Table of Contents

• EAGLES

  Steven C. Anderson, William L. Hanaway, Jr.

  (Ar. and Pers. ʿoqāb; also obsolete Pers. dāl < Mid. Pers. dālman; also obsolete Pers. and Mid. Pers. āloh), large, diurnal, raptorial birds of the family Accipitridae in several genera (45-90 cm long, wingspan 110-250 cm).

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• EARTH IN ZOROASTRIANISM

  Cross-Reference

  See ELEMENTS i.

• EARTHQUAKES

  Daniel Balland, Habib Borjian, Xavier de Planhol, Manuel Berberian

  in Persia and Afghanistan. Both countries lie on the great alpine belt that extends from the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean through the Indonesian archipelago and forms the world’s longest collision boundary, between the Eurasian plate in the north and several former Gondwanan blocks in the south, including the so-called “Iranian plates” and “Afghan plates.”

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• EAST AFRICA

  Mark Horton, Derek Nurse, Farouk Topan, Will. C. van den Hoonard

  Persian relations with the lands of the East African coast, particularly Somalia, Kenya, and Tanzania. From early times monsoon winds have permitted rapid maritime travel between East Africa and Western Asia. Although large-scale Persian settlement in East Africa is unlikely Persian cultural and religious influences nonetheless were felt.

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• EAST AND WEST

  Antonio Panaino

  an English language quarterly published since 1950 by IsMEO (Istituto Italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente [Italian Institute for Middle and Far East]) and now by the IsIAO (Istituto Italiano per l’Africa e l’Oriente [Italian Institute for Africa and the Orient]).

• EAST INDIA COMPANY

  Anne Kroell

  a company established in 1664 to conduct all French commercial operations with the Orient. 

• EAST INDIA COMPANY (BRITISH)

  R. W. Ferrier, John R. Perry

  a trading company incorporated on 31 December 1600 for fifteen years with the primary purpose of exporting the staple production of English woolen cloths and importing the products of the East Indies.

• EAST INDIA COMPANY (DUTCH)

  Cross-Reference

  See DUTCH-PERSIAN RELATIONS.

• EAST SYRIAN MONASTERIES IN SASANIAN IRAN

  Florence Jullien

  Traces of monastic foundations in Sasanian Iran can be found in the sources as early as the 4th century CE. In the present review of the main East Syrian monasteries, emphasis is on the reformed monastic settlements of the 6th-7th centuries.

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• EASTERN IRANIAN LANGUAGES

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  term used to refer to a group of Iranian languages most of which are or were spoken in lands to the east of the present state of Persia.

• EASTWICK, EDWARD BACKHOUSE

  Parvin Loloi

  (1814–1883), orientalist and diplomat, best known for his translations from Persian and Indian languages.

• ʿEBĀDĪ, AḤMAD

  Jean During

  (1906-1993), one of the outstanding modern masters of Persian music. He played a leading role in popularizing the setār; the appeal of his performance resulted partly from the development of a new style involving slight technical and acoustical modifications to the instrument.

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• EBĀḤĪYA

  Hamid Algar

  or EBĀḤATĪYA; a polemical term denoting either antinomianism or groups and individuals accused thereof.

• EBER-NĀRI

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  the Akkadian name used in Assyrian and Babylonian records of the 8th-5th centuries B.C.E. for the lands to the west of the Euphrates—i.e., Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine.

• EBERMAN, VASILIĬ ALEKSANDROVICH

  Anas B. Khalidov

  (b. St. Petersburg, 1899, d. Orel, 1937), scholar of early Persian poets writing in Arabic.

• EBIR NĀRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See EBER-NĀRI.

• EBLĀḠ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  lit. “communication”; title of five Persian language newspapers.

• EBLĪS

  Hamid Algar

  a Koranic designation for the devil in Persian Sufi Tradition, derived ultimately from the Greek diabolos.

• EBN ʿABBĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See ṢĀḤEB B. ʿABBĀD.

