Encyclopædia Iranica
Table of Contents
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EAGLES
Steven C. Anderson, William L. Hanaway, Jr.
(Ar. and Pers. ʿoqāb; also obsolete Pers. dāl < Mid. Pers. dālman; also obsolete Pers. and Mid. Pers. āloh), large, diurnal, raptorial birds of the family Accipitridae in several genera (45-90 cm long, wingspan 110-250 cm).
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EARTH IN ZOROASTRIANISM
Cross-Reference
See ELEMENTS i.
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EARTHQUAKES
Daniel Balland, Habib Borjian, Xavier de Planhol, Manuel Berberian
in Persia and Afghanistan. Both countries lie on the great alpine belt that extends from the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean through the Indonesian archipelago and forms the world’s longest collision boundary, between the Eurasian plate in the north and several former Gondwanan blocks in the south, including the so-called “Iranian plates” and “Afghan plates.”
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EAST AFRICA
Mark Horton, Derek Nurse, Farouk Topan, Will. C. van den Hoonard
Persian relations with the lands of the East African coast, particularly Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania. From early times monsoon winds have permitted rapid maritime travel between East Africa and Western Asia. Although large-scale Persian settlement in East Africa is unlikely Persian cultural and religious influences nonetheless were felt.
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EAST AND WEST
Antonio Panaino
an English language quarterly published since 1950 by IsMEO (Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente [Italian Institute for Middle and Far East]) and now by the IsIAO (Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente [Italian Institute for Africa and the Orient]).
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EAST INDIA COMPANY (BRITISH)
R. W. Ferrier, John R. Perry
a trading company incorporated on 31 December 1600 for fifteen years with the primary purpose of exporting the staple production of English woolen cloths and importing the products of the East Indies.
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EAST INDIA COMPANY (DUTCH)
Cross-Reference
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EAST INDIA COMPANY (FRENCH)
Anne Kroell
a company established in 1664 to conduct all French commercial operations with the Orient.
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EAST SYRIAN MONASTERIES IN SASANIAN IRAN
Florence Jullien
Traces of monastic foundations in Sasanian Iran can be found in the sources as early as the 4th century CE. In the present review of the main East Syrian monasteries, emphasis is on the reformed monastic settlements of the 6th-7th centuries.
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EASTERN IRANIAN LANGUAGES
Nicholas Sims-Williams
term used to refer to a group of Iranian languages most of which are or were spoken in lands to the east of the present state of Persia.
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EASTWICK, EDWARD BACKHOUSE
Parvin Loloi
(1814–1883), orientalist and diplomat, best known for his translations from Persian and Indian languages.
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ʿEBĀDĪ, AḤMAD
Jean During
(1906-1993), one of the outstanding modern masters of Persian music. He played a leading role in popularizing the setār; the appeal of his performance resulted partly from the development of a new style involving slight technical and acoustical modifications to the instrument.
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EBĀḤĪYA
Hamid Algar
or EBĀḤATĪYA; a polemical term denoting either antinomianism or groups and individuals accused thereof.
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EBER-NĀRI
Muhammad A. Dandamayev
the Akkadian name used in Assyrian and Babylonian records of the 8th-5th centuries B.C.E. for the lands to the west of the Euphrates—i.e., Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine.
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EBERMAN, VASILIĬ ALEKSANDROVICH
Anas B. Khalidov
(b. St. Petersburg, 1899, d. Orel, 1937), scholar of early Persian poets writing in Arabic.
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EBIR NĀRĪ
Cross-Reference
See EBER-NĀRI.
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EBLĀḠ
Nassereddin Parvin
lit. “communication”; title of five Persian language newspapers.
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EBLĪS
Hamid Algar
a Koranic designation for the devil in Persian Sufi Tradition, derived ultimately from the Greek diabolos.
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EBN ʿABBĀD
Cross-Reference
See ṢĀḤEB B. ʿABBĀD.
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EBN ABHAR, MOḤAMMAD-TAQĪ
Stephen Lambden
(1854-1919), Bahai teacher and one of the “hands of the cause."
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EBN ABĪ JOMHŪR AḤSĀʾĪ, Moḥammad
Todd Lawson
b. Zayn-al-Dīn Abi’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Ḥosām-al-Dīn Ebrāhīm (b. ca. 1433-34; d. after 4 July 1499), Shiʿite thinker.
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EBN ABĪ ṢĀDEQ, ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿABD-al-RAḤMĀN
Lutz Richter-Bernburg
b. ʿAlī b. Aḥmad NAYŠĀBŪRĪ (Nīšāpūr, 11th century), medical author known in the century after his death, at least in Khorasan, as “the second Hippocrates," and reportedly a student of Avicenna.
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EBN ABĪ ṬĀHER ṬAYFŪR, ABU’L-FAŻL AḤMAD
C. Edmund Bosworth
(819-93), littérateur (adīb) and historian of Baghdad, of a Khorasani family.
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EBN ABI’L ḤADĪD
Cross-Reference
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EBN AL-ʿAMĪD
Ihsan Abbas
cognomen of two famous viziers of the 4th/10th century: Abu’l-Fażl and his son Abu’l-Fatḥ.
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EBN AL-ʿARABĪ, MOḤYĪ-al-DĪN Abū ʿAbd-Allāh Moḥammad Ṭāʾī Ḥātemī
William C. Chittick
(b. 28 July 1165; d. 10 November 1240), the most influential Sufi author of later Islamic history, known to his supporters as al-Šayḵ al-akbar, “the Greatest Master.”
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EBN AL-AṮĪR, ʿEZZ-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ
D. S. Richards
b. Moḥammad Jazarī (b. Jazīrat Ebn ʿOmar [modern Cizre, in eastern Turkey] 13 May 1160; d. Mosul, June 1233), major Islamic historian and important source for the history of Persia and adjacent areas from the Samanids to the first Mongol invasion.
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EBN AL-BALḴĪ
C. Edmund Bosworth
conventional name for an otherwise unknown author of Fārs-nāma, a local history and geography of the province of Fārs written in Persian during the Saljuq period.
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EBN AL-BAYṬĀR, ŻĪĀʾ-AL-DĪN ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH
Hūšang Aʿlam
b. Aḥmad (?-1248), Andalusian botanist and pharmacologist.
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EBN AL-BAYYEʿ
Cross-Reference
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EBN AL-ʿEBRĪ, ABU’L-FARAJ
Herman G. B. Teule
(1225-1286), Syriac historian and polymath. Most of his works were in Syriac, but he also wrote in Arabic. In his Syriac Chronicle, much attention is given to the vicissitudes of the Jacobite and East Syrian, or Nestorian, churches in the “Persian territories.”
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EBN AL-EḴŠĪD, ABŪ BAKR AḤMAD
Daniel Gimaret
b. ʿAlī b. Beḡčor (884-938), Muʿtazilite theologian.
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EBN AL-FAQĪH, ABŪ BAKR AḤMAD
Anas B. Khalidov
b. Moḥammad b. Esḥāq b. Ebrāhīm HAMADĀNĪ Aḵbārī (fl. second half of the 9th century), man of letters, who wrote in Arabic Ketāb aḵbār al- boldān, a geographic work, in which primarily the Islamic world with its centers in Arabia, Persia, and Iraq are described.
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EBN AL-FOWAṬĪ, KAMĀL-AL-DĪN ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ
Charles Melville
(1244-1323), b. Aḥmad, librarian and historian.
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EBN AL-JEʿĀBĪ, ABŪ BAKR MOḤAMMAD
Wilferd Madelung
(897-966), b. ʿOmar Tamīmī Ḥāfeẓ, traditionist with Shiʿite leanings.
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EBN AL-JONAYD, ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD
Wilferd Madelung
or al-Jonaydī; b. Aḥmad Kāteb Eskāfī, 10th century Imami jurist.
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EBN AL-MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH
J. Derek Latham
(721-757), b. Dādūya/Dādōē, chancery secretary (kāteb) and major Arabic prose writer.
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EBN AL-MOṬAHHAR
Cross-Reference
See ḤELLĪ, ʿALLĀMA.
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EBN AL-NADĪM
Cross-Reference
Shi'ite scholar and bibliographer of the 10th century, famous as the author of Ketāb al-fehrest. See under FEHREST.
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EBN AL-QAṢṢĀB, ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR MOʾAYYAD-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD
Richard W. Bulliet
(b. ca. 1128), b. ʿAlī, Shiʿite vizier of the caliph al-Nāṣer from 1194 to 1195.
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EBN AL-ṬEQṬAQĀ, ṢAFĪ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD
Charles Melville
(1262 ?-after 1309 ?), b. ʿAlī b. Ṭabāṭabā, historian and naqīb of the ʿAlids in Ḥella.
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EBN AMĀJŪR
Cross-Reference
See BANŪ AMĀJŪR.
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EBN ʿĀMER
Cross-Reference
See ʿABD-ALLĀH B. ʿĀMER.
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EBN ʿARABŠĀH, ŠEHĀB-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ʿABBĀS AḤMAD
John E. Woods
(1389-Cairo, 1450), b. Moḥammad … Ḥanafī ʿAjamī, literary scholar and biographer of Tamerlane (Tīmūr).
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EBN AṢDAQ, MĪRZĀ ʿALĪ-MOḤAMMAD
Stephen Lambden
(b. Mašhad 1850; d. Tehran, 1928), prominent Bahai missionary.
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EBN AŠTAR
D.M. Dunlop
(d. at Maskin on the Tigris, in September-October 691), Arab chief and Shiʿite military leader.
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EBN ʿAṬṬĀŠ
Cross-Reference
See ʿAṬṬĀŠ.
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EBN ʿAYYĀŠ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM
Daniel Gimaret
b. Moḥammad Baṣrī, Muʿtazilite theologian (d. late 10th century), member of the so-called “school of Baṣra” and a partisan of the ideas of Abū Hāšem Jobbāʾī.
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EBN BĀBĀ KĀŠĀNĪ (Qāšānī), ABU’L-ʿABBĀS
C. Edmund Bosworth
(d. Marv, 1116-17), Persian writer and boon-companion (nadīm), whose manual for courtiers preserves otherwise lost information on the later Ghaznavids.
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EBN BĀBAWAYH (1)
Sheila S. Blair
(Bābūya), family of Persian builders, luster potters, and tile makers, descended from the Shiʿite scholar Ebn Bābūya al-Ṣadūq (d. 991) and active in the 12th-14th centuries.
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EBN BĀBAWAYH (2)
Martin McDermott
(Bābūya), SHAIKH ṢADŪQ ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD b. Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī... Mūsā Qomī (b. Qom after 305, probably about 311/923; d. Ray, 381/991), author of one of the authoritative four books of Imami Shiʿite Hadith, Man lā yaḥżoroho’l-faqīh.
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EBN BĀKŪYA
Cross-Reference
See BĀBĀ KŪHĪ.
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EBN BAQIYA
C. E. Bosworth
called Naṣir-al-Dawla and Nāṣeḥ "Counselor,” vizier of the Buyids in Iraq, b. 314/926, d. 367/978.
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EBN BAṬṬŪṬA
Charles F. Beckingham
(1304-1368/9), the most famous Muslim traveler.
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EBN BAZZĀZ
Roger Savory
author of the Ṣafwat al-ṣafāʾ, a biography of Shaikh Ṣafī-al-Dīn Esḥāq Ardabīlī (d. 935/1334), founder of the Safavid order of Sufis and the eponym of the Safavid dynasty.
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EBN BĪBĪ, NĀṢER-AL-DĪN ḤOSAYN
Tahsin Yazici
b. Moḥammad b. ʿAlī Jaʿfarī Roḡadī, Persian historian and man of letters.
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EBN BOḴTĪŠŪʿ
Lutz Richter-Bernburg
prominent family of physicians of Gondēšāpūr at court during the early ʿAbbasid period.
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EBN DĀʿĪ RĀZĪ, ABŪ TORĀB ṢAFĪ-AL-DĪN MORTAŻĀ
Marco Salami
b. Dāʿī b. Qāsem Rāzī Ḥosaynī (or Ḥasanī), known as ʿAlam-al-Hodā (d. after 1132), Imami traditionist and author of a heresiography in Persian.
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EBN DĀROST, MAJD-AL-WOZARĀʾ MOḤAMMAD
C. Edmund Bosworth
b. Manṣūr (d. Ahvā, 1074), vizier to the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Qāʾem from 9 May 1061 to 9 December 1062.
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EBN DĀROST, TĀJ-AL-MOLK ABU’L-ḠANĀʾEM MARZBĀN
C. Edmund Bosworth
b. Ḵosrow-Fīrūz Šīrāzī (1046-93), last vizier of the Great Saljuq Sultan Malekšāh.
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EBN DAYṢĀN
Cross-Reference
See BARDESANES.
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EBN DOROSTAWAYH, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALL
Seeger A. Bonebakker
b. Jaʿfar b. Dorostawayh b. Marzbān (b. Fasā, 871; d. Baghdad, May 958), grammarian and lexicographer of Persian origin.
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EBN ELYĀS, MANṢŪR
Gul A. Russell
(fl. late 14th-early 15th cent.), author of two extant Persian works: a medical compilation titled Kefāya-ye mojāhedīya and an illustrated anatomy text known as the Tašrīḥ-e manṣūrī. The five full-page drawings, corresponding to the five treatises in the Tašrīḥ, are unique in the history of Islamic medicine.
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EBN ESFANDĪĀR, BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD
Charles Melville
b. Ḥasan, historian, probably from Āmol, who flourished around the turn of the 13th century.
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EBN FAHD ḤELLĪ, ABU’L-ʿABBĀS JAMĀL-AL-DĪN AḤMAD
Marco Salami
b. Šams-al-Dīn Moḥammad (1355-1437), Imami scholar and jurist.
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EBN FARĪḠŪN
Cross-Reference
See ĀL-E FARĪḠŪN.
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EBN FAŻLĀN
Cross-Reference
See AḤMAD B. FAŻLĀN.
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EBN FONDOQ
Cross-Reference
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EBN FŪLĀD
C. Edmund Bosworth
(or Ebn Pūlād), military adventurer, probably of Daylamī origin, active in northern Persia during the Buyid period (early 11th century) and typical of the soldiers of fortune characterizing the “Daylamī intermezzo” of medieval Persian history.
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EBN FŪRAK
Forthcoming
EBN FŪRAK. See Supplement.
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EBN ḤAWQAL, ABU’L-QĀSEM MOḤAMMAD
Anas B. Khalidov
b. ʿAlī Naṣībī, traveler and geographer of the 10th century.
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EBN ḤAWŠAB, ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤASAN
Heinz Halm
b. Faraj (or Faraḥ) b. Ḥawšab b. Zāḏān Najjār Kūfī, known also as Manṣūr al-Yaman (d. 914), Ismaʿili dāʿī and founder of the Ismaʿili community in northern Yemen.
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EBN HENDŪ, ABU’L-FARAJ ʿALĪ
Lutz Richter-Bernburg
b. Ḥosayn, also known as Ostāḏ (b. in Ṭabarestān, no later than the early 960s; d. in or after 1031), author of, inter alia, propaedeutic epistles on philosophy and medicine and of a gnomology of Greek wisdom, and generally renowned as a litterateur.
