preacher.

• ḠĀZĀN KHAN, MAḤMŪD

  R. Amitai-Preiss

  (1271-1304), oldest son of Arḡūn Khan and his eventual successor as the seventh Il-khanid ruler of Persia (r. 1295-1304).

• ḠĀZĀN-NĀMA

  Charles Melville

  a verse chronicle of the reign of the Il-khan Ḡāzān Khan (1295-1304), by Ḵᵛāja Nūr-al-Dīn b. Šams-al-Dīn Moḥammad Aždarī.

• ḠAŻĀYERĪ RĀZĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠAŻĀʾERĪ RĀZĪ.

• GAŽDAHAM

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  an Iranian hero of Dež-e Safīd, a fortress near the border seperating Iran from Tūrān, during the reigns of the Kayanid kings Nōḏar and Kay Kāvūs.

• GAZELLE

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀHŪ, CHINKARA.

• GAZĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ISFAHAN xxii.

• GAZMA

  Cross-Reference

  See CITIES.

• ḠAZNAVĪ, ABŪ RAJĀʾ

  EIr

  b. Masʿūd III, a poet at the court of the Ghaznavid sultan Bahrāmšāh (r. ca. 1117-1157).

• ḠAZNĪ

  Xavier de Planhol, Roberta Giunta

  or Ḡazna, Ḡaznīn; province and city in southeastern Afghanistan, the latter situated 136 km south of Kabul at an altitude of about 2,200 meters. The earliest known monuments of Ḡaznī belong to the Ghaznavid period (366-583/977-1187), the best representative of which are the two minarets standing east of the citadel, close to two large mounds resembling mosques.

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• GAZOPHYLACIUM LINGUAE PERSICAE

  Cross-Reference

  See DICTIONARIES iii.

• GĀZORGĀH

  Lisa Golombek

  a village approximately 2.5 miles northeast of the city of Herat in present-day northwestern Afghanistan at 34°22′ N and 62°14′ E, situated at an elevation of 4,100 feet.

• GĀZORGĀHĪ, MĪR KAMĀL-AL-DĪN ḤOSAYN

  Shiro Ando

  b. Šeḥāb-al-Dīn Esmāʿīl Ṭabasī (b. 1469/70), a Timurid ṣadr and author of a collection of biographies of Sufis known as the Majāles al-ʿoššāq.

• GEBER

  Cross-Reference

  See GABR, MAJŪS.

• GEDROSIA

  Willem J. Vogelsang

  or Kedrosia; a place-name known only from Classical sources.

• GEIGER, BERNHARD

  RÜDIGER SCHMITT

  (b. Bielitz, 1881; d. New York, 1964), scholar of Indo-Iranian studies.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GEIGER, WILHELM

  Bernfried Schlerath

  (b. Nuremberg, 1856; d. Neubiberg, 1943), German scholar of Iranian and Indian philology.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GĒL

  Cross-Reference

  tribes in the Arsacid and Sasanian periods. See GĪLĀN.

• GELDNER, KARL FRIEDRICH

  Bernfried Schlerath

  (1852-1929), German scholar of Iranian and Indian studies.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GELĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See CARPETS.

• GELPKE, RUDOLF

  HERMANN LANDOLT

  (1928-1972), Swiss scholar, writer, and translator of Persian literature.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• GELŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See GAYŌMART.

• GEMCUTTING

  Parviz Mohebbi

  (Pers. ḥakkākī), the process of shaping and polishing faceted gemstones. The first-known reference in Persian to gem cutting is found in an anonymous treatise on jewelry, Jowhar-nāma-ye neẓāmī, written in 1195-96 under the last Ḵᵛārazmšāh. According to the sources, gem cutting and polishing were both done by the same machine—the grinding wheel or čarḵ-e ḥakkākī.

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• GENÇOSMAN, MEHMED NURÎ

  Tahsın Yazici

  (b. Ağın district of Elazığ, 1897; d. Istanbul, 1976), Turkish poet and translator of Persian works.

• GENDARMERIE

  Stephanie Cronin

  the first modern highway patrol and rural police force in Persia. The Government Gendarmerie (Žāndārmerī-e dawlatī) was established in 1910 by the second Majles and proved the most enduring in a series of official projects for the modernization of the armed forces under the leadership of foreign officers.

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• GENDER RELATIONS i

  Farzaneh Milani

  Gender relations in Persia.  Overview of article: i. In Modern Persia, ii. In the Islamic Republic.

• GENDER RELATIONS ii

  Hammed Shahidan

  ii. In the Islamic Republic.

• GENGHIS KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ČENGĪZ KHAN.

• GENIE

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  name of a category of supernatural beings believed to have been created from smokeless fire and to be living invisibly side-by-side the visible creation.

• GENOA

  Michele Bernardini

  an important port city in Liguria, in northwestern Italy, which during the Middle Ages played a significant role between Europe and the East, including Persia. Genoa was sacked by Muslim raiders from North Africa in 935 but became an economic and commercial power during the First Crusade (1096-1101).

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• GEOGRAPHY

  Multiple Authors

  Geography of Persia and Afghanistan. Overview of the entry: i. Evolution of geographical knowledge, ii. Human geography, iii. Political geography, iv. Cartography of Persia.

• GEOGRAPHY i. Evolution of geographical knowledge

  Xavier de Planhol

  Geography of Persia and Afghanistan. The concept of Iran and ancient Iranian geography (Justi; Spiegel, I, pp. 188-243 and especially pp. 210-12; Herzfeld, pp. 671-720; Gnoli, 1980, 1989).

• GEOGRAPHY ii. Human geography

  Xavier de Planhol

  The primordial component of the land of Iran, since it was a sedentary world as opposed to the nomadic Tūrān, must have been situated above the level of the internal steppes and deserts, in the highland river valleys having both arable alluvial soils and plenty of water from the rainfall in the mountains.

• GEOGRAPHY iii. Political Geography

  Xavier de Planhol

  The significant Persian-speaking areas of the world are divided today into three states.

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• GEOGRAPHY iv. Cartography of Persia

  CYRUS ALAI

  The world’s oldest known topographical map is a Babylonian clay tablet (ca. 2300 B.C.E.) found at Nuzi in northeastern Iraq. It is a relatively advanced picture map, showing two ranges of hills, as seen from the side, and the rivers they flank, by a series of parallel lines. The site covered by this map may have lain between the Zagros mountains and the hills running through Kirkuk.

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• GEOLOGY

  Eckart Ehlers

  This article is concerned with those aspects of the geology of Persia that are of immediate economic and cultural significance for the country and its inhabitants, primarily (1) geological structure and orohydrographic differentiation of Persia, (2) geology and natural hazards, and (3) geology and natural resources.

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• GEOMANCY

  Cross-Reference

  or raml. See OCCULT SCIENCES.

• GEOPOTHROS

  Cross-Reference

  See GŌDARZ.

• GEORGIA

  Multiple Authors

  (Pers. Gorjestān; Ar. al-Korj). This series of entries covers Georgia and its relations with Iran.

• GEORGIA i. The land and the people

  Keith Hitchins

  Located at the eastern tip of the Black Sea to the south of the Caucasus Mountains, Georgia experienced continuous, decisive, political relations and cultural contacts with Persia from the Achaemenid period until the early 19th century.

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• GEORGIA ii. History of Iranian-Georgian Relations

  Keith Hitchins

  Between the Achaemenid era and the beginning of the 19th century, Persia played a significant and at times decisive role in the history of the Georgian people. The Persian presence helped to shape political institutions, modified social structure and land holding, and enriched literature and culture. Persians also acted as a counterweight to other powerful forces in the region.

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• GEORGIA iii. Iranian elements in Georgian art and archeology

  Gocha R. Tsetskhladze

  Ancient Georgian tribes had close cultural contacts with Near Eastern civilizations from the 18th century BCE. Iranian elements appeared from the middle of the 2nd millennium B.C.E., as they did in the art of the entire Caucasian region.

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• GEORGIA iv. Literary contacts with Persia

  Aleksandre Gvakharia

  The tribes of Georgia had a well-established and vast literary tradition and folklore long before the Christian era. None of the pre-Christian Georgian literary works have survived, however. Christianity became established in Georgia as an official religion at the beginning of the 4th century, and in the 5th century the first surviving literary work was created.

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• GEORGIA v. LINGUISTIC CONTACTS WITH IRANIAN LANGUAGES

  Thea Chkeidze

  Due to many centuries of close contacts between Georgia and Persia, a large number of Iranian loanwords came into the Georgian language.

• GEORGIA vi. Iranian studies and collections in Georgia

  Keith Hitchins

  The institutional foundations of Iranian studies in Georgia were laid after the Russian Revolution of 1917.

• GEORGIA vii. Georgians in the Safavid Administration

  Rudi Matthee

  Safavid interaction with Georgia and its inhabitants dates from the inception of the state in the early 16th century, when Georgians fought alongside the Qezelbāš in Shah Esmāʿīl I’s arm.

• GEORGIA viii. Georgian communities in Persia

  Pierre Oberling

  Many thousands of Georgians, Armenians, and Circassians who were transplanted to Persia by Shah ʿAbbās I (996-1038/1588-1629) were peasants, and they were settled in villages in the Persian hinterland.

• GEORGIEVSK, TREATY OF

  Cross-Reference

  See GEORGIA, iii.

• GEOY TEPE

  Ezat O. Negahban

  a rich archeological site located in western Azerbaijan about 7 km south of the town of Urmia (Reżāʾīya) plain made known through the aerial survey of ancient sites in Persia carried out by Erich F. Schmidt in the 1930s.

• GERĀMĪ

  Cross-Reference

  son of Jāmāsp. See JĀMĀSP.

• GERĀYLĪ

  Pierre Oberling

  a Turkic tribe of Khorasan, Gorgān, and Māzandarān.