• EBN ʿABBĀD, Esmāʿil, al-Ṣāḥeb Kāfi al-Kofāt

  Maurice Pomerantz

  vizier and belletrist.

• EBN ABHAR, MOḤAMMAD-TAQĪ

  Stephen Lambden

  (1854-1919), Bahai teacher and one of the “hands of the cause."

• EBN ABĪ JOMHŪR AḤSĀʾĪ, Moḥammad

  Todd Lawson

  b. Zayn-al-Dīn Abi’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī b. Ḥosām-al-Dīn Ebrāhīm (b. ca. 1433-34; d. after 4 July 1499), Shiʿite thinker.

• EBN ABĪ ṢĀDEQ, ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿABD-al-RAḤMĀN

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  b. ʿAlī b. Aḥmad NAYŠĀBŪRĪ (Nīšāpūr, 11th century), medical author known in the century after his death, at least in Khorasan, as “the second Hippocrates," and reportedly a student of Avicenna.

• EBN ABĪ ṬĀHER ṬAYFŪR, ABU’L-FAŻL AḤMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (819-93), littérateur (adīb) and historian of Baghdad, of a Khorasani family.

• EBN ABI’L ḤADĪD

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. ABU’L ḤADĪD.

• EBN AL-ʿAMĪD

  Ihsan Abbas

  cognomen of two famous viziers of the 4th/10th century: Abu’l-Fażl and his son Abu’l-Fatḥ.

• EBN AL-ʿARABĪ, MOḤYĪ-al-DĪN Abū ʿAbd-Allāh Moḥammad Ṭāʾī Ḥātemī

  William C. Chittick

  (b. 28 July 1165; d. 10 November 1240), the most influential Sufi author of later Islamic history, known to his supporters as al-Šayḵ al-akbar, “the Greatest Master.”

• EBN AL-AṮĪR, ʿEZZ-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ḤASAN ʿALĪ

  D. S. Richards

  b. Moḥammad Jazarī (b. Jazīrat Ebn ʿOmar [modern Cizre, in eastern Turkey] 13 May 1160; d. Mosul, June 1233), major Islamic historian and important source for the history of Persia and adjacent areas from the Samanids to the first Mongol invasion.

• EBN AL-BALḴĪ

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  conventional name for an otherwise unknown author of Fārs-nāma, a local history and geography of the province of Fārs written in Persian during the Saljuq period.

• EBN AL-BAYṬĀR, ŻĪĀʾ-AL-DĪN ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  b. Aḥmad (?-1248), Andalusian botanist and pharmacologist.

• EBN AL-BAYYEʿ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH B. AL-BAYYEʿ.

• EBN AL-ʿEBRĪ, ABU’L-FARAJ

  Herman G. B. Teule

  (1225-1286), Syriac historian and polymath. Most of his works were in Syriac, but he also wrote in Arabic. In his Syriac Chronicle,  much attention is given to the vicissitudes of the Jacobite and East Syrian, or Nestorian, churches in the “Persian territories.” 

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• EBN AL-EḴŠĪD, ABŪ BAKR AḤMAD

  Daniel Gimaret

  b. ʿAlī b. Beḡčor (884-938), Muʿtazilite theologian.

• EBN AL-FAQĪH, ABŪ BAKR AḤMAD

  Anas B. Khalidov

  b. Moḥammad b. Esḥāq b. Ebrāhīm HAMADĀNĪ Aḵbārī (fl. second half of the 9th century), man of letters, who wrote in Arabic Ketāb aḵbār al- boldān, a geographic work, in which primarily the Islamic world with its centers in Arabia, Persia, and Iraq are described.

• EBN AL-FOWAṬĪ, KAMĀL-AL-DĪN ʿABD-AL-RAZZĀQ

  Charles Melville

  (1244-1323), b. Aḥmad, librarian and historian.

• EBN AL-JEʿĀBĪ, ABŪ BAKR MOḤAMMAD

  Wilferd Madelung

  (897-966), b. ʿOmar Tamīmī Ḥāfeẓ, traditionist with Shiʿite leanings.