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EBN ḤOSĀM ḴᵛĀFĪ, MOḤAMMAD
Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā
or Ḵūsfī, a poet of the 15th century.
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EBN ḴAFĪF
Forthcoming
See Supplement.
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EBN ḴĀLAWAYH, ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH ḤOSAYN
Michael G. Carter
b. Aḥmad b. Ḥamdān Hamaḏānī, philologist and Koran scholar.
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EBN ḴALDŪN, ABŪ ZAYD ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN
Franz Rosenthal
b. Moḥammad (b. 27 May 1332; d. 17 March 1406), the historian famous for the general theory of history and civilization brilliantly expounded in his Moqaddema.
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EBN ḴALLĀD, ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD BAṢRĪ
Daniel Gimaret
(d. 2nd half of 10th century), Muʿtazilite theologian of the so-called “school of Baṣra,” partisan of the ideas of Abū Hāšem Jobbāʾī.
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EBN ḴAMMĀR, ABU’L-ḴAYR ḤASAN
W. Montgomery Watt
b. Savār (or Sovār), b. Bābā b. Bahrām (or Behnām) Ḵᵛārazmī, philosopher.
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EBN ḴĀQĀN, FATḤ
Cross-Reference
See FATḤ B. ḴĀQĀN.
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EBN ḴARMĪL
C. Edmund Bosworth
early 13th century military commander of the Ghurids, and connected, according to Jūzjānī, with the district of Gorzevān on the headwaters of the Morḡāb in the province of Gūzgān in northern Afghanistan.
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EBN ḴĀZEM
Cross-Reference
See ʿABDALLĀH B. ḴĀZEM.
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EBN ḴORDĀḎBEH, ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH
C. Edmund Bosworth
b. ʿAbd-Allāh (fl. 9th century), author of the earliest surviving Arabic book of administrative geography.
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EBN MAFANA
C. E. Bosworth
vizier to the Buyid ruler of Fars and Khuzestan.
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EBN MĀHĀN
Cross-Reference
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EBN MĀJŪR
Cross-Reference
See BANŪ AMĀJŪR.
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EBN MĀKŪLA
Cross-Reference
See ĀL-E MĀKŪLĀ.
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EBN MARDAWAYH, AHMAD
C. Edmund Bosworth
b. Mūsā b. Mardawayh b. Fūrak Eṣfahānī (935-1019), scholar of Isfahan in the Buyid period, who wrote in the fields of tradition, tafsīr (Koranic exegsis), history, and geography.
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EBN MARZOBĀN, ABŪ AḤMAD ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN
D. M. Dunlop
b. ʿAlī b. Marzbān Ṭabīb Marzbānī (d. Tostar, February-March 1006), administrative official under the Buyids.
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EBN MATTAWAYH, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ḤASAN
Martin McDermott
b. Aḥmad b. Mattawayh, Muʿtazilite theologian of the Basran school, a student of Qāżī ʿAbd-al-Jabbār (d. 1025).
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EBN MESKAWAYH
Cross-Reference
Persian chancery official and treasury clerk of the Buyid period, boon companion, litterateur and accomplished writer in Arabic on a variety of topics, including history, theology, philosophy and medicine (d. 421/1030). See MESKAWAYH, ABU ʿALI AḤMAD.
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EBN MOʿĀVĪA
Cross-Reference
See ʿABDALLAH B. MOʿĀVĪA.
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EBN MOBĀRAK
Cross-Reference
See ʿABDALLAH B. MOBĀRAK.
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EBN MOHALHEL
Cross-Reference
See ABŪ DOLAF AL-YANBŪʿĪ.
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EBN MOLJAM
Forthcoming
Ebn Moljam will be discussed in a future online entry.
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EBN MORSAL, LAYṮ
C. Edmund Bosworth
b. Fażl, a client (mawlā) and governor of Sīstān 815-19.
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EBN MOSTAWFĪ, ABU’L-BARAKĀT ŠARAF-AL-DĪN MOBĀRAK
Ihsan Abbas
b. Aḥmad b. Mobārak Erbelī (1168-1239), historian of Erbel.
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EBN MOṬARREF
Cross-Reference
See ABU’L-WAZĪR MARVAZĪ.
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EBN NAWBAḴT, ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM
Cross-Reference
See NAWBAḴTĪ FAMILY.
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EBN NAWBAḴT, ABŪ SAHL
Cross-Reference
See ABŪ SAHL NAWBAḴTĪ.
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EBN NAWBAḴT, ḤASAN B. MŪSĀ
Cross-Reference
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EBN NOṢRAT, AMIR BAHĀʾ-AL- DĪN BARANDAQ ḴOJANDĪ
Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā
(b. 1356; d. ca. 1433), Timurid poet.
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EBN QEBA, ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD
Martin McDermott
b. ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān Rāzī (d. Ray, before 931), one of the most prominent and active Imami theologians.
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EBN QOTAYBA, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH
Franz Rosenthal
b. Moslem DĪNAVARĪ, (828-889), important early philologist in the widest sense of the term and author of numerous works on what is known as the “Arab sciences,” including the religious sciences dealing with the Koran and Hadith.
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EBN QŪLAWAYH, ABU’L- QĀSEM JAʿFAR
Martin McDermott
b. Moḥammad b. Jaʿfar b. Mūsāb. Qūlawayh Qomī Baḡdādī (d. Baghdad, 978 or 979), Imami traditionist and jurist, a disciple of Abū Jaʿfar Kolaynī and teacher of Shaikh Mofīd.
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EBN RABĪṬ
Cross-Reference
See ʿABDĀN B. AL-RABĪṬ.
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EBN RĀVANDĪ, ABU’l-ḤOSAYN AḤMAD
Josef van Ess
b. Yaḥyā (d. 910?), Muʿtazilite theologian and “heretic” of Ḵorāsānī origin.
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EBN RĒVANDĪ
Cross-Reference
See EBN RĀVANDĪ.
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EBN ROSTA, ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD
C. Edmund Bosworth
b. ʿOmar (d. after 903), Persian author of a geographical compendium.
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EBN RŪḤ, ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤOSAYN
Cross-Reference
See ḤOSAYN B. RŪḤ.
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EBN SAʿD, ʿOMAR
Jean Calmard
(k. Kūfa 686), commander of the Omayyad troops at Karbalāʾ.
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EBN ŠĀḎĀN
Wilferd Madelung
family name of two Imami traditionists: Abu’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. ʿAlī b. Ḥasan (or Ḥosayn) Fāmī Qomī (10th century) and his son.
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EBN ŠĀḎĀN, ABŪ ʿALĪ
Cross-Reference
See ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD.
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EBN ŠĀHAWAYH
Wilferd Madelung
a leader and envoy of the Carmatians.
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EBN SAHLĀN SĀVAJĪ, Qāżī ZAYN-AL-DĪN ʿOMAR
Hossein Ziai
(b. Sāva, fl. early 12th century), Persian philosopher and logician.
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EBN ŠAHRĀŠŪB, ABŪ JAʿFAR ZAYN-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD
Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi
b. ʿALī b. Šahrāšūb b. Abī Naṣr b. Abi’l-Jayš (b. Sārī, Māzandarān; d. Aleppo, 2 September 1192), the most illustrious Imami scholar of the 12th century.
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EBN SĪNA
Cross-Reference
See AVICENNA.
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EBN SORAYJ
Cross-Reference
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EBN ṬABĀṬABĀ, ABU’L-ḤASAN MOḤAMMAD
Ihsan Abbas
b. Aḥmad b. Moḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Ebrāhīm Eṣfahānī (d. 933), poet and critic.
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EBN ṬĀWŪS, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN ABU’L- FAŻĀʾEL AḤMAD
Wilferd Madelung
b. Mūsā b. Jaʿfar b. Moḥammad Ḥasanī, 12th century Imami scholar.
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EBN ṬĀWŪS, RAŻĪ-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ
Etan Kohlberg
b. Mūsā b. Jaʿfar (b. Ḥella, 21 January 1193; d. Baghdad, 8 August 1266), Imami author, scholar, and bibliophile, called Ḏu’l-ḥasabayn “possessing two distinctions” because he was descended from both Ḥasan and Ḥosayn.
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EBN TORK
Cross-Reference
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EBN TORKA
Cross-Reference
See ṢĀʾN-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ EṢFAHĀNĪ.
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EBN YAMĪN, AMĪR FAḴR-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD
Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak
b. Amir Yamīn-al-Dīn Ṭoḡrāʾī, a poet of the 14th century.
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EBN ZĪĀD, ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH
Jean Calmard
(b. ca. 648), Omayyad governor responsible for the death of the Imam Ḥosayn b. ʿAlī.
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EBRĀHĪM
Amnon Netzer
Abraham, the name of the first patriarch of the Hebrew people.
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EBRĀHĪM ʿAKKĀS-BĀŠĪ
Cross-Reference
See ʿAKKĀS-BĀŠĪ.
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EBRĀHĪM AMĪN-AL-SOLṬĀN
Cross-Reference
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EBRĀHĪM B. ADHAM
EIr
b. Manṣūr b. Yazīd b. Jāber ʿEjlī (d. 777-78), prominent Sufi and ascetic of 8th century.
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EBRĀHĪM B. ALPTIGIN, ABŪ ESḤĀQ
Cross-Reference
See ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM.
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EBRĀHĪM B. ESMĀʿĪL
Sheila S. Blair
Safavid architect mentioned on two tiles: one in the dome of the tomb of Shaikh ʿAbd-al-Ṣamad at Naṭanz and another, dated 1661-62, in the south wall of the south ayvān of the congregational mosque at Isfahan.
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EBRĀHĪM B. ḤOSAYN
Cross-Reference
See TAHERIDS.
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EBRĀHĪM B. JARĪR
Munibur Rahman
author of a general history called Tārīḵ-e ebrāhīmī or Tārīḵ-e homāyūnī.
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EBRĀHĪM B. MASʿŪD
C. Edmund Bosworth
b. Maḥmūd b. Sebüktegīn, Abu’l-Moẓaffar, Ẓahīr-al-Dawla, Rażī-al-Dīn, etc., Ghaznavid sultan (r. 1059-99).
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EBRĀHĪM B. NAṢR
Cross-Reference
See BÖRĪ.
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EBRĀHĪM B. ʿOṮMĀN
Sheila S. Blair
Persian metalworker named in the inscription in Kufic script on the copper door knockers removed from a city gate in medieval Ganja (Soviet Kirovabad, Republic of Azerbaijan) and taken to the convent of Gelatʿi in Imeretiya, just east of Kutaisi in Georgia.
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EBRĀHĪM BEG
Cross-Reference
See ZAYN-AL-ʿĀBEDĪN MARĀḠAʾĪ.
-
EBRĀHĪM DEDE ŠĀHEDĪ
Tahsin Yazici
Turkish poet and lexicographer.
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EBRĀHĪM FĀRŪQĪ
Cross-Reference
15th century poet and author of Farhang-e Ebrāhīmi. See under FARHANG-E EBRĀHIMI.
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EBRĀHĪM ĪNĀL
C. Edmund Bosworth
or Yenāl (d. 1059), early Saljuq leader.
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EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR ŠĪRĀZĪ
Abbas Amanat
(b. 1745, d. 1800/1801), lord mayor (kalāntar) of Shiraz during the late Zand era, the first grand vizier (ṣadr-e aʿẓam), and a major political figure of the Qajar period.
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EBRĀHĪM ḴALĪL KHAN JAVĀNŠĪR
GEORGE A. BOURNOUTIAN
Khan of Qarābāḡ in late 18th century.
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EBRĀHĪM KHAN AFŠĀR
Cross-Reference
See AFSHARIDS.
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EBRĀHĪM KHAN ḠAFFĀRĪ
Cross-Reference
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EBRĀHĪM KHAN QĀJĀR
Cross-Reference
-
EBRĀHĪM LODĪ
Cross-Reference
See LODĪ DYNASTY.
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EBRĀHĪM MAWṢELĪ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ
Everett Rowson
the most celebrated musician at the court of Hārūn al-Rašīd and a central figure in the development of the Iraqi school of music under the early ʿAbbasids.
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EBRĀHĪM MĪRZĀ
Marianna S. Simpson
(b. April 1540; d. 23 February 1577), Safavid prince, patron, artist, and poet generally referred to as Solṭān Ebrāhīm Mīrzā.
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EBRĀHĪM NAẒẒĀM
Cross-Reference
See ABŪ ESḤĀQ NAẒẒĀM.
-
EBRĀHĪM ṢAḤḤĀF-BĀŠĪ
Cross-reference
See ṢAḤḤĀF-BĀŠĪ.
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EBRĀHĪM ŠARQĪ
Cross-Reference
See ŠARQĪ.
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EBRĀHĪM SHAH AFŠĀR
John R. Perry
nephew of Nāder Shah, claiming the Afsharid throne briefly (1748-49)
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EBRĀHĪM ŠĪRĀZĪ
Carl W. Ernst
historian of the ʿĀdelšāhī dynasty of Bījāpūr (b. 1540-41).
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EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN
Priscilla P. Soucek
(1394-35), b. Šāhroḵ, Timurid prince, ruler of Shiraz, military commander, and renowned calligrapher.
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EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN, ABU’L-QĀSEM
Cross-Reference
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EBRĀHĪM ṬEHRĀNĪ
Priscilla P. Soucek
also known as Mīrzā ʿAmū, a 19th century calligrapher specializing in the nastaʿlīq script.
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EBRĀHĪMĀBĀDĪ DIALECT
Cross-Reference
See RĀMANDĪ.
-
EBRĀHĪMĪ, ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ
Cross-Reference
-
EBRĀHĪMĪ, ABU’L-QĀSEM KHAN
Cross-Reference
-
ʿEBRAT
EIr
a monthly magazine first published on 4 February 1956 as the organ of Tūda party prisoners under the auspices and with the facilities of the Office of Tehran’s Military Governor, General Teymūr Baḵtīār.
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ʿEBRAT, Sayyed MOḤAMMAD-QĀSEM
Munibur Rahman
author of ʿEbrat-nāma, a history of the reigns of Awrangzēb’s successors to 1723.
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ʿEBRĪ
Cross-Reference
"hebrew." See under JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES.
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EBTEHAJ, ABOLHASSAN
Geoffrey Jones
(1899-1999), prominent banker, economic planner, and one of the most important and powerful figures in the economic history of Iran during the middle decades of the 20th century.
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ECBATANA
Stuart C. Brown
present-day Hamadān, capital of the Median empire, summer capital of the Achaemenids, and satrapal seat of the province of Media from Achaemenid to Sasanian times.
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ECKMANN, János
ANDRÁS BODROGLIGETI
(1905-1971), a Hungarian Professor of Chaghatay.
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ECOLOGY
Eckart Ehlers
the study of organisms, both flora and fauna, in relation to their environments. Five primary ecological regions in Persia each have a characteristic combination of features: Caspian lowlands, Alborz system and mountains in Khorasan, Persian plateau, Zagros system. Makrān mountains, and the Persian Gulf lowlands.
