Table of Contents
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FISCAL SYSTEM i. ACHAEMENID, ii. SASANIAN
Mohammad A. Dandamayev, Rika Gyselen
There probably was no clear distinction between state and royal incomes in the Achaemenid empire. All state receipts were considered royal property, as was the income from the king’s estates.
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FISCAL SYSTEM iii. ISLAMIC PERIOD
JÜRGEN PAUL
iii. ISLAMIC PERIOD Such a system can be studied in at least three aspects: First, its relationship to the ruler or the government; second, its relationship to those groups in the population who serve as sources of revenue (“taxpayers”);
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FISCAL SYSTEM iv. SAFAVID AND QAJAR PERIODS
Willem Floor
iv. SAFAVID AND QAJAR PERIODS The Safavid shah’s fiscal prerogatives were expressed by terms like bājgoḏār, bājsetān, and jezyagoḏār (tax assessor or tax taker).
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FISCAL SYSTEM v. PAHLAVI PERIOD
MASSOUD KARSHENAS
The first attempts at setting up a modern fiscal system in Persian began after the Constitutional Revolution.
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FISCAL SYSTEM vi. ISLAMIC REPUBLIC
Adnan Mazarei
The receipt of large revenues from oil exports and their expenditure for developing various sectors of the economy, improving infrastructure, and providing social services have made the government’s fiscal policies a major determinant of the overall economic incentives, structure and level of economic activity.
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FISCHEL, WALTER JOSEPH
David Yeroushalmi
(b. 12 November 1902; d. 14 July 1973), a scholar of Oriental Jewry and Islamic civilization.
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FISH
Multiple Authors
in Persia. With about 1,800 km of coastline along the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, and about 990 km on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, plus some inland fresh waters, Persia has a great variety of aquatic fauna: mollusks, crustaceans, chelonians, mammals (dolphins, whales, seals), and particularly, fishes. Thus the country has rich aquatic resources and considerable potential for fishing and aquaculture.
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FISH i. FRESHWATER FISHES
Brian W. Coad
With about 1,800 km of coastline along the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman, and about 990 km on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, plus some inland fresh waters, Persia has a great variety of aquatic fauna: mollusks, crustaceans, chelonians, mammals, and especially fishes.
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FISH ii. SALT WATER FISHES
Hušang Aʿlam
Except for occasional short reports by foreign researchers on some individual fish species from the Sea of Oman and the Persian Gulf, there was no comprehensive scientific study of the ichthyofauna of the region until the Danish H. Blegvad and B. Løppenthin’s systematic survey.
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FISH iii. IN PRE-ISLAMIC PERSIAN LORE
Hušang Aʿlam
The Bundahišn contains interesting pseudo-scientific, mythical, and sometimes inconsistent information about fishes.