• EBN AL-JONAYD, ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD

  Wilferd Madelung

  or al-Jonaydī; b. Aḥmad Kāteb Eskāfī, 10th century Imami jurist.

• EBN AL-MOQAFFAʿ, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH RŌZBEH

  J. Derek Latham

  (721-757), b. Dādūya/Dādōē, chancery secretary (kāteb) and major Arabic prose writer.

• EBN AL-MOṬAHHAR

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤELLĪ, ʿALLĀMA.

• EBN AL-NADĪM

  Cross-Reference

  Shi'ite scholar and bibliographer of the 10th century, famous as the author of Ketāb al-fehrest. See under FEHREST.

• EBN AL-QAṢṢĀB, ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR MOʾAYYAD-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Richard W. Bulliet

  (b. ca. 1128), b. ʿAlī, Shiʿite vizier of the caliph al-Nāṣer from 1194 to 1195.

• EBN AL-ṬEQṬAQĀ, ṢAFĪ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Charles Melville

  (1262 ?-after 1309 ?), b. ʿAlī b. Ṭabāṭabā, historian and naqīb of the ʿAlids in Ḥella.

• EBN AMĀJŪR

  Cross-Reference

  See BANŪ AMĀJŪR.

• EBN ʿĀMER

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-ALLĀH B. ʿĀMER.

• EBN ʿARABŠĀH, ŠEHĀB-AL-DĪN ABU’L-ʿABBĀS AḤMAD

  John E. Woods

  (1389-Cairo, 1450), b. Moḥammad … Ḥanafī ʿAjamī, literary scholar and biographer of Tamerlane (Tīmūr).

• EBN AṢDAQ, MĪRZĀ ʿALĪ-MOḤAMMAD

  Stephen Lambden

  (b. Mašhad 1850; d. Tehran, 1928), prominent Bahai missionary.

• EBN AŠTAR

  D.M. Dunlop

  (d. at Maskin on the Tigris, in September-October 691), Arab chief and Shiʿite military leader.

• EBN ʿAṬṬĀŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAṬṬĀŠ.

• EBN ʿAYYĀŠ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM

  Daniel Gimaret

  b. Moḥammad Baṣrī, Muʿtazilite theologian (d. late 10th century), member of the so-called “school of Baṣra” and a partisan of the ideas of Abū Hāšem Jobbāʾī.

• EBN BĀBĀ KĀŠĀNĪ (Qāšānī), ABU’L-ʿABBĀS

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (d. Marv, 1116-17), Persian writer and boon-companion (nadīm), whose manual for courtiers preserves otherwise lost information on the later Ghaznavids.

• EBN BĀBAWAYH (1)

  Sheila S. Blair

  (Bābūya), family of Persian builders, luster potters, and tile makers, descended from the Shiʿite scholar Ebn Bābūya al-Ṣadūq (d. 991) and active in the 12th-14th centuries.

• EBN BĀBAWAYH (2)

  Martin McDermott

  (Bābūya), SHAIKH ṢADŪQ ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD b. Abu’l-Ḥasan ʿAlī... Mūsā Qomī (b. Qom after 305, probably about 311/923; d. Ray, 381/991), author of one of the authoritative four books of Imami Shiʿite Hadith, Man lā yaḥżoroho’l-faqīh.

• EBN BĀKŪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀBĀ KŪHĪ.

• EBN BAQIYA

  C. E. Bosworth

  called Naṣir-al-Dawla and Nāṣeḥ "Counselor,” vizier of the Buyids in Iraq, b. 314/926, d. 367/978.

• EBN BAṬṬŪṬA

  Charles F. Beckingham

  (1304-1368/9), the most famous Muslim traveler.

• EBN BAZZĀZ

  Roger Savory

  author of the Ṣafwat al-ṣafāʾ, a biography of Shaikh Ṣafī-al-Dīn Esḥāq Ardabīlī (d. 935/1334), founder of the Safavid order of Sufis and the eponym of the Safavid dynasty.