• GERDKŪH

  Farhad Daftary

  a fortress on the summit of an isolated rocky hill in the Alborz mountains, situated some 18 km west of Dāmḡān in northern Persia.

• GERDŪ

  Cross-Reference

  See WALNUT.

• GEREH-SĀZĪ

  Marcus Milwright

  (lit. "making knot”), a form of geometric interlaced strapwork ornament that is commonly found in architecture and the minor arts throughout the Islamic world. In Persian Islamic architecture gereh-sāzī designs exist in a variety of media, particularly cut brickwork (bannāʾī), stucco, and cut tilework (mosaic faïence).

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• GEREŠK

  Daniel Balland

  a small oasis-city on the right bank of the Helmand river in Southern Afghanistan, the headquarters of the district (woloswālī) of Nahr-e Serāj within the province of Helmand.

• GERMANIKEIA

  Erich Kettenhofen

  city in the ancient country of Commagene in the Roman province of Syria, present-day Maraş in southeast Turkey.

• GERMANIOI

  Pierre Briant

  (also Karmanians, Carmanians), name of an ancient Persian tribe engaged in farming.

• GERMANY

  Multiple Authors

  i. German-Persian diplomatic relations, ii. Archeological excavations and studies, iii. Iranian studies in German: Pre-Islamic period, iv. Iranian studies in German: Islamic period, v. German travelers and explorers in Persia, vi. Collections and study of Persian art in Germany, vii. Persia in German literature, viii. German cultural influence in Persia, ix. Germans in Persia, x. The Persian community in Germany.

• GERMANY i. German-Persian diplomatic relations

  Oliver Bast

  Around 1555 a man coming from Italy, who called himself the son of the “king of Persia,” turned up at the University of Wittenberg.

• GERMANY ii. Archeological excavations and studies

  Dietrich Huff

  The first Germans who reported on the historical and archeological monuments of the ancient Persian world, were, as in other nations, adventurers and travelers of a different kind. Their reports can be significant as contemporary descriptions of the condition of monuments in late medieval times, particularly those which have vanished or are seriously altered nowadays.

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• GERMANY iii. Iranian studies in German: Pre-Islamic period

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  This contribution aims at presenting an overview of the studies on all aspects of the culture of pre-Islamic Iran as conducted by German, Austrian, and Swiss scholars.

• GERMANY iv. Iranian studies in German: Islamic Period

  Bert G. Fragner

  Until World War I, there were only a few scholars concentrating on subjects specifically Iranian, but many Orientalists did not refrain from dealing with Iranian, particularly Persian, affairs.

• GERMANY v. German travelers and explorers in Persia

  Oliver Bast

  Hans Schiltberger, a Bavarian soldier, was the first German to give an eyewitness account of his travels in Persia. Initially captured by the Ottomans in 1396, he later became a prisoner of Tīmūr at the battle of Ankara (1402).

• GERMANY vi. Collections and Study of Persian Art in Germany

  Jens Kröger

  Until the 19th century, Persian works of art entered collections in Germany by mere chance. From then on, works of art from all periods of Persian history were collected systematically to acquire knowledge of the world and to educate and inspire artists and craftsmen. Collecting, exhibiting, and studying Persian art reached an unprecedented scale in the 20th century.

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• GERMANY vii, viii. German cultural influence in Persia

  Christl Catanzaro

  German culture was and is very highly appreciated in Persia, but its influence on Persian culture is usually overrated. A lasting influence was mainly exercised on Persians who either attended a German school in Persia, had other personal contacts with Germans, studied in Germany, or worked there.

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• GERMANY ix. Germans in Persia

  Oliver Bast

  The Germans in Persia who have risen to a certain prominence fall mainly into one or more of the following categories: a) travelers and explorers (see above); b) experts in the service of the Persian government; c) agents and soldiers; d) members of German institutions in Persia.

• GERMANY x. The Persian community in Germany

  Asghar Schirazi

  Only a small number of Persians resided in Germany before World War I. They were for the most part students besides several merchants and a few political emigrants.

• GEROWGĀN-GĪRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See HOSTAGE CRISIS; IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR.

• GEŠNĪZ

  Cross-Reference

  See CORIANDER.

• GĒSŪ-DARĀZ

  Cross-Reference

  See GĪSŪ-DARĀZ.

• GĒTĪG AND MĒNŌG

  SHAUL SHAKED

  a pair of Middle Persian terms that designate the two forms of existence according to the traditional Zoroastrian view of the world as expressed in the Pahlavi books.

• GƎUŠ TAŠAN

  William W. Malandra

  (the fashioner of the Cow), a divine craftsman who figures prominently in the Gathas of Zoroaster but falls into obscurity in the Younger Avesta, being there associated with the fourteenth day of the month, known in Middle Persian simply as Gōš.

• GƎUŠ URUUAN

  William W. Malandra

  “the soul of the Cow,” the name of the archetypal Bovine, whose plight is a subject of Zoroaster’s gāθā, often identified as “the Cow’s Lament.”

• GĒV

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  one of the foremost heroes of the national epic in the reigns of Kay Kāvūs and Kay Ḵosrow.

• GHAZNAVIDS

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  an Islamic dynasty of Turkish slave origin (977-1186), which in its heyday ruled in the eastern Iranian lands, briefly as far west as Ray and Jebāl; for a while in certain regions north of the Oxus, most notably, in Kᵛārazm; and in Baluchistan and in northwestern India.

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• GHILAIN, Antoine

  Aloïs van Tongerloo

  (b. Hainaut, Belgium, 1901; d. Hainaut, Belgium, 1947), Roman Catholic priest, secondary school teacher of Latin and Greek, scholar of Manicheism, and pioneer of Parthian linguistics.

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• GHIRSHMAN, ROMAN

  Laurianne Martinez-Sève

  (b. Kharkov, 1895; d. Budapest, 5 September 1979), French archeologist of Ukranian origin, one of the pioneers of archeological research in Persia where he spent almost thirty years excavating numerous sites.

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• GHURIDS

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  or Āl-e Šansab; a medieval Islamic dynasty of the eastern Iranian lands.

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• GĪĀʾĪ, ḤAYDAR

  Mina Marefat

  or Heydar Ghiaï-Chamlou (b. Tehran, 1922; d. Cap d’Antibe, 1985), an influential pioneer of modern architecture in Persia and professor at the University of Tehran. Stylistically, his work was thoroughly “modern,” introducing aspects of the contemporary and International Style architecture of Europe and using new technology and materials such as aluminum.

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• GĪĀH-ŠENĀSĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See BOTANICAL STUDIES.

• GĪĀN TAPPA

  Cross-Reference

  See GIYAN TEPE.

• GĪĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  a Lori dialect. See GĪŌNĪ.

• GIANTS, THE BOOK OF

  Werner Sundermann

  a book mentioned as a canonical work of Mani in the Coptic Kephalaia, in the Homilies and Psalms, as well as in the Chinese compendium of Mani’s teachings.

• ḠIĀṮ AL-LOḠĀT

  Solomon Bayevsky

  lit. "Aid in [the explication of] vocabulary," punning on the author’s name; a Persian dictionary compiled in India in 1827 by the linguist, philologist, and poet Moḥammad Ḡiāṯ- al-Din b. Jamāl-al-Din b. Jamāl-al-Din b. Šaraf-al-Din Rāmpuri Moṣṭafā-ābādi.

• GĪĀṮ BEG, ʿEʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA

  Mehrdad Shokoohy

  or Gīāṯ-al-Dīn Moḥammad Tehrānī (d. 1622), prime minister of the Mughal emperor Jahāngīr and father of the emperor’s wife, Nūr Jahān.

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN BALBAN

  Cross-Reference

  See DELHI SULTANATE.

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN DAŠTAKĪ

  Cross-Reference

  (1462-1541), scholar, philosopher, and motakallem (theologian) of the late Timurid and early Safavid period, and, for a brief interval under Shah Ṭahmāsb, one of two ṣadrs (chief clerical overseers). See DAŠTAKI, GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN.

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Peter Jackson and Charles Melville

  (d. 1336), Il-khanid vizier, the son of Rašīd-al-Dīn Fażl-Allāh Hamadānī (executed 1318), the celebrated historian and vizier of Ḡāzān Khan.

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD TEHRĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  (d. 1622), prime minister of the Mughal emperor Jahāngīr and father of the emperor’s wife, Nūr Jahān. See GĪĀṮ BEG.

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN NAQQĀŠ

  Priscilla Soucek

  a painter (naqqāš) active in Herat ca. 1419-30, where he was in the employ of the Timurid Bāysonḡor b. Šāhroḵ.

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Lisa Golombek

  master architect in Khorasan during the reign of the Timurid Šāhroḵ (1405-47).

• GĪĀṮ-AL-DIN TOḠLOQ

  Cross-Reference

  See DELHI SULTANATE i; TUGHLUQIDS.

• GĪĀṮVAND

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe of the Qazvīn region.

• GIBB MEMORIAL SERIES

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  or GMS; a series of publications, which has continued for almost a century, mainly, but not exclusively, dedicated to editions and translations of Arabic, Persian, and Turkish texts.

• GIBBON, EDWARD

  Michael Rogers

  (1737-1794), author of The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (London, 1776-88). Relations of Persia and the later steppe nomads with the East Roman/Byzantine empire are an essential component of Gibbon’s celebrated history.

• GIFT GIVING

  Multiple Authors

  i. Introduction, ii. In Pre-Islamic Persia, iii. In the Medieval Period, iv. In the Safavid Period, v. In the Qajar Period.

• GIFT GIVING i, ii, iii

  EIr, Josef Wiesehöfer

  in Persia. The following articles constitute a preliminary attempt at studying various aspects of gift giving in a chronological and historical framework, from the pre-Islamic era to the early modern period.

• GIFT GIVING iv

  Rudi P. Matthee

  iv. In the Safavid Period.