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ECONOMY
Multiple Authors
i. Economic geography, ii. In the Pre-Achaemenid period, iii. In the Achaemenid period, iv. In the Sasanian period, v. From the Arab conquest to the end of the Il-khanids, vi. In the Timurid period, vii. From the Safavids through the Zands, viii. In the Qajar period, ix. In the Pahlavi period, x. Under the Islamic Republic, xi. In modern Afghanistan, xii. In Tajikistan.
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ECONOMY i. ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
Xavier de Planhol
The high plateau and its external relations. The heartland of the Iranian world, encompassing both Persia and Afghanistan, is an arid high plateau, from which communication with the outside world is extraordinarily difficult.
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ECONOMY ii. IN THE PRE-ACHAEMENID PERIOD
Robert C. Henrickson
Pre-Median Persia was a crucial economic component of ancient southwest Asia from the earliest times.
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ECONOMY iii. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD
Muhammad A. Dandamayev
The Achaemenid empire, extending from the Indus river to the Aegean sea, comprised such economically developed countries as Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, Babylonia, Elam, and Asia Minor, lands which had their long traditions of social institutions, as well as Sakai, Massagetai, Lycians, Libyans, Nubians and other tribes undergoing the disintegration of the primitive-communal phase.
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ECONOMY iv. IN THE SASANIAN PERIOD
Ryka Gyselen
The Sasanians, who inherited the economic conditions left by the Parthians, were quick to forge an economic state so powerful and distinctive that its fame spread well beyond their political frontiers and their period.
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ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 1)
Ann K. S. Lambton
The economic order in Islamic Persia was in theory, if not always in practice, derived from Islamic norms.
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ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 2)
Ann K. S. Lambton
The political breakdown of the caliphate in the 3rd/9th and 4th/10th centuries, although disastrous for the finances of the state and for agriculture in ʿErāq-e ʿArab and, perhaps, also in Ḵūzestān and parts of western Persia, did not have ill effects immediately on the economic life of Persia as a whole.
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ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 3)
Ann K. S. Lambton
As the needs of the state grew, there was a constant shortage of specie to meet its expenses. As a result of the devastation and demographic decline brought about by the invasions, there was less land under cultivation and fewer people engaged in agriculture.
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ECONOMY vi. IN THE TIMURID PERIOD
Maria E. Subtelny
The Timurid invasions against the Kartid rulers of Khorasan, which began in 783/1381, caused socioeconomic dislocation and unprecedented wholesale destruction and pillaging of towns, as well as brutal massacres of their populations.
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ECONOMY vii. FROM THE SAFAVIDS THROUGH THE ZANDS
Bert Fragner
The first Safavid king, Esmāʿīl I (907-30/1501-24), initiated a process of political and religious change in Persia that profoundly affected the economic structure.
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ECONOMY viii. IN THE QAJAR PERIOD
Hassan Hakimian
At the outset of the Qajar dynasty, the Persian economy displayed the characteristics of a traditional economy disintegrating under the stress of political anarchy.
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ECONOMY ix. IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD
M. Hashem Pesaran
Overall, under the Pahlavis the Persian economy made significant advances which compared favorably with the experience of countries such as Turkey and Egypt, which were in a better state of development after the First World War.
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ECONOMY x. UNDER THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC
Vahid F. Nowshirvani
Since 1979 there have been marked changes in the economic policies, institutions, and structure of the country, and major economic dislocation and disruption of production. Not all the changes have resulted directly from the revolution.
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ECONOMY xi. IN MODERN AFGHANISTAN
M. Siddieq Noorzoy
From 1970 until the coup d’état in April 1978, followed by the Soviet invasion in December 1979, the Afghan economy experienced sustained high economic growth. Gross domestic product rose at a rate of 4.5 percent annually.
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ECONOMY xii. IN TAJIKISTAN
Habib Borjian
During the seventy years of centralized Soviet administration, the economy of Tajikistan was modernized and integrated into the Soviet economy. The Tajik Soviet Republic exhibited comparatively remarkable growth in the agricultural and industrial sectors.
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ʿEDĀLAT, ḤEZB-E
Fakhreddin Azimi
(Ar. ʿAdālat “justice”), Persian political party founded by ʿAlī Daštī in December 1941.
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ʿEDĀLAT-ḴĀNA
Cross-Reference
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EDEB
Amir Hassanpour
b. Armanī Bolāḡī (1860-1918), pen name of the Kurdish poet ʿAbd-Allāh Beg b. Aḥmad Beg Bābāmīrī Miṣbāḥ-al-Dīwān.
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EDESSA
Samuel Lieu
now Urfa in southeastern Turkey, former capital of ancient Osrhoene. Edessa was held successively by the Seleucids, Parthians, and Romans. The fact that coins were minted at Edessa under Antiochus IV suggests a degree of autonomy and importance in the Seleucid period. Greeks were never predominant in the population, however.
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EDITING
Karim Emami
the techniques of preparing a text for publication, now widely practiced at the major publishing houses in Persia.
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EDMONDS, C. J
Yann RICHARD
The son of a British missionary, Edmonds was born in Japan, where he stayed up to the age of eight. He was educated in England at Bedford and Christ’s Hospital public schools and finally studied oriental languages at Cambridge under the supervision of E. G. Browne for two years.
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EDUCATION
Multiple Authors
(Pers. āmūzeš o parvareš; earlier Ar. Per. taʿlīm o tarbīat) in Iranian-speaking areas.
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EDUCATION i. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD
Muhammad A. Dandamayev
In two Elamite documents from Persepolis drafted in the 23rd regnal year of Darius I (499 B.C.E.) “Persian boys (who) are copying texts” are mentioned; the texts in question are records of the issue of grain to twenty-nine individuals and wine to sixteen.
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EDUCATION ii. IN THE PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS
Aḥmad Tafażżolī
No concrete evidence on education in Parthian times has survived. It may be postulated, however, that it was similar to education in the Sasanian period.
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EDUCATION iii. THE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
Jalīl Dūstḵᵛāh and Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī
Before the establishment of a modern educational system in Persia, children received their early and intermediate education in the maktab (or maktab-ḵāna, lit., “place of writing”) under the tutelage of an āḵūnd, mulla (clerical teacher), or moʿallem (teacher).
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EDUCATION iv. THE MEDIEVAL MADRASA
Christopher Melchert
lit., “place to study” Ar. darasa “to study”. It was a college for the professional study of the Islamic sciences, particularly jurisprudence (feqh) but also the Koran, Hadith, and such ancillary fields as Arabic grammar and philology, knowledge of which helped in understanding sacred and legal texts.
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EDUCATION v. THE MADRASA IN SHIʿITE PERSIA
ʿAbbās Zaryāb
After the introduction of the institutionalized madrasa by Neẓām-al-Molk in the late 11th century, above) Shiʿite madrasas were also founded in Persia and Iraq. These schools were local efforts, however, and did not constitute a unitary system of education.
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EDUCATION vi. THE MADRASA IN SUNNI KURDISTAN
ʿAbd-Allāh Mardūḵ
Every mosque also contained a chamber called a ḥojra, where the mulla offered lessons in religion and theology free of charge to Muslim boys. Boys, though very seldom girls, began their studies at the age of seven years.
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EDUCATION vii. GENERAL SURVEY OF MODERN EDUCATION
Ahmad Ashraf
A modern system of national education emerged in Persia in the 1920s and 1930s, after the Pahlavi state had been founded; during this period the influence of the religious establishment was minimized, and the government gained control over schools, expanding enrollment at all levels.
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EDUCATION viii. NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS
Tūrān Mīrhādī
Formalized preschool education in Persia can be traced back to ca. 1891, when Armenians in Jolfā, near Isfahan, founded a kindergarten, which continues today. By 1919 there were a few kindergartens in Tehran and other cities, primarily founded by missionaries and minority groups.
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EDUCATION ix. PRIMARY SCHOOLS
Sayyed ʿAlī Āl-e Dāwūd
At first primary and secondary schools were not distinct, and the primary levels sometimes consisted of only four grades. There were no general instructional materials and no uniform curriculum, each school being under the direction of its founder or principal.
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EDUCATION x. MIDDLE AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Aḥmad Bīrašk
Modern secondary education in Persia was originally based on the 19th-century European humanistic system, focused on general knowledge and building character rather than on professional or vocational training. This philosophy dominated the Persian system until the 1960s, when reforms were introduced by American advisers.
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EDUCATION xi. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL GROUPS
Aḥmad Bīrašk
After the Constitutional Revolution some of these schools were closed, and the others were brought under state management. During the next fifteen years several more private schools were founded.
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EDUCATION xii. VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS
Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr
In 1958 the General Department of Vocational Training was established in the Ministry of Education. It was responsible for establishing a number of agricultural, industrial, commercial, and secretarial schools.
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EDUCATION xiii. RURAL AND TRIBAL SCHOOLS
Moḥammad Bahmanbeygī, Nāṣer Mīr, Moḥammad Pūrsartīp, and EIr
Compulsory-education laws enacted in 1911 and 1943 provided the legal framework for the extension of modern education into rural and tribal areas. Until the 1950s, however, the Persian government did not possess the resources to implement these laws; in addition, landowners and tribal khans resisted such efforts.
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EDUCATION xiv. SPECIAL SCHOOLS
Samineh Baghchehban-Pirnazar
Until 1968 responsibility for children with special educational needs had fallen on the individual schools. In that year the National Organization for Special Education was established as a general directorate under a deputy minister of education.
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EDUCATION xv. FOREIGN AND MINORITY SCHOOLS IN PERSIA
EIr
Modern education was introduced to Persia in the 19th century by European and American religious institutions and military advisers.
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EDUCATION xvi. SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS
Aḥmad Bīrašk and EIr
No standardized schoolbooks existed in Persia before the advent of the modern educational system. The first were written by European teachers at the Dār al-fonūn in the mid-19th century.
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EDUCATION xvii. HIGHER EDUCATION
David Menashri
Initially Reżā Shah’s government, like the Qajar government before it, encouraged aspiring professionals to study abroad, but, while urging them to absorb practical elements of Western culture, he also warned them to reject “harmful” influences and preserve their own national identity.
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EDUCATION xix. TEACHERS’-TRAINING COLLEGES
Majd-al-Dīn Keyvānī
Dānešgāh-e tarbīat-e moʿallem, the oldest institution for educating teachers in Persia, was founded in Tehran in 1336/1918. It has gone through various phases and changes of name since.
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EDUCATION xviii. TEACHERS’-TRAINING SCHOOLS
Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾ ī
In March 1934 an act establishing lower and advanced schools for teachers’ training under the Ministry of Education (Wezārat-e maʿāref) was adopted by the Majles, and an operating charter for such schools was ratified in July of the same year.
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EDUCATION xx. ADULT EDUCATION
Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr
The Ministry of Education (Wezārat-e maʿāref) established adult-literacy classes in state schools considered suitable. They were to last two years and to consist of ninety-six two-hour classes each year, free of charge. Reading and writing Persian, arithmetic, and elementary history, geography, and civics were to be taught.
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EDUCATION xxi. EDUCATION ABROAD
Afshin Matin-Asgari
A survey of 350 students abroad between 1811 and 1920 indicates that more than 50 percent of the total studied in France, about 15 percent in Russia, and 5-10 percent in Germany, England, Switzerland, Istanbul, and Beirut. A small number studied in Egypt, India, and the United States.
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EDUCATION xxii. PHYSICAL EDUCATION
Cross-Reference
See PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
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EDUCATION xxiii. MILITARY EDUCATION
Cross-reference
See MILITARY EDUCATION.
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EDUCATION xxiv. EDUCATION IN POSTREVOLUTIONARY PERSIA, 1979-95
Golnar Mehran
The history of education in the Islamic Republic falls into two phases: from the revolution to the cease-fire between Persia and Iraq in 1367 Š./1988 (the revolutionary period), when Islamic ideology predominated, and the subsequent period of reconstruction and privatization.
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EDUCATION xxv. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE QAJAR PERIOD
Afsaneh Najmabadi
The premodern conception of women’s education was varied. In some medieval books of ethical instruction and counsel teaching women to read was recommended, whereas other authors warned against it.
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EDUCATION xxvi. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD AND AFTER
EIr
In the 1920s and 1930s women’s public education in Persia was established and grew rapidly. In 1926-27 the enrollment of females in primary schools was about 17,000, 21 percent of total enrollment at that level.
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EDUCATION xxvii. IN AFGHANISTAN
M. Mobin Shorish
By the end of the 19th century, mosque schools (maktabs) and madrasas had lost their vitality, rigor, and scope. Internecine struggles among the ruling Abdālī and subsequently among the Moḥammadzai clan ensured that no trace of regular and systematic education remained in the country.
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EDUCATION xxviii. IN TAJIKISTAN
Habib Borjian
Modern education in Tajikistan developed as the country emerged as a Soviet socialist republic, under the Soviet policy of standardization, with language as virtually the only variable. In Tajikistan, as in other Central Asian republics, this policy brought about nearly universal literacy.
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EFTEḴĀR DAWLATĀBĀDĪ, ʿABD-AL-WAHHĀB BOḴĀRĪ
S. Moinul Haq
(b. Ahmadnagar; d. Dawlatābād, 1776), Deccani biographer and poet in Urdu and Persian.
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EFTEḴĀRĪĀN
François de Blois
a family of officials and poets from Qazvīn, reputed descendants of the caliph Abū Bakr, who flourished under the early Il-khans in the 13th century.
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EGGPLANT
Cross-Reference
See BĀDENJĀN.
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EḠLAMEŠ
Cross-Reference
See SAYF-AL-DĪN ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN EḠLAMEŠ.
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EGLANTINE
Cross-Reference
See NASTARAN.
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EGYPT
Multiple Authors
relations with Persia and Afghanistan.
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EGYPT i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period
Edda Bresciani
The last pharaoh of the Twenty-Sixth dynasty, Psamtik III, was defeated by Cambyses II in the battle of Pelusium in the eastern Nile delta in 525 B.C.E.; Egypt was then joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid empire.
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EGYPT ii. Egyptian influence on Persia in the Pre-Islamic period
Philip Huyse
In the fields of artistic work, architecture and sculpture, the Persians do not seem to have had any lasting impact on Egyptian tradition, during either both Achaemenid occupations of Egypt, or the short-lived presence of the later Sasanians.
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EGYPT iii. Relations in the Seleucid and Parthian periods
Heinz Heinen
It remains difficult to ascertain the proportion of ethnic Persians who survived the transition from Achaemenid to Hellenistic rule in Egypt or who came to that country after the conquest by Alexander.
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EGYPT iv. Relations in the Sasanian period
Ruth Altheim-Stiehl
The occupation of Egypt, beginning in 619 or 618, was one of the triumphs in the last Sasanian war against Byzantium. Ḵosrow II Parvēz had begun this war in retaliation for the assassination of the Byzantine emperor Mauricius.
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EGYPT v. Political And Commercial Relations In The Islamic Period
Cross-reference
See under FATIMIDS; AYYUBIDS; IL-KHANIDS DYNASTY.
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EGYPT vi. Artistic relations with Persia in the Islamic period
Jonathan M. Bloom
Although direct evidence of artistic links between Persia and Egypt before the Mongol invasion of the Near East in the 13th century is limited, surviving works of art suggest that transfer of artistic ideas resulted from the movement of artisans and their works.