• EBN BĪBĪ, NĀṢER-AL-DĪN ḤOSAYN

  Tahsin Yazici

  b. Moḥammad b. ʿAlī Jaʿfarī Roḡadī, Persian historian and man of letters.

• EBN BOḴTĪŠŪʿ

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  prominent family of physicians of Gondēšāpūr at court during the early ʿAbbasid period.

• EBN DĀʿĪ RĀZĪ, ABŪ TORĀB ṢAFĪ-AL-DĪN MORTAŻĀ

  Marco Salami

  b. Dāʿī b. Qāsem Rāzī Ḥosaynī (or Ḥasanī), known as ʿAlam-al-Hodā (d. after 1132), Imami traditionist and author of a heresiography in Persian.

• EBN DĀROST, MAJD-AL-WOZARĀʾ MOḤAMMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Manṣūr (d. Ahvā, 1074), vizier to the ʿAbbasid caliph al-Qāʾem from 9 May 1061 to 9 December 1062.

• EBN DĀROST, TĀJ-AL-MOLK ABU’L-ḠANĀʾEM MARZBĀN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Ḵosrow-Fīrūz Šīrāzī (1046-93), last vizier of the Great Saljuq Sultan Malekšāh.

• EBN DAYṢĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See BARDESANES.

• EBN DOROSTAWAYH, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALL

  Seeger A. Bonebakker

  b. Jaʿfar b. Dorostawayh b. Marzbān (b. Fasā, 871; d. Baghdad, May 958), grammarian and lexicographer of Persian origin.

• EBN ELYĀS, MANṢŪR

  Gul A. Russell

  (fl. late 14th-early 15th cent.), author of two extant Persian works: a medical compilation titled Kefāya-ye mojāhedīya and an illustrated anatomy text known as the Tašrīḥ-e manṣūrī. The five full-page drawings, corresponding to the five treatises in the Tašrīḥ, are unique in the history of Islamic medicine.

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• EBN ESFANDĪĀR, BAHĀʾ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Charles Melville

  b. Ḥasan, historian, probably from Āmol, who flourished around the turn of the 13th century.

• EBN FAHD ḤELLĪ, ABU’L-ʿABBĀS JAMĀL-AL-DĪN AḤMAD

  Marco Salami

  b. Šams-al-Dīn Moḥammad (1355-1437), Imami scholar and jurist.

• EBN FARĪḠŪN

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E FARĪḠŪN.

• EBN FAŻLĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See AḤMAD B. FAŻLĀN.

• EBN FONDOQ

  Cross-Reference

  See BAYHAQĪ, ẒAHĪR-AL-DĪN.

• EBN FŪLĀD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (or Ebn Pūlād), military adventurer, probably of Daylamī origin, active in northern Persia during the Buyid period (early 11th century) and typical of the soldiers of fortune characterizing the “Daylamī intermezzo” of medieval Persian history.

• EBN FŪRAK

  Forthcoming

  EBN FŪRAK. See Supplement.

• EBN ḤAWQAL, ABU’L-QĀSEM MOḤAMMAD

  Anas B. Khalidov

  b. ʿAlī Naṣībī, traveler and geographer of the 10th century.

• EBN ḤAWŠAB, ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤASAN

  Heinz Halm

  b. Faraj (or Faraḥ) b. Ḥawšab b. Zāḏān Najjār Kūfī, known also as Manṣūr al-Yaman (d. 914), Ismaʿili dāʿī and founder of the Ismaʿili community in northern Yemen.

• EBN HENDŪ, ABU’L-FARAJ ʿALĪ

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  b. Ḥosayn, also known as Ostāḏ (b. in Ṭabarestān, no later than the early 960s; d. in or after 1031), author of, inter alia, propaedeutic epistles on philosophy and medicine and of a gnomology of Greek wisdom, and generally renowned as a litterateur.

• EBN ḤOSĀM ḴᵛĀFĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā

  or Ḵūsfī, a poet of the 15th century.

• EBN ḴAFĪF

  Forthcoming

  See Supplement.