• GIFT GIVING v

  Willem Floor

  v. In the Qajar Period.

• GĪLAKĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See GĪLĀN x. Languages

• GILĀN

  Multiple Authors

  or Ḡelān; province at the southwestern coast of the Caspian Sea. 

• GĪLĀN i. GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOGRAPHY

  Marcel Bazin

  Gīlān includes the northwestern end of the Alborz chain and the western part of the Caspian lowlands of Persia. The mountainous belt is cut through by the deep transversal valley of the Safīdrūd between Manjīl and Emāmzāda Hāšem near Rašt. To the northwest, the Ṭāleš highlands stretch a continuous watershed separating Gīlān and Azerbaijan.

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• GĪLĀN ii. Population

  Habibollah Zanjani

  There are no reliable sources on the population of Gīlān until the first national census of population and housing in 1956.

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• GĪLĀN iii. Archeology

  Ezat O. Negahban

  The archeology of Gīlān, particularly in the pre-Islamic period, is usually studied in the wider context of the entire south Caspian region, including Mazandarān and Gorgān. Articles on three important locations, Marlik Tepe, Amlaš, and Deylamān, illustrate the perennial difficulties faced by archeological research in Persia.

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• GĪLĀN iv. History in the Early Islamic Period

  Wilferd Madelung

  The Gelae (Gilites) seem to have entered the region south of the Caspian coast and west of the Amardos River (later Safīdrūd) in the second or first century B.C.E.

• GĪLĀN v. History under the Safavids

  Manouchehr Kasheff

  Gīlān has traditionally been considered by its local population as a land of two distinct regions divided by the course of Safīdrūd River.

• GĪLĀN vi. History in the 18th century

  EIr and Reza Rezazadeh Langaroudi

  The rapid decline of the Safavids in the first decades of the 18th century, leading to their ultimate demise in 1722, created a general state of chaos in the country.

• GĪLĀN vii. History in the 19th century

  EIr and Reza Rezazadeh Langaroudi

  During the 19th century, Persia underwent major political, economic, and social changes which were partly instigated by the Anglo-Russian colonial interests in the country and the beginnings of the incorporation of Persia into the emerging inter national economy.

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• GĪLĀN ix. Monuments

  Manouchehr Sotoudeh

  Most buildings of historical interest in Gilān have been repeatedly repaired and rebuilt throughout their history. Some have clear records of their history, but most of them lack reliable, primary documents, and one has to rely on a variety of indirect evidence, such as the dates engraved on entrance doors or tombstones to reconstruct part of the past of a given edifice.

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• GĪLĀN x. LANGUAGES

  Donald Stilo

  In Gīlān there are three major Iranian language groups, namely Gīlakī, Rūdbārī, and Ṭālešī, and pockets of two other groups, Tātī and Kurdish.

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• GILĀN xi. Irrigation

  Christian Bromberger

  In the rice-growing regions of the Caspian hinterland, water requirements are considerable and irrigation requires careful organization. It is estimated that one hectare of rice, on average,  requires 12,400 cubic meters of water. To meet this demand various techniques are used, depending on the micro climate of the area and the resources available.

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• GILĀN xii. Rural Housing

  Christian Bromberger

  There are considerable differences among settlement and building styles according to geographic location. Roughly, one can isolate four geographic areas, each with a distinctive type of rural dwelling: the Gilān plain; the low foothills of the Alborz range; the mountains, covered with forest and capped by alpine meadows; and finally the arid slopes of the Alborz.

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• GILĀN xiii. Kinship and Marriage

  Christian Bromberger

  Kinship in Gilān displays an exceptionally low level of intermarriage between consanguineous kin, marriage “strategies” whose objectives are to diversify, through the marriage alliance, the network of relations in towns and cities.

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• GILĀN xiv. Ethnic Groups

  Christian Bromberger

  Each group living in the province is characterized by one or several specific production activities, so that an ethnonym refers as much to territorial, linguistic, and cultural roots as to any dominant professional specialization.

• GILĀN xv. Popular and Literary Perceptions of Identity

  Christian Bromberger

  In Afghanistan, Uzbeks are called “noodle eaters” by their neighbors and in Persia the Arabs from Khuzestan are stigmatized as susmārḵor “lizard eaters”.

• GILAN xvi. FOLKLORE

  Christian Bromberger

  The folklore of Gilān is a striking example of the intricate ties between pre-Islamic practices and Islamic rituals.

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• GILAN xvii. Gender Relations

  Christian Bromberger

  The division of activities and spaces between the sexes is quite distinct in the province of Gilan.

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• GILAN xviii. Rural Production Techniques

  Christian Bromberger

  A considerable range of techniques is used to produce such diversified commodities as rice, silk, tea, tobacco, vegetables, olives, and wheat. One can, however, speak of a distinctly Gilāni technical system.

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• GILĀN xix. Landholding and Social Stratification

  Christian Bromberger

  Prior to the Land Reform of 1962 that began the process of land redistribution, the dominant production system in Gilān, as in the majority of Persianprovinces, was of a feudal nature.

• GILĀN viiia. In the Constitutional Revolution of 1905-11

  Pezhmann Dailami

  Two classes featured prominently in Gilān as the driving forces of the revolution, and the alliance of these two, the peasantry and the urban petty-bourgeoisie of artisans, shopkeepers, and petty traders, was the hallmark of a radical movement on the southern shores of the Caspian Sea.

• GILĀN xx. Handicrafts

  Christian Bromberger

  The Gilān region does not have a great craft tradition, as do other provinces of the interior of Iran with their towns famous for one or more specialties: carpets, ceramics, metalwork, etc.

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• GILĀN xxi. Cooking

  Christian Bromberger

  Eating habits and culinary preparations in Gilān have several distinct characteristics. In this rice-producing region, the consumption of rice is much higher than elsewhere in Persia.

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• GĪLĀN NEWSPAPERS

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of four newspapers published in Rašt.

• GILANENTZ CHRONICLE

  Ina Baghdiantz McCabe

  a compendium of reports collated as a journal by Petros di Sarkis Gilanentz (Gilanencʿ), which constitutes an important source for the history of events in Transcaucasia and Persia during the period March 1722 to August 1723, notably the Afghan invasion and siege of Isfahan.

• GĪLĀNŠĀH

  Cross-Reference

  See ONṢOR-AL-MAʿĀLĪ.

• GĪLĀS

  Cross-Reference

  See CHERRY.

• ḠILZĪ

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  or ḠALZĪ, one of three major Pashtun/Paxtun tribal confederations in Afghanistan.

• GINDAROS

  Erich Kettenhofen

  present-day Jendīres, a town in the ancient region of Cyrrhestike in Syria.

• GIŌNI

  Colin MacKinnon

  or Giāni; a Persian dialect of the Northern Lor type, spoken in the village of Giān/Giō, 12 km west of the city of Nehāvand.

• GISTĀN QARA

  Cross-Reference

  b. Jani Beg. See KISTĀN QARĀ b. Jani Beg.

• GISU-DARĀZ

  Richard M. Eaton

  or Gēsu-darāz (b. Delhi, 1321; d. Gulbarga, 1422), the popular title of Sayyed MOḤAMMAD b. Yusof Ḥosayni, the most important transmitter of Sufi traditions from North India to the Deccan plateau.

• GITI

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a leftist daily paper published from 24 June 1943 to December 1943 by Ḵalil Enqelāb Āḏar as the official organ of the Workers union.

• GIV, ROSTAM

  Farhang Mehr

  , Arbāb (b. Yazd, 1888; d. San Diego, Calif., 1980), Majles representative, senator, president of Anjoman-e Zardoštiān of Tehran, businessman, and philanthropist.

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• GIVA

  Jamshid Sadaqat-Kish

  a traditional footwear in Persia, mainly consisting of an upper part made of twined white cotton thread sewn up on the edges of a cloth and leather or rubber sole. The earliest known mention of the word giva is probably that in the Širāz-nāma (comp. ca. 1333) of Abu’l-ʿAbbās Zarkub Širāzi, where he mentions the bāzār-e giva-duzān (giva-makers’ market) of Shiraz.

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• GIYAN TEPE

  Ezat O. Negahban

  or GIĀN TAPPA, Žiān Tappa; a large archeological mound located in Lorestān province in western Persia, about 10 km southeast of Nehāvand and southwest of Giān village in the Ḵāva valley.

• GLACIERS

  Eckart Ehlers

  and ice fields in Persia. Due to Persia’s location in the very center of the arid dry belt, stretching from North Africa in the west to Central Asia in the east, and also due to its very specific topography, glaciers and/or permanent ice fields are restricted and concentrated in a very few locations.

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• GLADWIN, FRANCIS

  Parvin Loloi

  (d. ca. 1813), lexicographer and prolific translator of Persian literature into English.

• GLASS

  Jens Kröger

  Glass blowing was invented in the Syro-Palestinian region during the Parthian period in the mid-first century B.C.E. and quickly spread from there to neighboring regions. Production of glass was much more widely spread within the Sasanian empire; it also became in both shapes and types of decoration independent from Parthian prototypes.

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• GLASS INDUSTRY

  Willem Floor

  Glass making has been known and practiced in Iran for about 3,500 years. Until about 1930 local glass making was done in small craft workshops. The raw materials needed for glass production abound in Iran except for soda ash, but this input will also soon be entirely domestically produced.

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• GLYPTIC

  Cross-Reference

  See CYLINDER SEALS.

• GNOSTICISM

  Kurt Rudolph

  in Persia. The current academic term gnosticism or gnosis goes back to the early Christian period and has a heresiological background; its representatives were called Gnostics, meaning people who believed in specific “insights” and ways of behavior that deviated from the official church and its teachings and who disseminated their beliefs through their own writings.

• GOAT

  Cross-Reference

  See BOZ.

• GŌBADŠĀH

  D. N. Mackenzie

  the name of a mythical ruler first appearing in medieval Zoroastrianism.