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EGYPT vii. Political and religious relations with Persia in the modern period
Shahrough Akhavi
The beginnings of modern diplomatic relations between Egypt and Persia may be dated from 1847, when Mīrzā Taqī Khan Amīr(-e) Kabīr signed the second treaty of Erzurum with the Ottomans.
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EGYPT viii. Egyptian cultural influence in Persia, modern times
EIr
Egypt, together with Turkey and the Caucasus, was one of the major sources of cultural and political influences in Persia during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
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EGYPT ix. Iran’s cultural influence in the Islamic period
Moḥammad el Saʿīd ʿAbd al-Moʾmen
During the 16th-18th centuries, when Egypt was a province of the Ottoman empire, Persian literature was widely studied IN THE EMPIRE, and the Persian language was one of the administrative languages.
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EGYPT x. Relations with Afghanistan
Ludwig W. Adamec
Both Egypt and Afghanistan came under British hegemony in the latter part of the 19th century; therefore no official relations existed between them.
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EGYPT xi. Persian Journalism in Egypt
Nassereddin Parvin
A number of Persian journals were published in Egypt, after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.
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EHRBEDESTĀN
Cross-Reference
See HERBEDESTĀN.
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ĒHRPAT
Cross-Reference
See HERBED.
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EḤSĀN-AL-ʿOLŪM
Cross-Reference
See FARĀBĪ.
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EḤSĀN-ALLĀH KHAN DŪSTDĀR
Cosroe Chaqueri
(ʿAlī-ābādī; b. Sārī, Māzandarān, 1883, d. Baku, ca. 1938), second most prominent figure in the the Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran (Ḥokūmat-e jomhūrī-e šūrawī-e Īrān), the radicalized second phase of the Jangalī movement in the years 1920-21.
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EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA
Īraj Afšār
(1839-92), first son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār and maternal grandson of Moḥammad-ʿAlī Mīrzā Dawlatšāh.
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EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA, ḴĀNLAR KHAN
Kambiz Eslami
(d. Tehran, April 1862), seventeenth son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā and governor of several regions in Persia during the reigns of Moḥammad Shah and Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qajar.
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EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA, ḴĀNLAR KHAN
Iraj Afšār
(1818-88), also known as Eḥtešām-al-Molk and Moʿtamed-al-Dawla, second son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār.
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EḤTEŠĀM-AL-SALṬANA
Mehrdad Amanat
(1863-1936), Mīrzā Maḥmūd Khan ʿAlāmīr Qajar, governor, diplomat, and speaker of the Persian Parliament.
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EḤTĪĀJ
Nassereddin Parvin
weekly newspaper published in Tabrīz by ʿAlīqolī Khan Tabrīzī, known as Ṣafarov, who had distributed political šab-nāmas (lit. "night letters") in 1892.
-
EḤYĀ-YEʿOLŪM-AL-DĪN
Cross-Reference
See ḠAZĀLĪ ii.
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EILERS, WILHELM
Rüdiger Schmitt
In 1958 Eilers was appointed to the professorship in Oriental philology at the University of Würzburg. Although he was offered in 1962 the professorship in ancient Near Eastern studies at the University of Vienna, he stayed in Würzburg and taught there until his retirement in 1974.
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EJĀZA
Devin J. Stewart
"lit. permission, license, authorization"; a term describing a variety of academic certificates ranging in length from a few lines to many fascicles.
-
EJMĀʿ
Devin J. Stewart
lit. "consensus"; a technical term in Islamic jurisprudence (oṣūl al-feqh).
-
EJMIATSIN
S. Peter Cowe
currently designation of three separate but interrelated entities: the cathedral and monastic complex which forms the residence of the supreme patriarch and catholicos of all the Armenians, the city in which this complex is located, and the district of which the latter is the administrative center.
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EJTEHĀD
Aron Zysow
in Shiʿism, an Arabic verbal noun having the literal sense of "exerting effort."
-
EJTEMĀʿĪŪN, FERQA-YE
Janet Afary
(FEAM; lit., "Social-Democratic party"), an organization founded in 1905 by Persian emigrants in Transcaucasia with the help of local revolutionaries.
-
EKBĀTĀN
Cross-Reference
See ECBATANA.
-
EKEŁEACʿ
James Russell
Gk. Akilisēnē, region along the Euphrates in northwest Armenia.
-
EKRĀM, MOḤAMMAD
J. Bečka
or Ekrom, b. ʿAbd-al-Salām (1847-1925), known as Dāmollā Ekrāmče, a Bukharan scholar and madrasa teacher.
-
EKRĀMĪ, JALĀL
J. Bečka
or Jalol Ikromī (1909-93), considered to be Tajikistan’s most important fiction writer and playwright of the Soviet period.
-
EḴŠĪD
F. Grenet and N. Sims-Williams
Arabo-Persian form of a Sogdian royal title attested in Sogdian script as (ʾ)xšyδ and in Manichean script as (ʾ)xšy(y)δ.
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EKSĪR
Cross-Reference
See KĪMĪĀ.
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EḴTESĀN, TĀJ-AL-MOLK MOḤAMMAD
Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi
b. Aḥmad b. Ḥasan ʿAbdūsī Dehlavī (1300-51), author in Persian and secretary (dabīr) at the courts of the Tughluqid sultans Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Tōḡloq and his son Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Mo-ḥammad.
-
EḴTĪĀR MONŠĪ, ḴᵛĀJA
W. Thackston
(fl. mid 10th/16th cent.), a master calligrapher of the chancery taʿlīq style from Herat.
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EḴTĪĀR-AL-DĪN
Maria Eva Subtelny
the citadel of Herat located on an elevation adjacent to the north wall of the old city and actually consisting of two parts, the stronghold proper—a rectangle of fired brick and a larger area to the west of unfired brick—that were originally buttressed by 25 towers which reflect various periods of construction.
-
EḴTĪĀRĀT
David Pingree
lit. "choices, elections"; a term used in Islamic divination and astrology in at least four principle meanings.
-
EḴWĀN AL-MOSLEMĪN, JAMʿĪYAT AL-
Rudi Matthee
lit. "Society of Muslim brethren"; the first modern religio-political movement in the Islamic world, founded in 1928 by Ḥasan Bannāʾ in Esmāʿīlīya Egypt.
-
EḴWĀN AL-ṢAFĀʾ
Paul E. Walker
a self-professed brotherhood of piously ascetic scholars.
-
ELĀHĪ
Hamid Algar, J. W. Morris, Jean During
or ʿAlīšāh (1895-1974), innovative and charismatic leader of one branch of the Ahl-e Ḥaqq and author of several texts on its teachings. The most complete presentation is to be found not in his Persian books, destined for circulation among Twelver Shiʿites, but in his unpublished writings in Gūrānī, intended to be read only by Ahl-e Ḥaqq initiates.
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ELĀHĪ HAMADĀNĪ, SAYYED MĪR ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD
M. Asif Naim-Siddiqi
b. Ḥojjat-Allāh Asadābādī, a poet of the 17th century from Asadābād, a village near Hamadān.
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ELĀHĪ QOMŠA’Ī, MAHDĪ
S. Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī
b. Abu’l-Ḥasan (b. in Qomša, 1902; d. in Tehran, 1975), poet and professor of Islamic law and philosophy.
-
ELAHI, BIJAN
Mahdi Ganjavi
(1945-2010), modernist Persian poet and translator.
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ELĀHĪ-NĀMA
Cross-Reference
See ʿAṬṬĀR.
-
ELĀHĪYĀT
Cross-Reference
See PHILOSOPHY.
-
ELAM
Multiple Authors
ancient country encompassing a large part of the Persian plateau at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. but reduced to the territory of Susiana in the Achaemenid period.
-
ELAM i. The history of Elam
F. Vallat
During the several millennia of its history the limits of Elam varied, not only from period to period, but also with the point of view of the person describing it. It seems that Mesopotamians in the late 3rd millennium B.C.E. considered Elam to encompass the entire Persian plateau.
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ELAM ii. The archeology of Elam
Elizabeth Carter
The archeological use of the term “Elam” is based on a loose unity recognizable in the material cultures of the period 3400-525 BCE at Susa in Ḵūzestān, at Anshan in Fārs, and at sites in adjacent areas of the Zagros mountains. Text-based definitions often lead to interpretations that are at odds with those derived from the study of material culture.
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ELAM iii. Proto-Elamite
R. K. Englund
"Proto-Elamite” is the term for a writing system in use in the Susiana plain and the Iranian highlands east of Mesopotamia between ca. 3050 and 2900 B.C.E., a period generally considered to correspond to the Jamdat Nasr/Uruk III through Early Dynastic I periods in Mesopotamia.
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ELAM iv. Linear Elamite
MIRJO SALVINI
a system of writing used at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. by Puzur-Inšušinak, the last of the twelve “kings of Awan,” according to a king list found at Susa. He ruled ca. 2150 B.C.E. and was a contemporary of Ur-Nammu, the first ruler of the Ur III dynasty in Mesopotamia.
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ELAM v. Elamite language
FRANÇOISE GRILLOT-SUSINI
is known from texts in cuneiform script, most of them found at Susa but some from other sites in western and southwestern Iran and, in the east, in Fārs and ranging in date from the 24th to the 4th century B.C.E.
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ELAM vi. Elamite religion
F. Vallat
The information furnished by archeological excavations in Persia and by cuneiform documents permit a summary description of some aspects of Elamite religion from the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. until the Achaemenid period.
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ELAM vii. Non-Elamite texts in Elam
SYLVIE LACKENBACHER
Most non-Elamite texts inscribed on Elamite territories have been found in Susiana, that is, the region nearest to Mesopotamia and most exposed to Mesopotamian political and cultural influences.
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ELBURZ
Cross-Reference
See ALBORZ.
-
ELBURZ COLLEGE
Cross-Reference
See ALBORZ COLLEGE.
-
ELČĪ
David O. Morgan
(īlčī) envoy, messenger, or official traveling on government business during the Mongol period and thereafter.
-
ELECTIONS
Fakhreddin Azimi, Shaul Bakhash, M. Hassan Kakar
i. Under the Qajar and Pahlavi monarchies. ii. Under the Islamic republic, 1979-92. iii. In Afghanistan.
-
ELEGY
J. T. P. de Bruijn
(Ar. marṯīa, Pers. mūya), poetry of mourning in Persian literature.
-
ELEMENTS
Mansour Shaki
i. In Zoroastrianism. ii. In Manicheism. iii. In Persian.
-
ELEPHANT i. IN THE NEAR EAST
François De Blois
i. IN THE NEAR EAST
-
ELEPHANT ii. In the Sasanian Army
Michael B. Charles
ii. IN THE SASANIAN ARMY
-
ELEPHANTINE
Edda Bresciani
the largest island in the Nile, opposite Syene.
-
ELGOOD, CYRIL LLOYD
F. R. C. Bagley
(1893-1970), British historian of medicine in Persia.
-
ELIAS OF NISIBIS
Cross-Reference
See ELĪJĀ BAR ŠĪNĀJĀ.
-
ELĪF EFENDI, Ḥaṣīrīzāda
Tahsin Yaziçi
(b. in Sütlüce, May 1850; d. 4 December 1926), Turkish poet and scholar.
-
ELĪJĀ BAR ŠĪNĀJĀ
Wolfgang Felix
(975-1049) prominent Nestorian polyhistor. 975-1049). His work is an important source for Sasanian history. In 1002 he was made bishop of Bēṯ Nuhādrē in Adiabene, and in 1008 metropolitan of Nisibis (Naṣībīn). He wrote in Syriac and Arabic on theological issues.
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ELIKEAN, GRIGOR E.
Aram Arkun
(1880-1951), an active figure in Persian and Armenian politics, the press, and literature.
-
EŁIŠĒ
Robert W. Thomson
or Elisaeus, fifth century author of the History of Vardan and the Armenian War, a detailed account of the Armenian rebellion against Yazdegerd II in 450, which was prompted by his persecution of their Christian faith.
-
ELJIGIDEI
Peter Jackson
or Īlčīktāy, Īljīkdāy; the name of two Mongol generals.
-
ELLIPI
Cross-Reference
See ASSYRIA.
-
ELM
Hūšang Aʿlam
any of several species of hardy deciduous ornamental or forest trees of the genus Ulmus L. (fam. Ulmaceae), typically called nārvan in Persian.
-
ʿELM AL-KETĀB
Cross-Reference
See DARD, ḴᵛĀJA MĪR.
-
ʿELM O HONAR
Nassereddin Parvin
title of two Persian magazines.
-
ʿELMĪ
Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī
a high school in Tehran with 500 students studying experimental sciences, mathematics, and economy.
-
ELOQUENCE
Cross-Reference
(Faṣāḥāt). See BAYĀN (1).
-
ELPHINSTONE, MOUNTSTUART
Malcolm E. Yapp
(1779-1859), author of an important description of Afghanistan; a British Indian official who rose to become governor of Bombay.
-
ELQĀNIĀN, ḤABIB
Shaul Bakhash
Jewish merchant, industrialist, and philanthropist, who rose from modest beginnings to become one of Iran’s leading entrepreneurs.
-
ELTON, JOHN
John Perry
(?-1751), English merchant, seaman and shipbuilder for Nāder Shah Afšār.
-
ĒLTOTMEŠ, ŠAMS-AL-DĪN
Peter Jackson
(d. 1236), first Sultan of Delhi.
-
ELWELL-SUTTON, LAURENCE PAUL
C. Edmund Bosworth
Elwell-Sutton’s interests and publications in Persian studies fall into five categories: Persian language; Persian literature; modern Persian history and politics; Persian folklore; and Islamic science. His Colloquial Persian and Elementary Persian Grammar have remained in print as standard works.
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ELYĀSIDS
Cross-Reference
See ĀL-E ELYĀS.
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ELYMAIS
John F. Hansman
semi-independent state frequently subject to Parthian domination, which existed between the second century B.C.E. and the early third century C. E. in the territories of Ḵūzestān, in southwestern Persia.
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ʿEMĀD ḤASANĪ, MĪR, ʿEMĀD-AL-MOLK
Kambiz Eslami
b. Ebrāhīm (ca. 1554-1615), calligrapher. His rendition of nastaʿlīq, with smooth lines, many curves, very occasional diacritical marks, symmetry of letters and words, and usually excellent choice of decorations surrounding the words, had widespread appeal.
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ʿEMĀD-AL-DAWLA
C. Edmund Bosworth
b. Būya b. Fanā-Ḵosrow, the eldest of three brothers who came to power in western Persia during the tenth century as military adventurers and founded the Buyid dynasty.
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ʿEMĀD-al-DAWLA, Mīrzā MOḤAMMAD-ṬĀHER
Kathryn Babayan
WAḤĪD QAZVĪNĪ (ca. 1615-1701), poet and Safavid court historiographer for nearly three decades (1645-74).
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ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ FAQĪH KERMĀNĪ
J. T. P. de Bruijn
mystic and poet of the 14th century who used ʿEmād or, more rarely, ʿEmād-e Faqīh, as a pen name.
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ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN KĀTEB, ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH MOḤAMMAD
Donald S. Richards
b. Moḥammad b. Ḥāmed EṢFAHĀNĪ, an eminent 12th-century government servant and man of letters, born in Isfahan in 1125.