• EBN ḴĀLAWAYH, ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH ḤOSAYN

  Michael G. Carter

  b. Aḥmad b. Ḥamdān Hamaḏānī, philologist and Koran scholar.

• EBN ḴALDŪN, ABŪ ZAYD ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN

  Franz Rosenthal

  b. Moḥammad (b. 27 May 1332; d. 17 March 1406), the historian famous for the general theory of history and civilization brilliantly expounded in his Moqaddema.

• EBN ḴALLĀD, ABŪ ʿALĪ MOḤAMMAD BAṢRĪ

  Daniel Gimaret

  (d. 2nd half of 10th century), Muʿtazilite theologian of the so-called “school of Baṣra,” partisan of the ideas of Abū Hāšem Jobbāʾī.

• EBN ḴAMMĀR, ABU’L-ḴAYR ḤASAN

  W. Montgomery Watt

  b. Savār (or Sovār), b. Bābā b. Bahrām (or Behnām) Ḵᵛārazmī, philosopher.

• EBN ḴĀQĀN, FATḤ

  Cross-Reference

  See FATḤ B. ḴĀQĀN.

• EBN ḴARMĪL

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  early 13th century military commander of the Ghurids, and connected, according to Jūzjānī, with the district of Gorzevān on the headwaters of the Morḡāb in the province of Gūzgān in northern Afghanistan.

• EBN ḴĀZEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDALLĀH B. ḴĀZEM.

• EBN ḴORDĀḎBEH, ABU’L-QĀSEM ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. ʿAbd-Allāh (fl. 9th century), author of the earliest surviving Arabic book of administrative geography.

• EBN MAFANA

  C. E. Bosworth

  vizier to the Buyid ruler of Fars and Khuzestan.

• EBN MĀHĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿALĪ B. ʿĪSĀ B. MĀHĀN.

• EBN MĀJŪR

  Cross-Reference

  See BANŪ AMĀJŪR.

• EBN MĀKŪLA

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E MĀKŪLĀ.

• EBN MARDAWAYH, AHMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Mūsā b. Mardawayh b. Fūrak Eṣfahānī (935-1019), scholar of Isfahan in the Buyid period, who wrote in the fields of tradition, tafsīr (Koranic exegsis), history, and geography.

• EBN MARZOBĀN, ABŪ AḤMAD ʿABD-AL-RAḤMĀN

  D. M. Dunlop

  b. ʿAlī b. Marzbān Ṭabīb Marzbānī (d. Tostar, February-March 1006), administrative official under the Buyids.

• EBN MATTAWAYH, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ḤASAN

  Martin McDermott

  b. Aḥmad b. Mattawayh, Muʿtazilite theologian of the Basran school, a student of Qāżī ʿAbd-al-Jabbār (d. 1025).

• EBN MESKAVAYH

  Cross-Reference

  Persian chancery official and treasury clerk of the Buyid period, boon companion, litterateur and accomplished writer in Arabic on a variety of topics, including history, theology, philosophy and medicine (d. 421/1030). See MESKAVAYH, ABU ʿALI AḤMAD.

• EBN MOʿĀVĪA

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDALLAH B. MOʿĀVĪA.

• EBN MOBĀRAK

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDALLAH B. MOBĀRAK.

• EBN MOHALHEL

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ DOLAF  AL-YANBŪʿĪ.

• EBN MOLJAM

  Forthcoming

  Ebn Moljam will be discussed in a future online entry.

• EBN MORSAL, LAYṮ

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Fażl, a client (mawlā) and governor of Sīstān 815-19.

• EBN MOSTAWFĪ, ABU’L-BARAKĀT ŠARAF-AL-DĪN MOBĀRAK

  Ihsan Abbas

  b. Aḥmad b. Mobārak Erbelī (1168-1239), historian of Erbel.

• EBN MOṬARREF

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-WAZĪR MARVAZĪ.

• EBN NAWBAḴT, ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See NAWBAḴTĪ FAMILY.

• EBN NAWBAḴT, ABŪ SAHL

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ SAHL NAWBAḴTĪ.