• ḠOBĀRI, ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN

  Tahsİn Yazici

  b. ʿAbd-Allāh (d. 1566), Ottoman poet, calligrapher, and Sufi who wrote in both Turkish and Persian.

• ḠOBAYRĀ

  A. D. H. Bivar

  medieval township in Kermān province, located at 57° 29 E and 47° N, 70 km by road south of Kermān City (historical Bardsir) at the intersection of the medieval eastern highway and the route from Kermān to Bāft, Esfandaqa, and Jiroft.

• GOBINEAU, Joseph Arthur de

  Jean Calmard

  (1816-1882), French man of letters, artist, polemist, Orientalist, and diplomat, whose influential socio-historical and racial theories were expounded in his writings, and particularly in his Essai sur l’inégalité desraces humaines.

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• GÖBL, ROBERT

  Michael Alram

  (b. Vienna, 1919; d. 1997), Austrian numismatist.

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• GOBRYAS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  the most widely known (Greek) form of the Old Persian name Gaub(a)ruva, attested for various officers and officials of the Achaemenid period.

• GOD

  Cross-Reference

  See AHURA MAZDĀ; BAGA.

• GODARD, ANDRÉ

  Ève Gran-Aymerich and Mina Marefat

  (b. Chaumont, France, 1881; d. Paris, 1965), French architect, archeologist, art historian, and director of the Archeological Services of Iran (Edāra-ye koll-e ʿatiqāt).

• GŌDARZ

  Mary Boyce, A. D. H. Bivar, A. Shapur Shahbazi

  name of various Iranian historical figures; an Iranian epic hero in wars against the “Turanians” in northeastern Iran; and the scion of a clan of paladins in Iranian traditional history.

• GODIN TEPE

  T. Cuyler Young, Jr.

  or GOWDIN TEPE; an archeological site in the central Zagros, which was occupied from ca. 5,000 to 500 B.C.E. located at 48° 4′ E and 34° 31′ N in the Kangāvar valley, approximately halfway between Hamadān and Kermānšāh.

• GOEJE, Michael Jan de

  Cross-Reference

  See DE GOEJE.

• GOETHE INSTITUTE

  H. E. Chehabi

  in Persia and Afghanistan. Named after the celebrated German poet and writer, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), the Goethe Institute was founded in 1951 in Munich as a non-profit organization for training foreign teachers of the German language.

• GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG von

  Hamid Tafazoli

  (1749-1832), the most renowned poet of German literature, interested in the East and in Islam.

• ḠOJDOVĀN

  Habib Borjian

  (also Ḡojdavān, Ḡajdovān), town and district in the oasis of Bukhara.

• ḠOJDOVĀNI

  Cross-Reference

   See ʿABD-AL-ḴĀLEQ ḠOJDOVĀNI.

• GÖK TEPE

  Cross-Reference

  See GEOY TEPE.

• GOKARN

  Cross-Reference

  See HAOMA.

• GÖKLEN

  Cross-Reference

  See GUKLĀN.

• GOL

  Hušang Aʿlam

  or gul; rose (Rosa L. spp.) and, by extension, flower, bloom, blossom.

• GOL ḴĀNĀN MORDA

  Bruno Overlaet

  or Gul Khanan Murda; an archeological site in the Eyvān plain, Ilām province (Poštkuh, Lorestān).

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• GOL O BOLBOL

  Layla S. Diba

  lit. “rose and nightingale,” a popular literary and decorative theme. Together, rose and nightingale are the types of beloved and lover par excellence; the rose is beautiful, proud, and often cruel, while the nightingale sings endlessly of his longing and devotion.

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• GOL-ĀQĀ

  EIr

  a weekly satirical magazine founded by Kayumarṯ Ṣāberi which first began publication on 23 October 1990.

• GOL-E GĀVZABĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See GĀVZABĀN.

• GOL-E GOLĀB, ḤOSAYN

  Cross-Reference

  (1895-1985) botanist, musician, poet, scholar, and member of the Farhangestān. See GOL-GOLĀB.

• GOL-E SORḴI, ḴOSROW

  Cross-Reference

  (1943-1974), poet and revolutionary figure whose defiant stand during his televised show trial, and subsequent execution by firing squad in 1974, enshrined his place in the cultural and political history of modern Persia. See GOLSORḴI.

• GOL-E ZARD

  Nassereddin Parvin

  literary, socio-satirical newspaper, published 1918-1924.

• GOL-GOLĀB, ḤOSAYN

  H. Ettehad Baboli

  (b. Tehran, 1895; d. Tehran, 1985), botanist, musician, poet, scholar, and member of the Farhangestān.

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• GOLĀB

  Hušang Aʿlam

  rose water, a distillate (ʿaraq) obtained chiefly from the gol-e moḥammadi, the best-known product made from rose petals in Persia, widely used in sherbets, sweetmeats, as a home medicament, and on some religious occasions.

• GOLĀBI

  Cross-Reference

  See PEAR.

• ḠOLĀM

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement; on ḡolāms as military slaves, see BARDA AND BARDA-DĀRĪ.

• ḠOLĀM ʿABD-AL-QĀDER NAẒIR

  Cross-Reference

  author of Golestān-e nasab. See NAẒIR.

• ḠOLĀM HAMADĀNI

  Cross-Reference

  author of Taḏkera-ye fārsi and other works. See MOṢḤAFI.

• ḠOLĀM JILĀNI

  Cross-Reference

  poet and author of Dorr-e manẓum. See RAFʿAT.

• ḠOLĀM SARVAR

  Arif Naushahi

  b. Mofti Ḡolām Moḥammad LĀHURI (b. Lahore, 1828; d. near Medina, 1890), historian, hagiographer, and poet in Persian and Urdu.

• ḠOLĀM YAḤYĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• ḠOLĀM-ʿALI

  Cross-Reference

  See NAQŠBANDI ORDER.

• ḠOLĀM-ʿALI KHAN, AMIR TUMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAZĪZ-AL-SOLṬĀN.

• ḠOLĀM-ḤOSAYN KHAN ṢĀḤEB(-E) EḴTIĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪN-E ḴALWAT.

• ḠOLĀM-ḤOSAYN KHAN SEPAHDĀR

  Cross-Reference

  provincial governor and minister of Nāṣer-al-Din Shah. See SEPAHDĀR.

• ḠOLĀM-ḤOSAYN KHAN ṬABĀṬABĀʾI

  Arif Naushahi

  (b. Delhi, 1727-28, d. after 1781), Sayyed, secretary (monši) by profession, political intermediary, and author of a popular history of India called Siar al-motaʾaḵḵerin.

• ḠOLĀM-REŻĀ ḴOŠNEVIS

  Maryam Ekhtiar

  Eṣfahāni, Mirzā (b. Tehran, 1829/30; d. Tehran, 1886/87), a calligrapher and epigraphist of late 19th-century Persia.

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• ḠOLĀMĀN-E ḴAṢṢA-YE ŠARIFA

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABBĀS I; BARDA and BARDADĀRĪ v.

• ḠOLĀT

  Heinz Halm

  lit. "exaggerators," sing. ḡāli; an Arabic term originally used by Twelver Shiʿite (eṯnā ʿašariya) heresiographers to designate those dissidents who exaggerate the status of the Imams in an undue manner by attributing to them divine qualities.

• GOLBADAN BĒGOM

  Munibur Rahman

  (ca. 1522/23-1603), daughter of Ẓahir-al-Din Moḥammad Bābor, founder of the Mughal dynasty in India, half sister of Bābor’s successor, Homāyun, and author of Homāyun-nāma, the account of the reign of Homāyun.

• GOLČIN GILĀNI

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak and Homa Katouzian

  (b. Rašt, 1910; d. London, 1972), pen name of the poet MAJD-AL-DIN MIR-FAḴRĀʾI. Throughout the 1940s, Golčin sent his compositions to Persia for publication; many appeared in the literary journals of the period, such as Soḵan, Yaḡmā, Armaḡān, Foruḡ, Yādgār, and Jahān-e now.

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• GOLČIN MAʿĀNI, AḤMAD

  Iraj Afshar

  (b. Tehran, 1916; d. Mašhad, 2000), literary scholar, bibliographer, and poet. He held various administrative and judicial posts in the Ministry of Justice (1934-59). His considerable knowledge of literary manuscripts was later put to good use when he was transferred to the Majles Library, where he catalogued the Persian and Arabic manuscripts.

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• GOLD

  James W. Allan

  Persia possesses a number of gold sources—in the northwest (Azerbaijan and Zanjān), near Kāšān at the western edge of the central plateau, and, according to Strabo, in Kermān. Gold sources in Afghanistan are located in Badaḵšān, which is also the source region for lapis lazuli and, possibly, tin. The gold of the Āmu Daryā lies just north of Afghanistan. 

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• GOLDEN HORDE

  Peter Jackson

  name given to the Mongol Khanate ruled by the descendants of Joči (Juji; d. 1226-27), the eldest son of Čengiz (Genghis) Khan.

• GOLDSMID, Major-General Sir Fredrick John

  Denis Wright

  (b. Milan, 1818; d. Hammersmith, England, 1909), British scholar, negotiator and arbitrator of Perso-Afghan boundary dispute.

• GOLESTĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the title of two early 20th-century Persian newspapers.

• GOLESTĀN PALACE

  Cross-Reference

  See KĀḴ-E GOLESTĀN.

• GOLESTĀN PALACE LIBRARY

  Cross-Reference

  See BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND CATALOGUES; ROYAL LIBRARY.

• GOLESTĀN PROVINCE

  Cross-Reference

  See GORGĀN.

• GOLESTĀN TREATY

  Elton L. Daniel

  agreement arranged under British auspices to end the Russo-Persian War of 1804-13. The origins of the war can be traced back to the decision of Tsar Paul to annex Georgia (December 1800) and, after Paul’s assassination (11 March 1801), the activist policy followed by his successor, Alexander I.