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ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD
Emilie Savage-Smith
b. Serāj-al-Dīn Masʿūd ŠĪRĀZĪ, the most prominent member of a 16th-century family of physicians in Shiraz.
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ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN MARZBĀN, ABŪ KĀLĪJĀR
C. Edmund Bosworth
b. Solṭān-al-Dawla Abū Šojāʿ (1009-48), amir of the Buyid dynasty in the period of that family’s decadence and incipient disintegration, being the last effective ruler of the line.
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ʿEMĀD-AL-ESLĀM
Maria E. Subtelny
b. Moḥammad ʿAtīq-Allāh (1470-1506), a vizier of the Timurid Sultan Ḥosayn Bāyqarā, executed in Herat in 1498.
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ʿEMĀD-AL-KOTTĀB, MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN SAYFĪ QAZVĪNĪ
ʿAbd-Allāh Forādi
(b. Qazvīn, 16 April 1866; d. Tehran, 17 July 1936), calligrapher.
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ʿEMĀDĪ RĀZĪ
Taqi Pūr-Nāmdārīān
poet of the first half of the 12th century.
-
EMĀM
Cross-Reference
(Imam), see SHIʿITE DOCTRINE; ČAHĀRDAH MAʿSŪM.
-
EMĀM ṢĀḤEB
Mehrdad Shokouhi
two archeological sites in Afghanistan: (1) a village near the south bank of the Amū Daryā, about 50 km north of Qondūz, (2) a village in the Jōzjān region, south of the river Balḵāb, halfway between Balḵ and Āqča.
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EMĀM-AL-ḤARAMAYN
Cross-Reference
-
EMĀM-E ḠĀʾEB
Cross-Reference
"The Hidden Imam." See ḠAYBA and ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM.
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EMĀM-E JOMʿA
Hamid Algar
leader of the congregational prayer performed at midday on Fridays.
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EMĀM-E ZAMĀN
Cross-Reference
Mahdi or "The Hidden Imam." See ḠAYBA and ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM.
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ʿEMĀMA
Cross-Reference
the turban. See ʿAMĀMA.
-
EMĀMA
Cross-Reference
(Imamate), see SHIʿITE DOCTRINE.
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EMĀMĪ HERĀVĪ, RAŻĪ-AL-DĪN ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH MOḤAMMAD
J. T. P. de Bruijn
b. Abī Bakr b. ʿOṯmān (b. in Herat; d. in Isfahan, 1287), Persian poet of the Mongol period also noted for his learning.
-
EMĀMĪ, JAMĀL
Fakhreddin Azimi
(b. 1901, Koy; d. 1966, Paris), politician.
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EMAMI, KARIM
ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Āzarang and EIr
Emami took an early interest in contemporary Persian art and literature. In 1959, before starting his career as a journalist and translator, he worked as a photographer and filmmaker at the film studio of Ebrāhim Golestān (b. 1922), modernist writer and director.
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EMĀMĪ, Sayyed ḤASAN
Cyrus Mir
(1903-1981), Friday prayer leader of Tehran from 1947 to 1978. He studied traditional Islamic sciences in Tehran and continental law in Lausanne, Switzerland. Upon completing his doctorate, he returned to Iran and worked as a judge in the Ministry of Justice. He was regarded as a member of the shah’s inner circle.
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EMĀMĪYA
Cross-Reference
See SHIʿITE DOCTRINE; SHIʿITE DOCTRINE ii. Hierarchy in the Imamiyya.
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EMĀMQOLĪ KHAN
Roger M. Savory
son of the celebrated Georgian ḡolām Allāhverdī Khan; governor-general (beglarbeg) of Fārs in the early 17th century.
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EMĀMVERDĪ MĪRZĀ ĪL-ḴĀNĪ
Ḥosayn Maḥbūbī Ardakānī
(b. 9 March 1796), the twelfth son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah Qajar; his mother was Begom Jān Qazvīnī.
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EMĀMZĀDA
Multiple Authors
a shrine believed to be the tomb of a descendent of a Shiʿite Imam. such structures are also known as āstāna (lit., threshold), marqad (resting place, mausoleum), boqʿa (revered site), rawża (garden/tomb), gonbad (dome), mašhad (place of martyrdom), maqām (site/abode), qadamgāh (stepping place), and torbat (dust, grave).
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EMĀMZĀDA i. Function and devotional practice
Hamid Algar
"Sites where divine favor and blessing occur, where mercy and grace descend; they are a refuge for the distressed, a shelter for the despondent, a haven for the oppressed, and a place of consolation for weary hearts, and will ever remain so until resurrection.”
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EMĀMZĀDA ii. Forms, decorations, and other characteristics
PARVĪZ VARJĀVAND
The identity of the people interred in emāmzādas and the exact location where they are entombed are often moot questions, as in most cases there are no historical documents authenticating the claims for these shrines.
-
EMĀMZĀDA iii. Number, distribution, and important examples
PARVĪZ VARJĀVAND
Information and statistics regarding the number and distribution of emāmzādas in Persia vary from one source to another.
-
EMBROIDERY
Cross-Reference
See CLOTHING.
-
EMDĀD-ALLĀH ḤĀJĪ
Barbara D. Metcalf
(b. Thana Bhawan, India, 1817, d. Mecca, 1899), spiritual guide and scholar.
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ĒMĒD Ī AŠAWAHIŠTĀN
Mansour Shaki
(Exposition [of Zoroastrian doctrines] by Ēmēd, son of Ašawahišt), a major 10th-century Pahlavi work comprising forty-four questions (pursišn).
-
EMERSON, RALPH WALDO
John D. Yohannan
(b. 25 May 1803, Boston; d. 27 April 1882, Concord), distinguished American transcendentalist, philosopher, and poet.
-
EMIGRATION
Cross-Reference
See HUMAN MIGRATION.
-
EMĪN YOMNĪ, MEḤMED
Tahsın Yazici
Moḥammad Amīn (b. Solaymānīya in Persia, 1845, d. Istanbul, 5 April 1924), Turkish poet and man of letters who also wrote in Persian.
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EMIR
Cross-Reference
See AMIR.
-
EMIRATES OF THE PERSIAN GULF
Cross-Reference
See UNITED ARAB EMIRATES.
-
EMLĀ BOḴĀRĀʾĪ, MOḤAMMAD
Jirí Bečka
b. ʿAlāʾ-al-Dīn (b. 1688, Sangārak, Afghanistan; d. 1749, Bukhara), Sufi poet of Arab descent.
-
EMMERICK, RONALD ERIC
Mauro Maggi
(1937-2001), distinguished Australian scholar of the ancient civilizations and languages of Iran, India, and Tibet.
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EMPLOYMENT
M. Amani
economic activity in which one engages and employs his or her time and energy. One of the major factors contributing to the growth of services is the considerable number of people working for the government.
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EMRĀNĪ
David Yeroushalmi
the name or most likely the penname (taḵalloṣ) of the fifteenth century Jewish-Persian poet of Isfahan and Kāšān.
-
EMTĪĀZĀT
Cross-Reference
See CONCESSIONS.
-
EN ISLAM IRANIEN, ASPECTS SPIRITUELS ET PHILOSOPHIQUES
Daryush Shayegan
(4 vols., Paris, 1971-73), the magnum opus of Henry Corbin, consisting of essays summarizing most of the major themes that defined his scholarly career and revealing his intellectual grasp of Persian philosophical thought.
-
ENAMEL
EIr, Layla S. Diba
a heat-fused glass paste colored by metal oxides and used to decorate metal surfaces. Enamel was associated with lapidary, glassworking, and goldmithing crafts and was probably used primarily in place of precious stones before the 17th century.
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ʿENĀYAT, ḤAMĪD
Ahmad Ashraf
(1932-82), political scientist and translator.
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ʿENĀYAT-ALLĀH
Sheila S. Blair
Timurid builder or tile maker of the 15th century.
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ʿENĀYAT-ALLĀH KANBO
Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi
(b. Burhanpur, 31 August 1608; d. Delhi, 23 September 1671), Sufi and scholar, descendant of an old respected Lahore family that had converted to Islam in Punjab.
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ENCYCLOPAEDIA IRANICA
Elton L. Daniel
an alphabetically arranged reference work which seeks to provide scholarly articles relating to “all aspects of Iranian life and culture.”
-
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM
Elton L. Daniel
a reference work of fundamental importance on topics dealing, according to its self-description, with “the geography, ethnography and biography of the Muhammadan peoples.”
-
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF TAJIKISTAN
Cross-Reference
-
ENCYCLOPAEDIAS, PERSIAN
Živa Vesel and Hūšang Aʿlam
OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Premodern, ii. Modern.
-
ENDOWMENT
Cross-Reference
On charitable endowments (waqf), at present see AMLĀK, ḴĀṢṢA.
Regarding institutions, see CHARITABLE FOUNDATIONS. See under individual entries, such as BONYĀD-E FARHANG-E ĪRĀN;BONYĀD-E ŠAHĪD; BONYĀD-E ŠĀH-NĀMA-YE FERDOWSĪ.
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ENGLAND
Cross-Reference
See GREAT BRITAIN.
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ENGLISH i. Persian Elements in English
D. N. Mackenzie
OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Persian elements in English. ii. Persian influences in English and American literature. iii. Translations of classical Persian literature. iv. Translations of modern Persian literature. v. i. Translations of English literature into Persian.
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ENGLISH ii. Persian Influences in English and American Literature
John D. Yohannan
Although academic Persian studies may be said to have begun in England in the early 17th century, it was not until the late 18th century that the Persian poets began to be read in English translations.
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ENGLISH iii. Translations Of Classical Persian Literature
Michael Beard
fall initially into two categories. There is a group of texts whose purpose is to convey the information of the original in discrete units, most useful with prose or narrative poetry and not necessarily “literary.” There are other translations designed to carry over the formal elements of a literary text.
-
ENGLISH iv. Translations Of Modern Persian Literature
Michael Beard
Modernist literature in Persia can be said to develop gradually throughout the 19th century, but for English readers it begins abruptly, shortly after the Constitutional revolution, with the translations of Edward Browne.
-
ENGLISH v. Translation Of English Literature into Persian
Karīm Emāmi
The first texts translated from English into Persian were diplomatic exchanges and bilateral treaties.
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ENJAVĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ, SAYYED ABU’L-QĀSEM
Ulrich Marzolph
(b. Shiraz, 1921; d. Tehran, 16 September 1993), eminent Persian folklorist.
-
ENJĪL
Cross-Reference
See BIBLE.
-
ENJŪ
Cross-Reference
See INJU DYNASTY.
-
ENOCH
Cross-Reference
See AḴNŪḴ.
-
ENOCH, BOOKS OF
J. C. Reeves
attributed to the seventh antediluvian biblical patriarch Enoch (Genesis 5.21-24), which show Iranian influence.
-
ENQELĀB-E ESLĀMĪ
Cross-Reference
See REVOLUTION OF 1978-79.
-
ENQELĀB-E ESLĀMĪ NEWSPAPER
Nassereddin Parvin
a newspaper published by Abu’l-Ḥasan Banī-Ṣadr and supporting his political views.
-
ENQELĀB-E MAŠṞUṬĪYĀ
Cross-Reference
-
ENQELĀB-E SAFĪD
Cross-Reference
See WHITE REVOLUTION.
-
ENŠĀʾ
Jürgen Paul
lit. "composition"; the process of creating or composing something as well as the result of this process and the rules of the art; it denotes a genre of prose literature, copies, drafts, or specimens of official and private correspondence.
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ENŠĀʾ-ALLĀH KHĀN, SAYYED
M. Asif Naim Siddiqui
(b. Moršedābād, 1756; d. Lucknow, 1818), Urdu-Persian poet and writer.
-
ENSĀN-E KĀMEL
Gerhard Böwering
lit. "the Perfect Human Being"; a key idea in the philosophy and ethics of Islamic mysticism.
-
ENTEBĀH
L. P. ELWELL-SUTTON
lit. “Awakening”; a Persian newspaper published in Karbalā, Iraq, in 1914 by Mīrzā ʿAlī Āqā Šīrāzī Labīb-al-Molk, editor of Moẓaffarī published in Būšehr and Mecca.
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ENTEẒĀM, ʿABD-ALLĀH and NAṢR-ALLĀH
Fakhreddin Azimi
two brothers active in 20th-century Persian politics. ʿAbd-Allāh (1895-1983), as a career diplomat, served in various posts, including minister of foreign affairs. Naṣr-Allāh (1899-1980) held a series of ministerial posts under Moḥammad Reżā Shah, including the ambassadorship to the United States.
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ĖNTSIKLOPEDIYAI SOVETII TOJIK
H. Borjian
(Tajik Soviet Encyclopedia), the first general encyclopedia of Tajikistan, published in the Tajik Persian language and Cyrillic alphabet (8 vols., Dushanbe, 1978-88).
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Eskandar Firouz, Daniel Balland
efforts to protect natural resources, wildlife, and ecosystems and to control pollution. In Persia conservation consciousness began, as it so often does, with concern for wildlife.
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ENZELI
Cross-Reference
See ANZALĪ.
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EPHESUS, SEVEN SLEEPERS OF
Nicholas Sims-Williams
Christian legend attested by texts in many languages.
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EPHRAIM KHAN
Cross-Reference
See EPʿREM KHAN.
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EPICS
François de Blois
narrative poems of legendary and heroic content.
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EPIDEMICS
Cross-Reference
See PLAGUES.
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EPIGRAM
J. T. P. de Bruijn
originally a Greek word meaning “inscription” and denoting in Western literatures a genre of short poems characterized by their contents and style rather than by a specific prosodic form.
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EPIGRAPHY
Multiple Authors
the study of inscriptions, particularly their collection, decipherment, interpretation, dating, and classification.
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EPIGRAPHY i. Old Persian and Middle Iranian epigraphy
Helmut Humbach
Iranian epigraphy of the pre-Islamic period covers mainly inscriptions in the Old and Middle Iranian languages. Old and Middle Persian inscriptions span by far the longest period of time, from the Bīsotūn inscription until the early Islamic period.
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EPIGRAPHY ii. Greek inscriptions from ancient Iran
Philip Huyse
In April 1815 the Prussian Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin enthusiastically accepted the proposal by August Boeckh to produce a comprehensive thesaurus of inscriptions that would include all Greek inscriptional material published to date.
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EPIGRAPHY iii. Arabic inscriptions in Persia
Sheila S. Blair
In Persia, as in other Islamic lands, Arabic was the basic language for religious texts on buildings and objects. In the early Islamic period these texts were usually written in some variant of the angular script known as Kufic. From the 12th century inscriptions in Persian became more common.
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EPIGRAPHY iv. Safavid and later inscriptions
Sussan Babaie
The principal characteristic of epigraphy in Persia after the advent of the Safavids (1501) is the emphasis on Persian poetry and pious Shiʿite texts with an iconographic potency and deliberate frequency hitherto unknown. Arabic remained the language of koranic and Hadith quotations while Persian became increasingly prominent.
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EPIGRAPHY v. Inscriptions from the Indian subcontinent
Ziyaud-Din A. Desai
The systematic survey and study of Perso-Arabic epigraphy of the Indian subcontinent is not even half a century old.