• EBN NAWBAḴT, ḤASAN B. MŪSĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See NAWBAḴTĪ, ḤASAN B. MŪSĀ.

• EBN NOṢRAT, AMIR BAHĀʾ-AL- DĪN BARANDAQ ḴOJANDĪ

  Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā

  (b. 1356; d. ca. 1433), Timurid poet.

• EBN QEBA, ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD

  Martin McDermott

  b. ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān Rāzī (d. Ray, before 931), one of the most prominent and active Imami theologians.

• EBN QOTAYBA, ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH

  Franz Rosenthal

  b. Moslem DĪNAVARĪ, (828-889), important early philologist in the widest sense of the term and author of numerous works on what is known as the “Arab sciences,” including the religious sciences dealing with the Koran and Hadith.

• EBN QŪLAWAYH, ABU’L- QĀSEM JAʿFAR

  Martin McDermott

  b. Moḥammad b. Jaʿfar b. Mūsāb. Qūlawayh Qomī Baḡdādī (d. Baghdad, 978 or 979), Imami traditionist and jurist, a disciple of Abū Jaʿfar Kolaynī and teacher of Shaikh Mofīd.

• EBN RABĪṬ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABDĀN B. AL-RABĪṬ.

• EBN RĀVANDĪ, ABU’l-ḤOSAYN AḤMAD

  Josef van Ess

  b. Yaḥyā (d. 910?), Muʿtazilite theologian and “heretic” of Ḵorāsānī origin.

• EBN RĒVANDĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See EBN RĀVANDĪ.

• EBN ROSTA, ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. ʿOmar (d. after 903), Persian author of a geographical compendium.

• EBN RŪḤ, ABU’L-QĀSEM ḤOSAYN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤOSAYN B. RŪḤ.

• EBN SAʿD, ʿOMAR

  Jean Calmard

  (k. Kūfa 686), commander of the Omayyad troops at Karbalāʾ.

• EBN ŠĀḎĀN

  Wilferd Madelung

  family name of two Imami traditionists: Abu’l-ʿAbbās Aḥmad b. ʿAlī b. Ḥasan (or Ḥosayn) Fāmī Qomī (10th century) and his son.

• EBN ŠĀḎĀN, ABŪ ʿALĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ʿALĪ AḤMAD.

• EBN ŠĀHAWAYH

  Wilferd Madelung

  a leader and envoy of the Carmatians.

• EBN SAHLĀN SĀVAJĪ, Qāżī ZAYN-AL-DĪN ʿOMAR

  Hossein Ziai

  (b. Sāva, fl. early 12th century), Persian philosopher and logician.

• EBN ŠAHRĀŠŪB, ABŪ JAʿFAR ZAYN-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD

  Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi

  b. ʿALī b. Šahrāšūb b. Abī Naṣr b. Abi’l-Jayš (b. Sārī, Māzandarān; d. Aleppo, 2 September 1192), the most illustrious Imami scholar of the 12th century.

• EBN SĪNA

  Cross-Reference

  See AVICENNA.

• EBN SORAYJ

  Cross-Reference

  See AḤMAD B. ʿOMAR B. SORAYJ.

• EBN ṬABĀṬABĀ, ABU’L-ḤASAN MOḤAMMAD

  Ihsan Abbas

  b. Aḥmad b. Moḥammad b. Aḥmad b. Ebrāhīm Eṣfahānī (d. 933), poet and critic.

• EBN ṬĀWŪS, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN ABU’L- FAŻĀʾEL AḤMAD

  Wilferd Madelung

  b. Mūsā b. Jaʿfar b. Moḥammad Ḥasanī, 12th century Imami scholar.

• EBN ṬĀWŪS, RAŻĪ-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ

  Etan Kohlberg

  b. Mūsā b. Jaʿfar (b. Ḥella, 21 January 1193; d. Baghdad, 8 August 1266), Imami author, scholar, and bibliophile, called Ḏu’l-ḥasabayn “possessing two distinctions” because he was descended from both Ḥasan and Ḥosayn.