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• GOLESTĀN-E HONAR

  Kambiz Eslami

  a 16th-century treatise on the art of calligraphy, with brief biographical notices on a selection of past and contemporary calligraphers and artists, by the Safavid author and historian Qāżi Aḥmad b. Šaraf-al-Din Ḥosayn Monši Qomi Ebrāhimi.

• GOLESTĀN-E SAʿDI

  Franklin Lewis

  probably the single most influential work of prose in the Persian tradition, completed in 1258 by Mošarref-al-Din Moṣleḥ, known as Shaikh Saʿdi of Shiraz.

• GOLESTĀNA, ABU’L-ḤASAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-ḤASAN GOLESTĀNA.

• GOLESTĀNA, ʿAlāʾ-al-Din Mirzā MOḤAMMAD

  Hamid Algar

  b. Šāh Abu Torāb Moḥammad-ʿAli (d. 1698-99), prominent religious scholar of the Safavid period, a scion of the Golestāna family of Ḥosayni sayyeds in Isfahan.

• GOLESTĀNA, ʿALI-AKBAR

  Maryam Ekhtiar

  (b. 1857-58; d. 1901), calligrapher, scholar, and mystic of late 19th-century Persia.

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• GOLGUN, FARID-AL-DAWLA Mirzā MOḤAMMAD-ḤASAN KHAN HAMADĀNI

  Parviz AḏkāʾI

  (1877-1937), constitutionalist and journalist.

• GOLHĀ, BARNĀMA-YE

  Daryush Pirnia with Erik Nakjavani

  lit. “Flowers Program”; a series of radio programs on music and poetry, on the air for almost twenty-three years (March 1956 to February 1979), which aimed at illustrating the perennial thematic and aesthetic relationships between poetry and traditional music in Persian culture.

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• GOLINDUCH

  Sebastian Brock

  or GOLEN-DOḴT (d. 591), female Christian martyr.

• GOLIUS, JACOBUS

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (b. The Hague, 1596; d. Leiden, 1667), Dutch orientalist who widened the scope of Persian studies, as they had been pursued by Dutch Arabists since the end of the 16th century.

• GOLKONDA

  Cross-Reference

  See HYDERABAD.

• GOLPAR

  Hušang Aʿlam

  any of several perennial aromatic herbaceous plants of the genus Heracleum L. (fam. Umbelliferae) growing wild in humid alpine regions in Persia and some adjacent areas.

• GOLPĀYAGĀN

  Minu Yusofnezhad

  or GOLPĀYEGĀN; a šahrestān (county) and town located in Isfahan province, bordered on the east by the county of Barḵᵛār and Meyma, on the south by Ḵᵛānsār county, on the north by the counties of Maḥallāt and Ḵomeyn (Central province), and on the west by Aligudarz county (province of Lorestān).

• GOLPĀYAGĀNI, ABU’L-FAŻL

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-FAŻL GOLPĀYEGĀNĪ.

• GOLPĀYAGĀNI, MOḤAMMAD-REŻĀ

  Ahmad Kazemi Moussavi

  , Ayatollah Sayyed  (1899-1993), a chief figure in the contemporary Shiʿite clerical hierarchy (marjaʿiyat-e taqlid), who took a moderate stand in the opposition to what was considered the state’s disregard for Islamic principles in the name of modernization.

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• GOLPĀYEGĀNI DIALECT

  Cross-Reference

  See CENTRAL DIALECTS.

• GÖLPINARLI, ABDÜLBAKI

  Tahsin Yazıcı

  (1900-1982), Turkish scholar noted in particular for his studies of the Turkish Sufi orders. He joined many Sufi orders without remaining in any of them for long. His greatest interests were in Shiʿism and the Mevlevi (Mawlawiya) order.

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• GOLŠAHRI, SOLAYMĀN

  EIr

   or GÜLŞEHRÎ; 13th century Ottoman Sufi and poet who wrote in Persian and Turkish.

• GOLŠĀʾIĀN, ʿABBĀSQOLI

  Abbas Milani

  (1902-1990), civil servant, minister in various cabinets, and governor-general of major provinces in the Pahlavi period.

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• GOLŠAN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  cultural magazine published in the early days of 1917 in Tehran by Sayyed Reżā Yazdi “Amir Reżwāni” (d. 1936), first twice a week and from its sixth year three times a week.

• GOLŠĀN ALBUM

  Kambiz Eslami

  or Moraqqaʿ-e golšan; a sumptuous 17th-century album of paintings, drawings, calligraphy, and engravings by Mughal, Persian, Deccani, Turkish, and European artists in the Golestān Palace Library, Tehran.

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• GOLŠAN DEHLAVI, Shah SAʿD-ALLĀH

  Moinuddin Aqeel

  b. Ḵᵛāja Moḥammad-Saʿid (1664-1728), Naqšbandi Sufi and prolific poet in Persian with the pen name (taḵallosá) Golšan.

• GOLŠAN-E MORĀD

  John R. Perry

  a history of the Zand Dynasty (1751-94) by Mirzā Moḥammad Abu’l-Ḥasan Ḡaffāri.

• GOLŠAN-E RĀZ

  Hamid Algar

  lit. "The Rose Garden of Mysteries"; a concise didactic matnawi in a little over a thousand distichs on the key terms and concepts of Sufism, which has for long served as a principal text of theoretical mysticism in the Persian-speaking and Persian-influenced world.

• GOLŠANI ṢĀRUḴĀNI

  Tahsin Yazici

  a 15th-century Turkish poet who also wrote in Persian.

• GOLŠANĪ, EBRĀHIM

  Tahsin Yazici

  b. Moḥammad b. Ebrāhim b. Šehāb-al-Din (d. 1534), Sufi poet and the founder of the Golšaniya branch of the Ḵalwati Sufi order.

• GOLŠANI, MOḤYI MOḤAMMAD

  Tahsin Yazici

  b. Fatḥ-Allāh b. Abi Ṭāleb (1528/29-1606/7), scholar and author in Persian and Turkish and inventor of an artificial language.

• GOLŠEHRI, SOLAYMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  Sufi and poet in Turkish and Persian. See GÜLŠEHRI.

• GOLŠIRI, Hušang

  Ḥasan Mirʿābedini and EIr

  (b. Isfahan, 1938; d. Tehran, 2000), an innovative novelist who explored new literary techniques with each piece he wrote. He received the Lillian Hellman and Dashiell Hammett award in 1997 via the Human Rights Watch Organization, and in 1999 he was awarded the Osnabrück Peace prize from the Erich Maria Remarque Foundation for his defense of freedom of speech.

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• GOLSORḴI, ḴOSROW

  Maziar Behrooz

  (1943-1974), poet and revolutionary figure whose defiant stand during his televised show trial, and subsequent execution by firing squad in 1974, enshrined his place in the cultural and political history of modern Persia.

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• GŌMAL

  Shah Mahmoud Hanifi

  or Gōmāl:  a sub-province (woloswāli) and village in Paktiā province, eastern Afghanistan; a river originating in the Ḡazni province and flowing southeast through the Wazirestān tribal agency and  the North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan; and a passage linking the eastern foothills of the Solaymān mountain range with the Indus plains.

• GOMBROON

  Cross-Reference

  See BANDAR-e ʿABBĀS(Ī).

• GOMBROON WARES

  Cross-Reference

  See CERAMICS; ČĪNĪ.

• GŌMĒZ

  Mary Boyce

  cow's urine.

• GOMIŠĀN

  Cross-Reference

  a district in Golestān Province. See GORGĀN.

• GONĀBĀD

  Minu Yusuf-Nežād

  a town and a sub-province (šahrestān) in the province of Khorasan.

• GONĀBĀDI ORDER

  Hamid Algar

  an offshoot of the Neʿmat-Allāhi Sufi order, still active in Persia.

• GONĀBĀDI, ʿEMĀD-AL-DIN MOḤAMMAD

  Shiro Ando

  or Jonābādi, b. Zayn-al-ʿĀbedin b. Neẓām-al-Din Moḥammad (b. 1415), Timurid financial officer and vizier.

• GONĀBĀDI, Mirzā ABU’L-QĀSEM QĀSEMI

  Cross-Reference

  poet. See QĀSEMI Gonābādi, Mirzā Abu’l-Qāsem.

• GONĀBĀDI, MOḤAMMAD PARVIN

  Cross-Reference

  Persian scholar and translator. See PARVIN GONĀBĀDI.

• GONBAD -E ʿALAWIĀN-E Hamadān

  Cross-Reference

  See HAMADĀN, vii. MONUMENTS.

• GONBĀD-E KĀVUS

  Cross-Reference

  See GONBAD-E QĀBUS.

• GONBAD-E QĀBUS

  E. Ehlers, M. Momeni, and EIr, Habib-Allāh Zanjāni, Sheila S. Blair

  (now referred to officially as Gonbad-e Kāvus) is the administrative center of the sub-province (šahrestān) of the same name and the urban center of the Turkman tribal area in northern Persia. It is named after its major monument, a tall tower that marks the grave of the Ziyarid ruler Qābus b. Vošmgir (r. 978-1012).

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• GONBAD-E SORḴ

  Marcus Milwright

  the “Red Tomb,” completed on 4 March 1148, the earliest of five medieval mausolea located in Marāḡa in Azerbaijan. It combines elements of the two common forms of Islamic Iranian monumental tomb, the domed cube, and the conically-roofed circular or polygonal tower. 

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• GONDĒŠĀPUR

  A. Shapur Shahbazi, Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  in the Sasanian epoch, Gondēšāpur was one of the four major cities of Ḵuzestān, the other three being Karḵa, Susa, and Šuštar. The extensive irrigation systems developed there by the early Sasanians were probably aimed at supplying a large population.

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• GONDOPHARES

  A. D. H. Bivar

  Indo-Parthian king (20-46 C.E.) in Drangiana, Arachosia, and especially in the Punjab.