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EPIPHANIUS
Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin
(b. Eleutheropolis, Judaea, ca. 315; d. Constantia, Cyprus), bishop of Constantia on Cyprus, founded on the remains of Salamis.
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EPISCOPAL
Hassan B. Dehqani-Tafti
a diocese of the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, one of thirty-seven independent churches of the worldwide Anglican Communion.
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EPISTLES OF MANI
Cross-Reference
See MANICHEISM.
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EPISTOLARY STYLE
Cross-Reference
See CORRESPONDENCE.
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EPʿREM KHAN
Aram Arkun
Pers. Yeprem/Efrem (1868-1912), Armenian revolutionary and important military leader of the Constitutional Revolution. He uneasily reconciled his beliefs with his position as police chief of Tehran, resigning and returning to office several times. On 24 December 1911, he shut down the parliament to comply with a Russian ultimatum, and this marked the close of Persia’s Constitutional Revolution.
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EQBĀL
Cross-Reference
a newspaper. See EḤTĪĀJ.
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EQBĀL ĀḎAR, ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN QAZVĪNĪ
Moḥammad-Taqī Masʿudiya
or EQBĀL-AL-SOLṬĀN (b. Alvand, near Qazvīn, ca. 1869; d. Tabrīz, probably 1973), singer of Persian traditional music.
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EQBĀL ĀŠTĪĀNĪ, ʿABBĀS
Īraj Afšār
During his years at Dār al-fonūn, Eqbāl came to know such litterati as Moḥammad-ʿAlī Forūḡī, Abu’l-Ḥasan Forūḡī, Mortażā Najmābādī, ʿAbd-al-ʿAẓīm Qarīb, Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Rahnemā, and ʿAbd-al-Razzāq Bōḡāyerī, under whose influence he embarked on a career of scholarship that continued until his death.
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EQBĀL LĀHŪRĪ, MOḤAMMAD
Cross-Reference
See IQBAL, MUHAMMAD.
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EQBĀL PUBLISHERS
Cross-Reference
See PUBLISHERS.
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EQBĀL, MANŪČEHR
Ahmad Ashraf
(1909-1977), prime minister 1957-60, minister of the Royal Court, head of National Iranian Oil Company, and professor of medicine. He was regarded as an honest and ascetic man. His authoritarian character, obedience and unswerving loyalty to the shah, and political ambition, made him a trusted aide, but not a popular political figure.
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EQBĀL-AL-SOLṬĀN
Cross-Reference
See EQBĀL ĀḎAR.
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EQBĀL-NĀMA
Cross-Reference
-
ʿEQD-AL-ʿOLĀ
Cross-Reference
See AFŻAL-AL-DIN KERMĀNI.
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EQDĀM
Nassereddin Parvin
name of two separate series of a Persian newspaper published and edited in the first half of the twentieth century in Tehran by the journalist, poet, novelist, and translator, ʿAbbās Ḵalīlī.
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EQLĪD
C. Edmund Bosworth
a small town of medieval Fārs, now in the modern rural subdistrict of the same name.
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EQLĪM
Cross-Reference
See CLIME.
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EQṬĀʿ
A. K. S. Lambton
in its various forms one of the most persistent and important tenurial, economic and social institutions of medieval Persia.
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EQTEṢĀD
Cross-Reference
See ECONOMY.
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ĒR, ĒR MAZDĒSN
Gherardo Gnoli
an ethnonym, like Old Persian ariya- and Avestan airya-, meaning “Aryan” or “Iranian.”
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ERĀDA-YE MELLĪ
Pīrāya Yaḡmāʾī
lit. "national will"; a pro-British political party founded on 19 January 1944 by Sayyed Żīāʾ al-Dīn Ṭabāṭabāʾī (1891-1969), a devout anglophile politician and journalist.
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ĒRĀN, ĒRĀNŠAHR
D. N. MacKenzie
ērānšahr properly denotes the empire, while ērān signifies “of the Iranians.”
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ĒRĀN-ĀMĀRGAR
Cross-Reference
See ĀMĀRGAR.
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ĒRĀN-ĀSĀN-KERD-KAWĀD
Rika Gyselen
lit. "Kawād [has] made Ērān peaceful"; name of a Sasanian province (šahr) created by Kawād I (r. 488-531).
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ĒRĀN-ŠĀD-KAWĀD
Rika Gyselen
name of a Sasanian town occurring in post-Sasanian sources only.
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ĒRĀN-ŠAHR
Cross-Reference
See ĒRĀN.
-
ĒRĀN-WĒZ
D. N. MacKenzie
the Middle Persian designation of the territory of the Aryans.
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ĒRĀN-WIN(N)ĀRD-KAWĀ
Rika Gyselen
lit. "Kawād[has] arranged Ērān"; name of a Sasanian province (šahrestān) created by Kawād I (r. 488-531) in his reorganization of the empire.
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ĒRĀN-XWARRAH-ŠĀBUHR
Rika Gyselen
lit. "Ērān, glory of Šāpūr"; Sasanian province (šahrestān) containing Susa and probably created by Šāpūr II (r. 309-379).
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ĒRĀN-XWARRAH-YAZDGERD
Rika Gyselen
lit. "Ērān, glory of Yazdegerd"; Sasanian province probably created by Yazdegerd II (438-457).
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ʿERĀQ
Jean During
musical mode mentioned for the first time in the 11th century by Kaykāvūs among some ten modes.
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‘Erāq, Nahib, Moḥāyyer, Ašur-āvand, Esfahānak, Ḥazin, Kerešma, Zangule
music sample
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ʿERĀQ-E ʿAJAM
Pardis Minuchehr
constitutionalist newspaper published in Tehran, 1907-08.
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ʿERĀQ-E ʿAJAM(Ī)
C. Edmund Bosworth
lit. “Persian Iraq”; the name given in medieval times to the largely mountainous, western portion of modern Persia.
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ʿERĀQĪ,FAḴR-al-DĪN EBRĀHĪM
William C. Chittick
b. Bozorgmehr Javāleqī Hamadānī (b. Komjān, ca. 1213-14, d. Damascus, 1289), Sufi poet and author.
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ERBEL
Cross-Reference
See ARBELA.
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ERDMANN, KURT
Jens Kr
(b. Hamburg, 9 September 1901; d. Berlin, 30 September 1964), leading historian of Sasanian and Islamic art.
-
EREKLE II
Keith Hitchins
(1720-1798), king of Kakheti (r. 1744-62) and king of Kartli-Kakheti in Caucasus (r. 1762-98).
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ƎRƎTI
William W. Malandra
the name of a minor goddess, one of a number of abstract deities who appear in the Avesta only in formulaic invocations of divinities.
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EREVAN
Erich Kettenhofen, George A. Bournoutian and Robert H. Hewsen
ancient city and modern capital of the Republic of Armenia. After the Qara Qoyunlu made Erevan the administrative center of the Ararat region in the 15th century, travelers and historians frequently mentioned it as a major city of the region.
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ERĒZ
Cross-Reference
See ARZENJĀN.
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ʿERFĀN (1)
Gerhard Böwering
lit. "knowledge"; Islamic theosophy.
-
ʿERFĀN (2)
Nassereddin Parvin
title of two Persian magazines and a newspaper.
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ʿERFĀN, ḤASAN
Habib Borjian
Hasan Aliḵonovič Mamadḵonov (b. Samarkand, 3 March 1900; d. 22 June 1973), Tajik translator and writer.
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ERGATIVE CONSTRUCTION
John R. Payne
The most generally accepted definition of an ergative construction begins with the notion that languages utilize three primitive syntactic relations, referred to as S, A, and O. S is the subject of an intransitive clause, A is the subject of a transitive clause, and O is the object of a transitive clause.
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ĒRĪČ MOUNTAIN
Gherardo Gnoli
mentioned in a chapter of the Bundahišn devoted to mountains.
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EROTIC LITERATURE
Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh
expressed in Persian by the neologism "adabīyāt-e erotīk"; not a clearly defined genre, since the concept of what is “erotic” varies considerably from time to time and place to place.
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ERŠĀD
Nassereddin Parvin
title of two Persian newspapers and a magazine.
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ERŠĀD AL-NESWĀN
Nassereddin Parvin
the first women’s periodical in Afghanistan, published weekly in Kabul from 16 March-9 June 1921.
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ERŠĀD al-ZERĀʿA
Maria E. Subtelny
a Persian agricultural manual completed in Herat in 1515 by Qāsem b. Yūsof Abūnaṣrī, who was previously identified in the scholarly literature simply as Fāżel Heravī.
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ERṮ
Cross-Reference
See INHERITANCE.
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ERUANDAŠAT
Robert H. Hewsen
a city in Armenia located on a rocky hill at the juncture of the Akhurean and Araxes rivers.
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ERZENJĀN
Cross-Reference
a town in northeastern Anatolia. See ARZENJĀN.
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ERZİ, ADNAN SADIK
Osman G. Özgüdenlı and Mustafa Uyar
After graduating in 1947, ERZİ began work for the Society of Turkish History as a library and publications specialist. In April 1947 he was appointed the Library Manager of the Faculty of Language and History/Geography at the University of Ankara.
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ESʿAD DEDE, MEHMED
Tahsın Yazici
Moḥammad Asʿad Dada (b. Salonika, 1841; d. Istanbul, 9 August 1911), Turkish author and Sufi poet of the Mawlawī order.
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ESʿAD EFENDİ, MEHMED
Tahsın Yazici
Moḥammad Asʿad Efendi (b. Istanbul, 14 June 1570; d. Istanbul, 21 June 1625), Ottoman religious figure and author of both Persian and Turkish poetry.
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ʿEṢĀMĪ, ʿABD-AL-MALEK
Peter Jackson
(fl. 1350), Indo-Muslim poet writing in Persian.
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EŠĀRĀT WA’L-TANBĪHĀT, AL-
M. E. Marmura
a late work of Avicenna (Ebn Sīnā, d. 1037), written sometime between 1030 and 1034, which sums up his thought in a language that is often deeply personal and expressive.
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ESCHATOLOGY
Multiple Authors
the branch of theology concerned with final things, i.e., the advent of the savior to defeat evil and the end of the world.
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ESCHATOLOGY i. In Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrian Influence
Shaul Shaked
Faith in the events beyond life on this earth is attested in the Zoroastrian scriptures from the very first, from the Gāθās. This faith developed and became central to later Zoroastrianism so that it colors almost all aspects of the religious life.
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ESCHATOLOGY ii. Manichean Eschatology
Werner Sundermann
Manichean eschatology, teachings about final things, provided information on what happened during and after the death of a single human being and also on what would happen before and at the end of this world.
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ESCHATOLOGY iii. Imami Shiʿism
M. A. Amir-Moezzi
It is known that among Islamic doctrinal trends and schools of thought that Shiʿism, Imami Shiʿism in particular, has developed eschatological doctrine most fully.
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ESCHATOLOGY iv. In Babism and Bahaism
Stephen Lambden
Individual Babis and Bahais have compiled testimonia and written “demonstrative treatises” (estedlālīya) to show the fulfillment, in their religion, of apocalyptic and eschatological prophecies.
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EṢFAHĀN
Cross-Reference
See ISFAHAN.
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EṢFAHĀN and EṢFAHĀNĀT
Cross-Reference
See BAYĀT-E EṢFAHĀN.
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EṢFAHĀNĪ, ʿABD-AL-ḤASAN
David Pingree
b. Aḥmad b. ʿAlī b. Ḥasan, author of the Ketāb al-bolhān on astrology, magic, divination, and demonology, which he composed around 1400 for Ḥosayn b. Aḥmad b. Moḥammad Erbelī.
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EṢFAHĀNĪ, ABU’L-ŠAYḴ ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH
Martin McDermott
b. Moḥammad b. Jaʿfar b. Ḥayyān ḤĀFEẒ ANṢĀRĪ (887-979), traditionist and Koran commentator, important principally for his Ṭabaqāt al-moḥaddeṯīn.
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ESFAHANI, Jaleh
Shadab Vajdi
(Žāla Eṣfahāni, b. Esfahan, 1921; d. London, 29 November 2007), poet and political activist. Esfahani’s poetry is ensconced in the tradition of Persian prosody. With few exceptions, she adheres to the metrical traditions of classical Persian poetry. She frequently borrows imageries from poets of the classical period and adapts them to the requirements of her politically laden poems.
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EṢFAHĀNI, MOḤAMMAD MAʿṢUM
Kioumars Ghereghlou
(ca. 1597-ca. 1647), Safavid bureaucrat and historian, whose history entitled the Ḵolāṣat al-siar chronicles the reign of Shah Ṣafi.
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ESFAHSĀLĀR
Cross-Reference
See SEPAHSĀLĀR.
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ESFAND
Mahmoud Omidsalar
a common weed found in Persia, Central Asia, and the adjacent areas.
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ESFANDĪĀR (1)
Ehsan Yarshater
son of Goštāsp, Kayanian prince of Iranian legendary history and hero of Zoroastrian holy wars, best known for his tragic combat with with Rostam, the mightiest warrior of Iranian national epic.
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ESFANDĪĀR (2)
Ehsan Yarshater
one of the seven great clans of Parthian and Sasanian times.
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ESFANDĪĀR KHAN BAḴTĪĀRĪ, ṢAMṢĀM-AL-SALṬANA, SARDĀR(-E) ASʿAD
G. R. Garthwaite
(1844-1902), important leader of the Baḵtīārī tribe in southwestern Persia and grandfather of Queen Ṯorayyā.
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ESFANDĪĀRĪ, ḤĀJJ MOḤTAŠAM-AL-SALṬANA ḤASAN
Bāqer ʿĀqelī
(b. 23 April 1867; d. 24 February 1945), politician, governor, and speaker of the Majles.
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ESFARA
Habib Borjian
a district in the Fergana valley south of the Jaxartes which extends to the foothills of the Turkestan range.
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ESFARĀYEN
C. Edmund Bosworth
or ESFARĀʾĪN; a district, and in pre-modern Islamic times, a town, of northwestern Khorasan.
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ESFEZĀRĪ, ABŪ ḤĀTEM
Cross-Reference
5th/12th-century astronomer. See ASFEZĀRĪ, ABŪ ḤĀTEM.
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ESFEZĀRĪ, MOʿĪN-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD ZAMČĪ
MARIA E. Subtelny
(ca. 1446-1510), calligrapher specializing in the taʿlīq script, minor poet (pen name Nāmī), and master of the epistolary art who flourished in Herat during the reign of the Timurid Solṭān-Ḥosayn Bāyqarā.
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ESFĪJĀB
Cross-Reference
See ASFĪJĀB.
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ESḤĀQ
Mohsen Zakeri
b. ṬOLAYQ (or Ṭalīq), the secretary responsible for translating the financial dīvāns of Khorasan into Arabic in 741-42.
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ESḤĀQ AḤMAR NAḴAʿI
Mushegh Asatryan
a prominent Shiʿi extremist active in Iraq, founder of the Esḥāqiya ḡolāt sect, and the supposed author of a number of texts.
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ESḤĀQ KHAN QARĀʾĪ TORBATĪ
Kambiz Eslami
(ca. 1743-1816), one of the wealthiest and most powerful chieftains in Khorasan during the reigns of Āḡā Moḥammad Khan and Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah Qājār.
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ESḤĀQ MAWṢELĪ
Everett K. Rowson
(767?-850), prominent musician at the ʿAbbasid court in Baghdad and the successor of his equally famous father Ebrāhīm Mawṣelī as leader of the conservative school of musicians of the time.
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ESḤĀQ TORK
ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Zarrīnkūb
propagandist sent by Abū Moslem Ḵorāsānī (governor of Khorasan and leading figure in the ʿAbbasid revolution) to the Turkish people of Transoxania.
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ESḤAQĪYA
Cross-Reference
See ḠOLĀT.
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ESḤĀQZĪ
Daniel Balland
The geographical distribution of the tribe shows the dualism typical to those Pashtun tribes who have massively taken part in the colonization of North Afghanistan, a process in which the Esḥāqzī played a leading role.
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EŠĪK-ĀQĀSĪ-BĀŠĪ
Roger M. Savory
or Īšīk-āqāsī-bāšī, the title of two officials in the Safavid central administration, namely ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī-e dīvān, and ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī-e ḥaram.
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ESKĀFI, ABŪ ḤANĪFA
J. T. P. de Bruijn
11th century Persian poet, mentioned among the court poets of Ḡazna.
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ESKĀFĪ, ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD
Josef van Ess
b. ʿAbd-Allāh, Muʿtazilite theologian of the 9th century (d. 854).
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ESKANDAR
Cross-Reference
See ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
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ESKANDAR B. JĀNĪ BEG
Cross-Reference
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ESKANDAR BEG TORKAMĀN MONŠĪ
Roger M. Savory
sixteenth century author of Tārīḵ-e ʿālamārā-ye ʿabbāsī, a history of the reign of Shah ʿAbbās I.
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ESKANDAR MĪRZĀ
Cross-Reference
pro-Persian member of the royal family of Georgia (b. 1770, d. after 1830).See ALEXANDER, PRINCE.
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ESKANDAR SOLṬĀN
Priscilla Soucek
b. ʿOmar Šayḵ b. Tīmūr (1384-1415), Timurid prince who ruled a succession of cities in western Persia between 1403 and 1415 but is remembered mostly for his cultural patronage.
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ESKANDAR-NĀMA
William L. Hanaway
Alexander the Great and the adventure tale about him known generically as the Alexander romance.
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ESKANDAR-NĀMA OF NEẒĀMĪ
François de Blois
the poetical version of the life of Alexander by the great 12th century narrative poet Neẓāmī Ganjavī (1141-1209).
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ESKANDARĪ, ĪRAJ
Cosroe Chaqueri
(1907-1985), prominent leader of the Tudeh Party. From 1948 he worked for the Tudeh party in Paris, Vienna, Budapest, Moscow, and finally Leipzig. His lukewarm attitude toward the Islamic Revolution and refusal of a Soviet offer to help turn Persia into another Afghanistan cost him his leadership position in 1979.
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ESKANDARĪ, MOḤTARAM
Mehrangīz Dawlatšāhī
a pioneer advocate of women’s rights in Persia (1895-1925) and the founder and leader of the first women’s association in Persia, namely Jamʿīyat-e taraqqī-e neswān, later Jamʿīyat-e neswān-e waṭanḵᵛāh (Society of Patriotic Women).
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ESKANDARĪ, SOLAYMĀN (MOḤSEN) MĪRZĀ
Cosroe Chaqueri
(1875-1944), constitutionalist, civil servant, statesman, founder of the Ejtemāʿīyūn (Socialists) political party in the 1920s. His interest in social justice and egalitarianism was more rooted in Islam than in the European Enlightenment or European socialism.
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ESKANDARĪYA
Cross-Reference
See ALEXANDRIA.
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EŠKĀŠ(E)M
C. Edmund Bosworth
a settlement in medieval Badaḵšān in northeastern Afghanistan, now in the modern Afghan province of Eškāšem.
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EŠKĀŠ(E)MĪ
I. M. Steblin-Kamensky
or Ishkashmi; one of the so-called “Pamir group” of the Eastern Iranian languages spoken in a few villages of the region of Eškāšem straddling the upper reaches of the Panj river.
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ESKENĀS
Ali Shargi
bank note, paper currency. In 1888 an English-owned New Oriental Bank established branches in Tehran and other cities, and for the first time Persians became acquainted with a bank in the modern sense. in 1889, Baron Julius de Reuter obtained from Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah the concession of establishing the Imperial Bank of Persia and the monopoly of issuing bank notes in Persia.
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EṢLĀḤ
Nassereddin Parvin
title of several Persian-language newspapers, especially the major 20th-century Kabul daily.
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EṢLĀḤĀT-E ARŻĪ
Cross-Reference
See LAND REFORM.
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ESLĀM
Cross-Reference
See ISLAM in IRAN.
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ESLĀMĪYA
Nassereddin Parvin
title of two Persian newspapers first appearing in Tabrīz in 1906.
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ESM
Cross-Reference
-
EŠM b. ŠEḠĀY
Cross-Reference
See CENTRAL ASIA.
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ESMĀʿĪL
Cross-Reference
(ISHMAEL). See EBRĀHĪM.
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ESMĀʿĪL b. JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ
Farhad Daftary
the sixth Imam and the eponym of the Ismaʿilis.
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ESMĀʿĪL ḤAQQĪ BORSAVĪ
Tahsin Yazıcı
or Oskodārī, b. MOṢṬAFĀ, Shaikh Abu’l-Fedāʾ (b. Aydos 1652; d. Bursa, 1725), Turkish scholar, theologian, and mystic.
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ESMĀʿĪL I ṢAFAWĪ
Roger M. Savory, Ahmet T. Karamustafa
(1487-1524), SHAH ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR, founder of the Safavid dynasty whose decision, the promulgation of the Eṯnā-ʿašarī rite of Shiʿism to be the official religion of the state, had profound consequences for the subsequent history of Persia.
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ESMĀʿIL II
Kioumars Ghereghlou
(1537-1577), the third Safavid monarch, fought the Ottomans as the governor of Šervan and later was made the crown prince by Ṭahmāsp I and sent to Qazvin. His liaisons with male companions led to his demotion and imprisonment, until he took the throne with the backing of his supporters.
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ESMĀʿĪL III ṢAFAWĪ
John R. Perry
(r. 1750-73), ABŪ TORĀB, Safavid shadow-king, the third Safavid dynast of that name.
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ESMĀʿĪL ḴANDĀN
Cross-Reference
See ALTUNTĀŠ.
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ESMĀʿIL KHAN BURBUR
Dariush Borbor
(1800-1888), high ranking military official under the Qajars.
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ESMĀʿĪL KHAN QAŠQĀʾĪ
Cross-Reference
ṢAWLAT-AL-DAWLA, SARDĀR-E ʿAŠĀYER. See ṢAWLAT-AL-DAWLA.
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ESMĀʿĪL KHAN ṢĪMQO
Cross-Reference
or SEMĪTQŪ. See ṢĪMQO.
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ESMĀʿĪL ZĀDA, ḤOSAYN KHAN
Moḥammad-Taqī Masʿūdīya
(d. 1941), teacher and master player of the kamānča.
-
ESMĀʿĪL, b. ʿABBĀD, ṢĀḤEB
Cross-Reference
See ṢĀḤEB b. ʿABBĀD.
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ESMĀʿĪL, b. Aḥmad b. Asad SĀMĀNĪ, ABŪ EBRĀHĪM
C. Edmund Bosworth
(849-907), the first member of the Samanid dynasty to rule over all Transoxania and Farḡāna.
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ESMĀʿĪL, b. Nūḥ, ABŪ EBRĀHĪM MONTAṢER
Cross-Reference
(d. 1004), last Samanid amir.
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ESMĀʿĪL, b. Rokn-al-Dīn Yaḥyā
Cross-Reference
See MAJD-AL-DĪN ESMĀʿĪL.
-
ESMĀʿĪL, b. Seboktegīn
C. Edmund Bosworth
Ghaznavid prince and briefly amir in Ḡazna in 997-98.
-
ESMĀʿĪL, b. Yasār NESĀʾĪ
Kevin Lacey
an eighth century poet of Persian origin from Medina.
-
ʿEṢMAT
Cross-Reference
See ČAHĀRDAH MAʿṢŪM.
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ʿEṢMAT BOḴĀRĪ, Ḵᵛāja ʿEṢMAT-ALLĀH
Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā
b. Masʿūd Boḵārī (d. 1436), poet and scholar of the early Timurid period, known also for his expertise in mathematics, history, prosody, riddles, and mastery of enšāʾ.
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ESOTERIC SECTS
Cross-Reference
See BĀṬENĪYA; ḠOLĀT; ISMAʿILISM.
-
ESPAHBOD, ALI-REZA
Hengameh Fouladvand
(1951-2007), painter and graphic designer who aimed to represent ideals of equality and justice; he was banned from exhibiting his paintings from 1991 to 2001.
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EŠPOḴTOR
Cross-Reference
See TSITSIANOV.
-
ʿEŠQ
Cross-Reference
See LOVE.
-
EŠQ O RŪḤ
Cross-Reference
See ḤOSN O RŪḤ.
-
ʿEŠQ, shaikh ḡolām moḥyĪ-al-dĪn MOBTALĀ
Munibur Rahman
8th-19th century author writing in Persian and Urdu.
-
EŠQĀBĀD
Cross-Reference
See ASHKABAD.
-
ʿEŠQĪ BELGRĀMĪ, SHAH BARKAT-ALLĀH
Asifa Zamani
(1659?-1729), Indo-Persian poet and author.
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ʿEŠQĪ, MOḤAMMAD-REŻĀ MĪRZĀDA
Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak
(1894-1923), poet and journalist of the post-constitution era and an important contributor to the modernization of poetry in Persia. After he was assassinated by two gunmen, the Majles members of the minority party and other opponents of Prime Minister Reżā Khan quickly turned his funeral into an occasion for public protest against the rising tide of Reżā Khan's power.
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EŠQĪ, MOLLĀ BĀBOR
Jirí Bečka
b. Hedāyat-Allāh (1792-1863), Central Asian poet writing in Persian.
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ʿEŠQĪʿAẒĪMĀBĀDĪ, SHAIKH MOḤAMMAD WAJĪH-AL-DĪN
Munibur Rahman
18th-19th century poet and writer in Persian and Urdu.
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EŠRĀQ ḴĀVARĪ, ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD
Vahid Rafati
(b. Mašhad, 1902; d. Tehran, 1972), Bahai scholar, teacher, and author.
-
EŠRĀQĪ SCHOOL
Cross-Reference
See ILLUMINATIONISM.
-
ʿEŠRĪNĪYA
Cross-Reference
See BĪSTGĀNĪ.
-
ESTAHBĀN
Mīnū Yūsof-nežād
town and district in Fārs, bordered in the north by the Baḵtagān lake, in the northeast and the east by Neyrīz/Nīrīz, in the south by Dārāb, in the southwest by Fasā, and in the west by Shiraz.
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EṢṬAḴR
A. D. H. Bivar, Mary Boyce
(ESTAḴR, STAḴR), city and district in ancient Persia (Fārs). It was presumably a suburb of the urban settlement once surrounding the Achaemenid royal residences, of which few traces survive. After the death of Seleucus I (280 B.C.), when the province began to re-assert its independence, its center seems to have developed at Eṣṭaḵr.
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ESTAḴR NEWSPAPER
Nassereddin Parvin
a newspaper published in Shiraz from 1918-1932 and 1942-1962.
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EṢṬAḴRĪ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM
O. G. Bolshakov
b. Moḥammad Fāresī Karḵī, 10th-century Muslim traveler and geographer and founder of the genre of masālek (lit. “itineraries”) literature.
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EṢṬAḴRĪ, ABŪ SAʿĪD ḤASAN
Jeanette Wakin
b. Aḥmad b. Yazīd (858-939), Shafiʿite jurisconsult and author.
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ESTĀLEF
Daniel Balland
large Persian-speaking village of the Kōhdāman, 55 km north of Kabul, built on a foothill of the Paḡmān range of the Hindu Kush between 1,875 and 1,950 m above sea-level.
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ESTEʿĀRA
Julie S. Meisami
lit. "to borrow"; the general term for metaphor.
-
ESTEBDĀD-E ṢAGĪR
Cross-Reference
"the lesser tyranny." See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION.
-
ESTEBṢĀR
Cross-Reference
See ṬŪSĪ, ABŪ JAʿFAR.
-
EŠTEHĀRD
Mīnū Yūsof-nežād
a town and district (baḵš) in the province of Tehran.
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EŠTEHĀRDĪ
Gernot L. Windfuhr
the easternmost of the nine Southern Tati (Tātī) dialects and sharing with the others most phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical features. These are part of a band of dialects extending from the Aras River to central Persia and farther east.
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ESTEḴĀRA
Cross-Reference
See DIVINATION.
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ESTEQLĀL
Nassereddin Parvin
newspaper published by the constitutionalists who had taken refuge in the Ottoman consulate in Tabrīz during the Russian occupation of the city in 1909.
-
ESTEQLĀL-e ĪRĀN
Nassereddin Parvin
an evening daily published in Tehran from 31 May 1910-17 August 1911; it was the organ of the small Unity and Progress party (Ḥezb-e ettefāq o taraqqī) and was published by the party’s leader, the well-known constitutionalist Zayn-al-ʿĀbedīn Mostaʿān-al-Molk
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ESTHER AND MORDECHAI
Amnon Netzer
a Jewish shrine in the city of Hamadān, where, according to Judeo-Persian tradition, Esther and Mordechai are buried.
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ESTHER, BOOK OF
Shaul Shaked
a short book of the Old Testament, written in Hebrew.
-
ESTRĀBĀD
Cross-Reference
See ASTARĀBĀD.
-
EʿTEDĀLĪ, ḤEZB-E
Cross-Reference
See EJTEMĀʿĪYŪN.
-
EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA
Cross-Reference
lit. “Confidant of the State”; an important title given to people in the administration favored by the court.
-
EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA, ĀQĀ KHAN NŪRĪ
Abbas Amanat
(1807-1865), MĪRZĀ, prime minister (ṣadr-e aʿẓam) of Persia under Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qajar; though relatively young when he took office, he represented the old school of Qajar statecraft.
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EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA, EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR
Cross-Reference
See EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR.
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EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA, GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD BEG TEHRĀNĪ
Cross-Reference
Gīāṯ-al-Dīn Moḥammad Tehrānī (d. 1622), prime minister of the Mughal emperor Jahāngīr and father of the emperor’s wife, Nūr Jahān. See GĪĀṮ BEG.
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EʿTEMĀD-AL-SALṬANA, MOḤAMMAD-ḤASAN KHAN MOQADDAM MARĀḠAʾĪ
Abbas Amanat
or ṢANĪʿ-AL-DAWLA (1843-1896), Qajar statesman, scholar, and author.
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EʿTEṢĀMĪ, MĪRZĀ YŪSOF KHAN ĀŠTĪĀNĪ, EʿTEṢĀM-AL-MOLK
Heshmat Moayyad
(b. Tabrīz, 1874; d. Tehran, 1938), Persian writer and journalist.