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• GŌR

  Cross-Reference

  the historical name for present-day Firuzābād in Fārs. See ARDAŠIR ḴORRA; FIRUZĀBĀD.

• GŌRĀN

  Cross-Reference

  a tribe in Kurdistan. See GURĀN.

• GORĀN, ʿABD-ALLĀH SOLAYMĀN

  Keith Hitchins

  (1904-62), the leading Kurdish poet of the twentieth century.

• GORĀZ

  Cross-Reference

  See BOAR.

• GORBA

  Cross-Reference

  See CAT I; CAT II.

• ḠŌRBAND

  M. Jamil Hanifi

  or ḠURBAND; a major valley of Kōhestān/Kuhestān and a sub-province (woloswāli) of Parvān province in the southern foothills of the Hindu Kush massif, located approximately 50 miles north of Kabul.

• ḠORBATI

  Cross-Reference

  See GYPSY.

• GORDĀFARID

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  daughter of Gaždaham, the castellan of Dež-e Sapid, the Iranian fortress on the frontier with Turān.

• GORDIA

  Cross-Reference

  a female character in the Shah-nama. See BAHRĀM (2) vii. Bahrām VI Čōbīn.

• GORDIANUS III

  Cross-Reference

  Roman emperor. See SHAPUR I.

• GORDON, THOMAS EDWARD

  Rose L. Greaves

  , General Sir (1832–1914), British intelligence officer, director of the Imperial Bank of Persia (Bānk-e šāhi-e Irān) from 1893 to 1914, author, and apparently the first person to use the term Middle East, which meant particularly Persia and Afghanistan.

• GORDUENE

  Cross-Reference

  See KORDUK.

• GORG

  Cross-Reference

  See WOLF.

• GORGĀN

  Multiple Authors

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Geography, ii. Dašt-e Gorgān, iii. Population, iv. Archeology, v. Pre-Islamic history, vi. History from the rise of Islam to the beginning of the Safavid Period, vii. To the end of the Pahlavi era.

• GORGĀN BAY

  Cross-Reference

  See ASTARĀBĀD BAY.

• GORGĀN i. Geography

  Ḥabib-Allāh Zanjāni

  the ancient Hyrcania, an important Persian province at the southeast corner of the Caspian sea.

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• GORGĀN ii. Dašt-e Gorgān

  Eckart Ehlers

  the designation of a steppe-region of approximately 10,000 km2 near the southeastern edge of the Caspian Sea, stretching for almost 200 km east-west between Morāva Tappa and the coast of the Caspian Sea near Gomišān.

• GORGĀN iii. Population

  Ḥabib-Allāh Zanjāni

  (1) Population of the province, which has been formed recently under the name of Golestān Province with Gorgān City as its capital; and (2) population of Gorgān City and Gorgān Sub-province.

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• GORGĀN iv. Archeology

  Muhammad Yusof Kiani

  The plain of Gorgan, situated on the southeast shore of the Caspian Sea, has always been regarded as an important region for its archeological deposits dating from the pre-historic to the Islamic period.

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• GORGĀN v. Pre-Islamic history

  A. D. H. Bivar

  The area comprises two distinct climatic zones: the rainforest of the Alborz northern slopes and the Gorgān plain, well-watered and fertile close to the mountains but passing into increasingly desert steppe as the distance from the foothills increases.

• GORGĀN vi. History From The Rise Of Islam To The Beginning Of The Safavid Period

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  formed in Sasanian and pre-modern Islamic times a transitional zone, a corridor, between the subtropical habitat and climate of Māzandarān to its west, and the arid steppes of Dehestān (q.v.) and, beyond them, the Qara Qum Desert to its northwest.

• GORGĀN vii. History from the Safavids to the end of the Pahlavi era

  Jawād Neyestāni and EIr

  Two characteristics dominated the history of Gorgān in the period between the 16th and early 19th centuries: incessant tribal unrest and power politics. These features reflected the rather particular tribal structure and the geopolitical situation of this region and its neighboring areas in the north and east.

• GORGANAJ

  Cross-Reference

  See CHORASMIA.

• GORGĀNI DIALECT

  Cross-Reference

  See MĀZANDARĀNI.

• GORGĀNI, ABU’L-HAYṮAM AḤMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-HAYṮAM GORGĀNI.

• GORGĀNI, FAḴR-AL-DIN ASʿAD

  Julie Scott Meisami

  (fl. ca. 1050), poet, best known for his verse romance Vis o Rāmin, completed in 1055 or shortly thereafter and dedicated to the Saljuq governor of Isfahan, the ʿAmid Abu’l-Fatḥ Moẓaffar b. Moḥammad.

• GORGIN

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  son of Milād, one of the heroes of the reigns of Kay Kāvus and Kay Ḵosrow and the head of the Milād family.

• GORGIN KHAN

  Rudi Matthee

  also known as Giorgio XI and Šāhnavāz Khan II; Georgian prince (d. 1709), who was alternately ruler of Georgia and holder of high positions in the Safavid administration and military.

• GORJESTĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See GEORGIA.

• GORUH-E FARHANGI-E HADAF

  Cross-Reference

  See HADAF EDUCATIONAL GROUP.

• GORUH-E FARHANGI-E ḴᵛĀRAZMI

  Cross-Reference

  See ḴᵛĀRAZMI SCHOOLS.

• GORZ

  Jalil Doostkhah

  or gorza, gorz-e gāvsār/sar, lit. "ox-headed club/mace,"  a weapon often mentioned and variously described in Iranian myths and epic. In classical Persian texts, particularly in Ferdowsi’s Šāh-nāma, it is characterized as the decisive weapon of choice in fateful battles.

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• GORZEVĀN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a town in the medieval Islamic region of Guzgān in northern Afghanistan.

• GŌŠ YAŠT

  W. W. Malandra

  the title of the ninth Yašt of the Avesta, also known as Drwāsp Yašt, after the goddess Druuāspā (see DRVĀSPĀ) to whom, in fact, it is dedicated.

• GŌSĀN

  Mary Boyce

  a Parthian word of unknown derivation for “poet-musician, minstrel.”

• GOŠASB BĀNU

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  or Bānu Gošasb; entitled savār (knight), Rostam’s daughter and the wife of Gēv.

• GŌSFAND

  Cross-Reference

  See GUSFAND.

• ḠOSL

  Cross-Reference

  See CLEANSING.

• GOŠNASP ASPĀD

  Cross-Reference

  Sasanian military commander. See ḴOSROW II.

• GOSPEL

  Cross-Reference

  See BIBLE.

• GOSTAHAM

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  name of two heroes in the Šāh-nāma.

• GOŠTĀSP

  A. Shapur Shabazi

  Kayanian king of Iranian traditional history and patron of Zoroaster.

• GŌŠURUN

  William W. Malandra

  the Pahlavi name for the soul of the Sole-created Bull.

• GOTARZES

  Cross-Reference

  See GŌDARZ.

• GOTTHEIL, RICHARD JAMES HORATIO

  Dagmar Riedel

  (b. Manchester, UK, 1862; d. New York City, 1936), a prolific scholar, an important academic teacher and administrator, as well as an influential public intellectual.

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• GÖTTINGEN, UNIVERSITY OF, HISTORY OF IRANIAN STUDIES

  Ludwig Paul

  History of Iranian Studies at the University of Göttingen.

• GOUVEA, ANTONIO DE

  Rudi Matthee

  (b. Beja, Portugal, 1575; d. Manzanares, Spain, 1628), Augustinian missionary and Portuguese envoy who visited Persia three times between 1602 and 1613 and who wrote on Persia.

• GOVĀḴARZ

  Cross-Reference

  a district in the medieval province of Qohestān in Khorasan. See BĀKARZ.

• GOWD-E ZEREH

  Cross-Reference

  See HĀMUN;

• GOWDIN TEPE

  Cross-Reference

  an archeological site in western Persia. See GODIN TEPE.

• GOWHAR

  Nasereddin Parvin

  a cultural journal published monthly from January 1973 to December 1978 (issue no. 72) of the philanthropic organization of Mortażā Nuriāni.

• GOWHAR ḴĀTUN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a Saljuq princess who became the second wife of the Ghaznavid Sultan Masʿud III (r. 1099-1115).

• GOWHAR-ĀʾĪN, Saʿd-al-dawla

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (d. 1100), Turkish eunuch slave commander of the Great Saljuqs.

• GOWHAR-E MORĀD (1)

  Cross-Reference

  philosopher and poet. See ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ LĀHĪJĪ.

   

• GOWHAR-E MORĀD (2)

  Cross-Reference

  pen name of the 20th-century author Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Sāʿedi. See SA'EDI, GHOLAM-HOSAYN.

• GOWHAR-ŠĀD ĀḠĀ

  Beatrice Forbes Manz

  wife of Sultan Šāhroḵ b. Timur (r. 1409-47) and daughter of Ḡiāṯ-al-Din Tarḵān, a ranking amir under Timur.

• GOWHAR-ŠĀD MOSQUE

  Lisa Golombek

  Since its construction in the early 15th century, the Gowhar-šād Mosque has served as the Friday mosque for pilgrims to the tomb of Imam ʿAli al-Reżā in Mašhad, so named after this famous shrine.

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• GOWHARIN, SAYYED SĀDEQ

  Peter Avery

  (b. Tehran, 1914; d. Tehran, 1995), scholar of Sufism and professor at the University of Tehran.

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• GOWJA FARANGI

  Cross-Reference

  See TOMATO.

• GOWRAK

  Pierre Oberling

  a Kurdish tribe in northwestern Persia.

• GOWZ

  Cross-Reference

  See WALNUT.

• GŌZEHR

  Cross-Reference

  Bazarangid ruler in Fārs. See ARDAŠĪR I.

• GŌZIHR

  D. N. Mackenzie

  the Middle Persian development of an old Iranian compound adjective *gau-čiθra-, recorded in the Younger Avesta in the form gaočiθra-, as an epithet of the moon, “bearing the seed, having the origin of cattle” (or, “the ox”).

• ḠOZZ

  Peter B. Golden, C. Edmund Bosworth

  a significant Turkic tribe in western Eurasia in the 5th century.

• GRAND LODGE OF IRAN

  Cross-Reference

  See FREEMASONRY, iii-iv.

• GRANICUS

  Ernst Badian

  river (mod. Kocabaş Çay) flowing into the Sea of Marmara.

• GRANT DUFF, Sir EVELYN MOUNTSTUART

  Denis Wright

  (b. 1863; d. Bath, 1926), British diplomat serving successively in Rome, Tehran, St. Petersburg, Stockholm, Berlin, then London.

• GRANT, Captain NATHANIEL PHILIP

  Denis Wright

  (b. New York, 1774; k. Ḵorramābād, 1810), a military officer of the East India Company.

• GRANTOVSKIĬ, EDVIN ARVIDOVICH

  Mohammad Dandamayev

  (1932-1995), Russian Iranologist of Latvian descent.

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• GRAPES

  Cross-Reference

  See ANGŪR.

• GRAPHIC ARTS

  Mortażā Momayyez, Peter Chelkowski

  Broadly speaking, graphic art and design have a long history in Persia; their antecedents can be seen in graphic motifs and patterns on ancient clay and metal vessels, stone reliefs, seals, brickwork, glazed tiles, plaster and wood carvings, cloths, carpets, marquetry, miniature paintings, calligraphy, and illumination of manuscripts.

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• GRAY, BASIL

  John Michael Rogers

  (1904-1989), art historian and the keeper of Oriental antiquities at the British Museum (1946-69).

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• GRAY, LOUIS HERBERT

  William W. Malandra

  (b. Newark, New Jersey; 1875; d. New York, New York, 1955), orientalist and philologist, who was associated with Columbia University throughout most of his academic life.

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• GREAT BRITAIN

  Multiple Authors

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Introduction, ii. An Overview of Relations: Safavid to the Present, iii. British influence in Persia in the 19th century, iv. British influence in Persia, 1900-21, v. British influence during the Reżā Shah period, 1921-41, vi. British influence in Persia, 1941-79, vii. British Travelers to Persia, viii. British Archeological Excavations, ix. Iranian Studies in Britian, Pre-Islamic, x. Iranian Studies in Britain, the Islamic Period, xi. Persian Art Collections in Britain, xii. The Persian Community in Britain, xiii. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), xiv. The British Institute of Persian Studies, xv. British Schools in Persia.

• GREAT BRITAIN i. INTRODUCTION

  Multiple Authors

  During the 16th century, several unsuccessful attempts were made by the Muscovy (or Russia) Company of London to develop trade between London and Persia via Russia.

• GREAT BRITAIN ii. An Overview of Relations: Safavid to the Present

  Denis Wright

  Prior to the Safavid period, contacts between Britain and Persia were confined to the 13th century, and were infrequent and of short duration.

• GREAT BRITAIN iii. British influence in Persia in the 19th century

  Abbas Amanat

  British imperial interests in Persia in the Qajar period were primarily determined by the concern for the security of colonial India and, secondarily, by trade, telegraphic communication, and financial or other conces-sionary agreements.

• GREAT BRITAIN iv. British influence in Persia, 1900-21

  Mansour Bonakdarian

  In the late 1890s, the Foreign Office in London came to regard Germany as the main threat to the European balance of power and British imperial hegemony around the globe.

• Great Britain v. British influence during the Reżā Shah period, 1921-41

  Stephanie Cronin

  During the reign of Reżā Shah (1925-1941) a profound transformation took place in both the character and the scope of British influence in Persia.

• Great Britain vi. British influence in Persia, 1941-79

  Fakhreddin Azimi

  For the greater part of the Qajar era (1796-1924) Persia was the scene of intense rivalry between the Russian and British empires.

• Great Britain vii. British Travelers to Persia

  Denis Wright

  The British, more than any others, have been prolific authors of travelogues, and memoirs about Persia.

• Great Britain viii. British Archeological Excavations

  St. J. Simpson

  excavations began in Persia before the so-called “French monopoly” on archeological excavations.

• Great Britain ix. Iranian Studies in Britain, Pre-Islamic

  A. D. H. Bivar

  Several fields of pre-Islamic Iranian Studies have seen great expansion during recent centuries, and to these, scholars and travelers from Great Britain have made substantial contributions.

• Great Britain x. Iranian Studies in Britain, the Islamic Period

  Charles Melville

  British interest in, and scholarship on, Persia and Persian culture in the Islamic period goes back to the first formal contacts between the two countries, that is, at least to the 16th century and the growth of Britain’s involvement in the Levant and East Indian trades.

• Great Britain xi. Persian Art Collections in Britain

  J. Michael Rogers

  The collecting of Persian art in Great Britain goes back at least to the missions despatched by the Safavid Shah ʿAbbās I (1588-1629) and the activities of the Sherley brothers at his court in Isfahan. The early 17th century also saw the growth of trade with Persia through the East India Company.

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• Great Britain xii. The Persian Community in Britain (1)

  Kathryn Spellman

  This entry will be treated in two separate articles: (1) Persian Community and (2) The Library for Iranian Studies.

• Great Britain xii. The Persian Community in Britain (2)

  Namdar Baghaei-Yazdi

  The Library for Iranian Studies in London was opened to members on 16 November 1991 and at that time the library consisted of a collection of 2,500 books and other publications.

• Great Britain xiii. The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)

  F. Safiri and H. Shahidi

  In the late 1930s, the British Government began to fund BBC broadcasts in languages other than English designed to counter anti-British broadcasts from Germany and Italy. The first were  in Arabic, in January 1938, followed by Spanish and Portuguese to Latin America in March. Persian broadcasts followed  in December 1940.

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• Great Britain xiv. The British Institute of Persian Studies

  D. Stronach

  was founded in the spring of 1961, thanks to the vision and commitment of a small group of scholars in Britain, each of whom had a special interest in the arts and letters of Persia.

• Great Britain xv. British Schools in Persia

  Gulnar E. Francis-Dehqani

  This article will outline the major educational efforts of the British missionaries in Persia from 1871. The British schools in Persia were primarily founded by missionary organizations, most notably the Church Missionary Society (CMS).

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• Greece

  Multiple Authors

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Greco-Persian Political Relations, ii. Greco-Persian Cultural Relations, iii. Persian Influence on Greek Thought, iv. Greek Influence on Persian Thought, v. Greek Influence on Philosophy, vi. The Image of Persia and Persians in Greek Literature, vii. Greek Art and Architecture in Iran, viii. Greek Art in Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Northwest India, ix. Greek and Persian Romances, x. Greek Medecine in Persia, xi. Greek Inscriptions in Iran, xii. Persian Loanwords and Names in Greek, xiii. Greek Loanwords in Middle Iranian Languages, xiv. Greek Loanwords in Medieval New Persian, xv. Ancient Greek borrowings of Perisan herbs and plants of medicinal value.

• Greece i. Greco-Persian Political Relations

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  After subjugating the Medes, Cyrus II started his first expedition westwards. In 547 B.C.E. he turned against Lydia and its king, Croesus.

• Greece ii. Greco-Persian Cultural Relations

  Margaret C. Miller

  This article is addresses the evidence for receptivity to Persian culture in Greece, the North Aegean, and West Anatolia, including receptivity on the part of the non-Greek peoples of these regions.

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• Greece iii. Persian Influence on Greek Thought

  Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin

  The idea of Iranian origins of Greek philosophy had a legendary aura, either by declaring that Pythagoras had been Zoroaster’s pupil in Babylon, or by writing, as did Clement of Alexandria, that Heraclitus had drawn on “the barbarian philosophy.”

• Greece iv. Greek Influence on Persian Thought

  Mansour Shaki

  After the conquest of Ionia, Lydia, and other regions of Asia Minor by Cyrus II, the Persians came into close contact with the Hellenes, their skilled artisans, renowned physicians, artists, statements, men-of-arms, and the like.

• Greece v - vi. The Image of Persia and Persians in Greek Literature

  Reinhold Bichler and Robert Rollinger

  The image of Persia in Greek literature is highly stylized and may not be considered as a reflection of actually experienced cultural contacts.

• GREECE vii. GREEK ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN IRAN

  Rémy Boucharlat

  The influx of elements of Greek art into Persia during the Achaemenid period was primarily the result of the importation of artists and artisans from Hellenized Asia Minor and rarely due to a direct supply of objects.

• Greece viii. Greek Art in Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Northwest India

  Claude Rapin

  The emergence of Greek art as a phenomenon following the expedition of Alexander the Great was a major cultural event in Central Asia and India. Its effects were felt for almost a thousand years, down to the early Islamic period.

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• Greece ix. Greek and Persian Romances

  Richard Davis

  Three Persian verse romances of the 11th century stand out as significantly unlike other Persian verse romances, and they share enough features with the Greek Hellenistic Romances to suggest the existence of links between the two sets of tales.

• GREECE x. GREEK MEDICINE IN PERSIA

  Gül Russell

  The question of Greek medicine in Iran is closely bound up with the history of Greco-Arabic medicine, which developed with the impetus of the “translation movement” between the 8th and the 10th centuries.

• Greece xi - xii. Persian Loanwords and Names in Greek

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  The Greeks came into direct contact with speakers of Iranian languages when Cyrus II conquered the Lydian empire in 547 B.C.E. However, the possibility of linguistic borrowings in prehistoric times cannot be ruled out.

• Greece xiii. Greek Loanwords in Middle Iranian Languages

  Philip Huyse

  The number of loanwords borrowed from Greek into the pre-Islamic Iranian languages is far less impressive than the number of borrowings in the other direction.