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EʿTEṢĀMĪ, PARVĪN
Heshmat Moayyad
Parvīn was only seven or eight years old when her poetic talent revealed itself. Encouraged by her father, she rendered into verse some literary pieces that her father had translated from Western sources. Her earliest known poems, eleven compositions printed in 1921-22 issues of her father’s monthly magazine, Bahār, display maturity of thought and craft.
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EʿTEŻĀD-AL-DAWLA
Cross-Reference
See SOLAYMĀN KHAN QĀJĀR QOVĀNLŪ.
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EʿTEŻĀD-AL-SALṬANA, ʿALĪQOLĪ MĪRZĀ
Abbas Amanat
(1822-1880), first minister of sciences (ʿolūm, meaning education) of the Qajar period and a scholar.
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ETHÉ, CARL HERMANN
J. T. P. de Bruijn
Initially Ethé worked as an assistant librarian at the Bodleian, on leave of absence from the University of Munich. In 1874 he abandoned his lectureship in Germany and settled down in Great Britain. The motivation for this move may have been political, at least in part, because Ethé is described as “a German radical, . . . a persona ingrata with absolutist governments”
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ETHICS
C.-H. de Fouchıcour
a body of practical moral doctrine was elaborated as part of the earliest development of Persian literature, at which time considerable reflection was devoted to topics ranging from morals to ethics, from the exhortation not to harm one’s fellow creature to the search for the meaning of life.
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ETHIOPIA
E. van Donzel
Ethiopia (OPers. Kuša-) was located on the western fringe of the Achaemenid empire. The Ethiopians (OPers. Kušiyā; Gr. Aithí-opes “with [sun]burnt faces”) are named among the peoples of the Persian Empire and are included at the end of Herodotus’s satrapy list.
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ETHNOGRAPHY (Text)
Brian Spooner
the basic field research method in anthropology. Apart from ancient and medieval travelers such as Herodotus, Marco Polo and Clavijo, the record of close observation by foreigners in the Iranian region begins with the reports of travelers to the Safavid Court in the sixteenth century.
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ETHNOGRAPHY (Bibliography)
Brian Spooner
For cited works not given in detail, see “Short References.” Priority has been given to coverage of ethnographic data based on long-term participant observation, but other ethnographically significant sources are also listed, including some based on shorter works, some by travelers from before the emergence of professional ethnography, and some from scholars trained in related fields such as folklore, linguistics and cultural geography.
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ETIQUETTE
Nancy H. Dupree
(Pers. nazākat, ādāb-e moʿāšarat), defined as the observance of conventional decorum particularly among the elite, is itself part of the wider topic of adab.
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EṮNĀ-ʿAŠARĪYA
Cross-Reference
See SHIʿITE DOCTRINE; SHIʿITE DOCTRINE ii. Hierarchy in the Imamiyya.
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ʿEṬR
Cross-Reference
See ʿAṬR.
-
ETTEFĀQ
Nassereddin Parvin
title of five Persian newspapers.
-
ETTEFĀQ-E ESLĀM
Nassereddin Parvin
lit. “Islamic Solidarity"; a weekly government newspaper which began publication in Herat as of 24 August 1920; renamed Faryād in November 1922.
-
ETTEFĀQ-E KĀRGARĀN
Nassereddin Parvin
a daily newspaper published by the striking print-workers union in Tehran in 1910, one of the first labor or socialist newspaper published in Persia.
-
ETTEḤĀD
Nassereddin Parvin
title of eleven Persian language newspapers.
-
ETTEHĀD-E ESLĀM
Cross-Reference
See KUČEK KHAN.
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ETTEHĀDĪYA, ŠERKAT-E
Mansoureh Ettehadiyeh Nezam-Mafi
an exchange company (ṣarrāfī) founded in Tabrīz in 1887 by the brothers Ḥājī ʿAlī and Ḥājī Mahdī Kūzakanānī in partnership with two local money changers, Sayed Mortażā and Ḥājī Loṭf-ʿAlī, and other Tabrīzī merchants.
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EṬṬELĀʿ
Nassereddin Parvin
title of a Persian newspaper and a magazine.
-
EṬṬELĀʿĀT
Nasserddin Parvin
lit. “information, knowledge”; the oldest running Tehran afternoon daily newspaper and the oldest running Persian daily in the world. It was first published on 10 July 1926 as the organ of Markaz-e Eṭṭelāʿāt-e Īrān, the first Persian news agency.
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ETTINGHAUSEN, RICHARD
Priscilla P. Soucek
Although Ettinghausen’s official role at the Berlin Museum ended in early 1933 because of decrees issued by the National Socialist Party, he retained an admiration for the work of his former colleagues, epecially that of F. Sarre.
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EUCRATIDES
Paul Bernard
name of two Greco-Bactrian kings: (1) Eucratides I (r. 170-145 B.C.E.), one of the last and most powerful of the Greco-Bactrian kings and (2) Eucratides II, another Greco-Bactrian king, (r. 145-140 B.C.E.) known only through his coinage.
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EUGENIUS
Nicholas Sims-Williams
or MĀRAWGEN; legendary Christian saint traditionally credited with the introduction of Egyptian monasticism into Mesopotamia and Persia.
-
EULAEUS RIVER
Cross-Reference
See KARḴEH.
-
EUNUCHS
Multiple Authors
castrated males who were in charge of the concubines of royal harems, served in the daily life of the court, and sometimes carried out administrative functions.
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EUPHRATES
Samuel N. C. Lieu
together with the Tigris, historically and geographically constituting one of the most important river-systems in the Near East.
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EUROPE, PERSIAN IMAGE OF
Rudi Matthee
To Persians, as to other Muslim peoples, Europe was long synonymous with Christendom and was thus closely associated with Rūm, the realm of Byzantium or eastern Christianity.
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EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA
Philip Huyse
(260-339), Greek ecclesiastical historian and theologian.
-
EUSTATHIUS, ACTS of
Nicholas Sims-Williams
Christian martyrological text, of which versions survive in many languages, including Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Armenian.
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EUTHYDEMUS
A. D. H. Bivar
name of two Greek kings of Bactria: (1) Euthydemus I (ca. 230-200 B.C.E.), considered the real founder of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and (2) Euthydemus II (ca. 190-185 B.C.E.), presumably the second son of Euthydemus I, or less probably eldest son of Demetrius I.
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EUTROPIUS
Samuel N. C. Lieu
Roman administrator and historian, probably from Bordeaux, who accompanied the emperor Julian the Apostate on his ill-fated Persian expedition in 363.
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EUTYCHIUS of Alexandria
Sidney H. Griffith and EIr
(877-940), Christian physician and historian whose Annales (written in Arabic and called Ketāb al-tārīḵ al-majmūʿ ʿalā’l-taḥqīq wa’l-taṣdīq or Naẓm al-jawhar) is a rich repository of much otherwise unobtainable information about the history of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, especially in the periods of Persian occupation in the seventh century and in Islamic times up to the early tenth century.
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EV-OḠLĪ family
Kathryn Babayan
(or Īv-ōḡlī), name of a family that served three Safavid kings (ʿAbbās I, Ṣafī, and ʿAbbās II) as ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī of the harem, for a period of twenty-seven years (1617-43).
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EV-OḠLĪ, ḤAYDAR BEG
K. Allin Luther
or Īv-ōḡlī, b. Abu’l-Qāsem, a court official of the later Safavid period.
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EVAGRIUS PONTICUS
Nicholas Sims-Williams
(346-399 C.E.), prolific author of Christian literature in Greek. After passing the first part of his career as a preacher in Constantinople, Evagrius took up abode in the Egyptian desert and became one of the most renowned of its many ascetics.
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EVANGELICAL CHURCH OF IRAN
Cross-Reference
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EVANGELION
Cross-Reference
“gospel” (Gk. euangélion). For the Manichean scripture of that name, see ANGALYŪN; MĀNĪ; MANICHEISM.
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EVIL
Etan Kohlberg
wickedness, harm, ill fortune.
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EVIL EYE
Cross-Reference
See ČAŠM-ZAḴM.
-
EVIL MIND
Cross-Reference
See AKŌMAN.
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EVIL SPIRIT
Cross-Reference
See AHRIMAN.
-
EVĪN PRISON
Forthcoming
See Supplement.
-
EVOLUTION
based on a longer article by ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn ZarrĪnkūb
(takāmol, taḥawwol), a family of ideas embodying the belief that the physical universe and living organisms have developed in a process of continuous change from a lower, simpler to a higher, more complex state.
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EWEN NĀMAG
Cross-Reference
See ĀʾĪN-NĀMA.
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ĒWĒNBED
Philippe Gignoux
lit. "master of manners"; Pahlavi title attested from the 3rd century C.E.
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EXCAVATIONS
Multiple Authors
i. In Persia, ii. In Afghanistan, iii. In Central Asia, iv. In Chinese Turkestan
-
EXCAVATIONS i. In Persia
David Stronach
a diachronic survey of the main patterns of archaeological field research in Persia from the time of the first excavations in the middle of the 19th century to the late l990s.
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EXCAVATIONS ii. In Afghanistan
Warwick Ball
Archeological investigation, both excavation and recording of sites and monuments, began in Afghanistan in the early 19th century. Many of the reports were made by travelers and British Indian Army officers; often passing observations.
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EXCAVATIONS iii. In Central Asia
B. A. LitvinskiĬ
Archeological and architectural monuments of Central Asia are mentioned in reports from the 18th and early 19th centuries. Major archaeological work began only after the Russian conquest of the region; it was first done by amateurs, in particular military officers.
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EXCAVATIONS iv. In Chinese Turkestan
B. A. LitvinskiĬ
In spite of the large number of published archaeological reports, our knowledge about the archaeology of Chinese Turkestan is still incomplete and full of serious lacunae.
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EXEGESIS
Multiple Authors
(Ar. tafsīr), commentary on or interpretation of sacred texts.
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EXEGESIS i. In Zoroastrianism
Philip G. Kreyenbroek
Zoroastrian exegesis consists basically of the interpretation of the Avesta (q.v.). However, the closest equivalent Iranian concept, zand, generally includes Pahlavi texts which were believed to derive from commentaries upon Avestan scripture, but whose extant form contains no Avestan passages.
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EXEGESIS ii. In Shiʿism
Meir M. Bar-Asher
Shiʿite exegetes, perhaps even more than their Sunni counterparts, support their distinctive views by reference to Koranic proof-texts.
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EXEGESIS iii. In Persian
Annabel Keeler
The writing of commentaries on the Koran in Persian seems to have begun during the second half of the 4th/10th century. The principal objective of such tafsīrs was ostensibly to give Persian speakers who were not proficient in Arabic direct access to the exegesis of the Koran.
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EXEGESIS vi. In Aḵbārī and Post-Safavid Esoteric Shiʿism
Todd Lawson
Aḵbārī exegesis of the Koran, the style and content of which are much older than the Safavid period, became during that time a common method of interpreting Islamic scripture.
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EXEGESIS vii. In Bahaism
Todd Lawson
importance of Koranic exegesis (tafsīr) and interpretation (taʾwīl)—a somewhat arbitrary distinction—for the Bābī and Bahai religions may be gathered from the fact that the inception of the former is dated to the commencement of a work of scriptural interpretation, namely the Bāb’s Tafsīr sūrat Yūsof, and that, in many ways, the most important work in the Bahai canon is the Ketāb-e īqān by Bahāʾ-Allāh.
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EXEGESIS viii. Nishapuri School of Quranic Exegesis
Walid A. Saleh
A school of Quranic exegesis was established by three scholars from Nishapur in the 11th century which transformed the genre of tafsir and Quranic sciences and came to be known as the Nishapuri School.
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EXILARCH
Isaiah M. Gafni
(Hebrew resh galuta), the leading authority in the Jewish community in Babylonia.
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EXILE
Cross-Reference
See DEPORTATIONS; DIASPORA.
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EXTRATERRITORIALITY
Cross-Reference
-
EXTREMIST SHIʿITES
Cross-Reference
See ḠOLĀT.
-
EY IRĀN
Morteza Hoseyni Dehkordi and Parvin Loloi
(O Iran, O bejeweled land), the title of an ardently patriotic hymn of praise to the land of Iran.
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EYES and EARS of KING
Cross-Reference
See COURTS AND COURTIERS.
-
EYVĀN
Cross-Reference
See AYVĀN.
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EŻĀFA
John R. Perry and Ali Ashraf Sadeghi
(annexation, suppletion), a grammatical term embracing several types of Persian noun phrase in which the constituents are connected by the enclitic -e/-ye (kasra-ye eżāfa “the eżāfa particle”).
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EZGĪL
Cross-Reference
or AZGĪL. See MEDLAR.
-
EZĪRĀN
Sheila S. Blair
a village 32 km southeast of Isfahan on the south bank of the river Zāyandarūd.
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EZNIK OF KOŁB
James R. Russell
or KOŁBACʿI (b. ca. 374-80), Armenian Christian theologian and cleric; his work contains a refutation of the Zoroastrian religion.
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ʿEZRĀ
Cross-Reference
See BIBLE.
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ʿEZRĀ, BOOK OF
J.C. Reeves
canonical biblical book emanating from the early portion of the Second Temple period (515 B.C.E.-70 C.E.) of Jewish history.
-
ʿEZRĀ-NĀMA
Amnon Netzer
paraphrased versification of the Book of ʿEzrā containing midrashic and Iranian legends.
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ʿEZRĀʾĪL
Cross-Reference
lit. "Angel of Death." See Supplement (ANGELS).
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ʿEZZ-AL-DAWLA, ʿABD-al-RAŠĪD
C. E. Bosworth
-
ʿEZZ-AL-DAWLA, ʿABD-AL-ṢAMAD MĪRZĀ
Kambiz Eslami
In 1872, ʿEzz-al-Dawla became the chieftain of the Qajar tribe, a prestigious albeit ceremonial position that he held for a year. It was in this capacity that he was selected to join Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah’s entourage on his first tour of Europe in 1873.
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ʿEZZ-AL-DĪN KĀŠĀNĪ, MAḤMŪD
Māšā-Allāh Ajūdānī
b. ʿAlī Naṭanzī (d. 1334-35), an author and Sufi of the early 14th century.
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ʿEZZAT PĀŠĀ, MOḤAMMAD
Tahsın Yazici
(1843-1914), author of a Persian-Turkish dictionary and translator of Persian literary works.
-
ʿEZZAT-AL-DAWLA, MALEKAZĀDA ḴĀNOM
Kambiz Eslami
(1834/35-1905), the only full sister of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah. The first (1849-52) of her five marriages was as second wife of Mīrzā Taqī Khan Amīr Kabīr. One of her two daughters by him married the crown prince Moẓaffar-al-Din Mirza and bore a son, the future Moḥammad-ʿAlī Shah (r. 1907-09).
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Ebādī Aḥmad
music sample
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Ebrāhīm b. Adham
music sample
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Eqbāl Āḏar, Abu’l Ḥasan Khan Qazvīnī
music sample
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Eydetun mobārak
music sample
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E~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Cross-Reference
list of all the figure and plate images in the letter E entries.