• Greece xiv. Greek Loanwords in Medieval New Persian

  Lutz Richter Bernburg and EIr

  In the Islamic period, Persian learned literature was largely modelled upon Arabic antecedents and that these, whether  translations from Greek or Arabic originals, strove to minimize foreign and unfamiliar-sounding vocabulary.

• GREECE xv. Ancient Greek borrowings of Perisan herbs and plants of medicinal value

  Luigi Arata

  It is well attested that the ancient Greek city-states (poleis) and the Persian Empire had continuous commercial contact which influenced the ordinary life of both parties.

• GRIBOEDOV, ALEXANDER SERGEEVICH

  George Bournoutian

  (b. Moscow, 1794; k. Tehran, 1829), Russian writer, poet, and playwright, whose most famous work is the play Gore ot uma (Woe from wit).

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• GRIGORIAN, Marcos

  Hengameh Fouladvand

  Iranian-Armenian artist, actor, teacher, gallery owner, and collector who played a pioneering role in the development of Iranian modern art  (1925-2007). As a modernist trendsetter Marco's career began in the 1950s and spanned several countries. By establishing the First Tehran Biennial in 1958 Marco was especially instrumental in opening up channels of communication for Iranian artists.

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• GRĪW

  Werner Sundermann

  a Middle Iranian word meaning “neck, throat” and “self, soul.”

• GROTEFEND, GEORG FRIEDRICH

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (b. Hannoversch-Münden, 1775; d. Hannover, 1853), German philologist and scholar of oriental studies.

• GROUSSET, RENÉ

  Jacqueline Calmard-Compas

  (b. Aubais, Gard, France, 1885; d. Paris, 1952), French historian who based his wide-ranging research on the studies of the leading French orientalists of his time, and wrote works of synthesis on various aspects of Oriental history and culture.

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• GRUMBATES

  Cross-Reference

  See CHIONITES.

• GRUNDRISS DER IRANISCHEN PHILOLOGIE

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (Encyclopaedia of Iranian Philology; Strassburg, 1895-1904, reprinted Berlin and New York, 1974), the first attempt to summarize the knowledge of all subjects concerning Iran — the languages and literatures, history and culture of Iran and the Iranian peoples — that had been achieved by the end of the 19th century.

• GRÜNWEDEL, ALBERT

  Werner Sundermann

  (b. Munich, 1856; d. Lenggries, 1935), prominent German Indologist, Tibetologist, art scholar, and archeologist.

• GRYUNBERG TSVETINOVICH, ALEKSANDR LEONOVICH

  Vladmir Kushev

  (b. St. Petersburg, 1930; d. St. Petersburg, 1995), Russian linguist who specialized in Iranian languages.

• GUARDIAN COUNCIL

  A. Schirazi

  or Šurā-ye Negahbān; a powerful 12-member council with vast legislative and executive jurisdictions that forms a cornerstone of the Islamic Republic’s Constitution.

• GUBARU

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  Babylonian rendering of the Iranian name Gaub(a)ruva, which is best known in the Greek form Gōbryas.

• GUDARZ

  Cross-Reference

  See GŌDARZ.

• GUEVREKIAN, GABRIEL

  Mina Marefat

  (b. Istanbul, 1900; d. 1970), Armenian avant-garde architect, an influential figure in the development of modern architecture in Persia, linking Persian architects with Europe’s pioneers of the modern movement.

• GUIDI, IGNAZIO

  Erich Kettenhofen

  (b. Rome, 1844; d. Rome, 1935), prominent Italian orientalist.

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• GUIDI’S CHRONICLE

  Sebastian P. Brock

  an anonymous, 7th-century chronicle of Nestorian Christians, known also as “the Khuzistan Chronicle,” written in Syriac and covering the period from the reign of the Sasanian Hormizd/Hormoz IV (579-89) to the middle of the 7th century and the time of the early Arab conquests.

• GUILDS

  Cross-Reference

  See AṢNĀF; CHAMBER OF GUILDS; CHAMBER OF COMMERCE; BĀZĀR iii.

• GUILLEMIN, MARCELLE

  Anne Draffkorn Kilmer

  (b. Liège, Belgium, 1907; d. Liège, 1997), a well known scholar of ancient Near Eastern organology and ancient music theory.

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• GUJARAT

  Gavin R. G. Hambly

  (Skt. Gurjaṛ), a province of India on its northwestern coastline.

• GUJARATI

  K. M. Jamaspasa

  or Gojarati; the mother tongue of Gujaratis, which has been for centuries a vehicle of thought and expression for Hindus, Parsis, and Muslims of Gu-jarat in western India.

• GUJASTAG ABĀLIŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABĀLIŠ.

• GUKLĀN

  Pierre Oberling

  Turkmen tribal confederacy of the Gorgān region in northeastern Persia, the district of Qara Qalʿa in Turkmenistan, and the Ḵiva region in Uzbekistan.

• ḠUL

  Mahmoud and Teresa P. Omidsalar

  designation of a fantastic, frightening creature in the Perso-Arabic lore.

• GULBARGA

  Gavin R. G. Hambly

  or Golbargā; city and district in the central Deccan, India.

• GULF WAR and PERSIA

  Lawrence G. Potter

  the final conflict, which was initiated with United Nations authorization, by a coalition force from 34 nations against Iraq, with the expressed purpose of expelling Iraqi forces from Kuwait after its invasion and annexion on 2 August 1990.

• GUMĒZIŠN

  D. N. Mackenzie

  a Middle Persian noun, spelled gwmycšn in Pahlavi and gwmyzyšn in Manichean script, meaning “mixing, mingling, mixture.”

• GÜNDÜZLÜ

  Cross-Reference

  See TURKIC TRIBES.

• GUNPOWDER

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀRUT.

• GUNS, GUNNERY

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀRUT; FIREARMS.

• GUR

  Cross-Reference

  See ARDAŠIR ḴORRA, FIRUZĀBĀD.

• ḠUR

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a region of central Afghanistan, essentially the modern administrative province (welāyat) of Ḡōrāt.

• GUR-E AMIR

  Cross-Reference

  See SAMARQAND.

• GUR-E DOḴTAR

  cross-reference

  See BOZPĀR.

• GURĀN

  Pierre Oberling

  a tribe dwelling in the dehestān of Gurān, between Qaṣr-e Širin and Kermānšāh (Bāḵtarān), in Kurdistan.

• GURĀNI

  D. N. Mackenzie

  comprises a group of similar North-west Iranian dialects which includes that of Kandula, 25 miles north-north-west of Kermānšāh, and Bāǰalānī, in the region around Zohāb and Qaṣr-e Šīrīn, with an offshoot among the Šabak, Ṣārlī, and Bāǰalān (Bēǰwān) villages east of the city of Mosul in Iraq.

• GURDZIECKI, BOGDAN

  Rudi Matthee

  known in Persia as Bohtam Beg; Polish envoy of Georgian-Armenian origin and first permanent Polish resident in Safavid Persia (d. Moscow, 1700).

• ḠURIĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See FUŠANJ.

• GURKHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See QARA ḴETĀY; CENTRAL ASIA; TITLE OF RULERS.

• GURUMU

  Cross-Reference

  See BĒṮ GARMĒ.

• GUŠA

  Jean During

  lit. "corner" or "part"; a term in Persian music designating a unit of melody of variable importance, which occupies a special place in the development of one of the twelve modal systems (dastgāh or āvāz).

• GUSAN

  Cross-Reference

  See EPICS.

• GUSFAND

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  sheep, ovine.

• GUŠYĀR GILĀNI, ABU’L-ḤASAN B. LABBĀN

  David Pingree

  Arabicized Kušyār; an astronomer and mathematician from Gilān, whence his nesba Jili/Gilāni (fl. late 10th-early 11th cent.).

• GUTIANS

  Marc Van De Mieroop

  name used in ancient Mesopotamian texts to refer to a variety of people, mostly from the Zagros mountain area.

• GUTSCHMID, HERMANN ALFRED FREIHERR VON

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  (b. Loschwitz near Dresden, 1831; d. Tübingen, 1887), classical scholar and ancient historian with a special interest in the Ancient Near East.

• GÜYÜK KHAN

  Peter Jackson

  (r. 1246-48), Mongol great khan (qaḡan), given posthumously the regnal title Ting-tsung.

• GUZAŠTAG ABĀLIŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABĀLIŠ.

• GUZGĀN

  Cross-Reference

  a district of what was in early Islamic times eastern Khorasan, now roughly corresponding to the northwest of modern Afghanistan, adjacent to the frontier with the southeastern fringe of the Turkmenistan Republic. See JOWZJĀN.

• GWĀTI

  Cross-Reference

  See BALUCHISTAN.

• GYMNASTICS IN PERSIA

  Cross-Reference

  See Supplement.

• GYPSUM

  Dietrich Huff

  soft mineral produced from natural gypsum rock by firing in kilns or piles and subsequent pulverization by pounding and grinding.

• GYPSY

  Jean-Pierre Digard, Gernot L. Windfuhr

  Gypsies are generally referred to by the term kowli in Persian, seemingly a distortion of kāboli, that is, coming from Kabol, the capital of Afghanistan. It is not at all certain, however, that all the groups referred to as kowli are authentic gypsies; nor that only the groups referred to as kowli should be considered as gypsies.

• GYPSY i. Gypies of Persia

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  Almost everywhere in Persia there are groups with characteristics similar to those of the Gypsies, but they are called by different names, sometimes designating their geographic or ethnic origin, sometimes their social status, and sometimes their profession.

• GYPSY ii. Gypsy Dialects

  Gernot L. Windfuhr

  The languages and dialects popularly called “Gypsy” (< Egipcien < qebṭi “Coptic, Egyptian”) constitute three major groups: Asiatic or Middle Eastern Domari, Armenian Lomavren, and European Romani.

• G~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the letter G entries.