• EBN TORK

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD B. VĀSEʿ.

• EBN TORKA

  Cross-Reference

  See ṢĀʾN-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ EṢFAHĀNĪ.

• EBN YAMĪN, AMĪR FAḴR-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak

  b. Amir Yamīn-al-Dīn Ṭoḡrāʾī, a poet of the 14th century.

• EBN ZĪĀD, ʿOBAYD-ALLĀH

  Jean Calmard

  (b. ca. 648), Omayyad governor responsible for the death of the Imam Ḥosayn b. ʿAlī.

• EBRĀHĪM

  Amnon Netzer

  Abraham, the name of the first patriarch of the Hebrew people.

• EBRĀHĪM ʿAKKĀS-BĀŠĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAKKĀS-BĀŠĪ.

• EBRĀHĪM AMĪN-AL-SOLṬĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See AMĪN-AL-SOLṬĀN, ĀQĀ EBRĀHĪM.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ADHAM

  EIr

  b. Manṣūr b. Yazīd b. Jāber ʿEjlī (d. 777-78), prominent Sufi and ascetic of 8th century.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ALPTIGIN, ABŪ ESḤĀQ

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ESMĀʿĪL

  Sheila S. Blair

  Safavid architect mentioned on two tiles: one in the dome of the tomb of Shaikh ʿAbd-al-Ṣamad at Naṭanz and another, dated 1661-62, in the south wall of the south ayvān of the congregational mosque at Isfahan.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ḤOSAYN

  Cross-Reference

  See TAHERIDS.

• EBRĀHĪM B. JARĪR

  Munibur Rahman

  author of a general history called Tārīḵ-e ebrāhīmī or Tārīḵ-e homāyūnī.

• EBRĀHĪM B. MASʿŪD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Maḥmūd b. Sebüktegīn, Abu’l-Moẓaffar, Ẓahīr-al-Dawla, Rażī-al-Dīn, etc., Ghaznavid sultan (r. 1059-99). 

• EBRĀHĪM B. NAṢR

  Cross-Reference

  See BÖRĪ.

• EBRĀHĪM B. ʿOṮMĀN

  Sheila S. Blair

  Persian metalworker named in the inscription in Kufic script on the copper door knockers removed from a city gate in medieval Ganja (Soviet Kirovabad, Republic of Azerbaijan) and taken to the convent of Gelatʿi in Imeretiya, just east of Kutaisi in Georgia.

• EBRĀHĪM BEG

  Cross-Reference

  See ZAYN-AL-ʿĀBEDĪN MARĀḠAʾĪ.

• EBRĀHĪM DEDE ŠĀHEDĪ

  Tahsin Yazici

  Turkish poet and lexicographer.

• EBRĀHĪM FĀRŪQĪ

  Cross-Reference

  15th century poet and author of Farhang-e Ebrāhīmi. See under FARHANG-E EBRĀHIMI.

• EBRĀHĪM ĪNĀL

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  or Yenāl (d. 1059), early Saljuq leader.

• EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Abbas Amanat

  (b. 1745, d. 1800/1801), lord mayor (kalāntar) of Shiraz during the late Zand era, the first grand vizier (ṣadr-e aʿẓam), and a major political figure of the Qajar period.

• EBRĀHĪM ḴALĪL KHAN JAVĀNŠĪR

  GEORGE A. BOURNOUTIAN

  Khan of Qarābāḡ in late 18th century.

• EBRĀHĪM KHAN AFŠĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See AFSHARIDS.

• EBRĀHĪM KHAN ḠAFFĀRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠAFFĀRĪ, MOḤAMMAD-EBRĀHĪM Khan.

• EBRĀHĪM KHAN QĀJĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See ẒAHIR-AL-DAWLA, EBRĀHIM KHAN.

• EBRĀHĪM LODĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See LODĪ DYNASTY.

• EBRĀHĪM MAWṢELĪ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ

  Everett Rowson

  the most celebrated musician at the court of Hārūn al-Rašīd and a central figure in the development of the Iraqi school of music under the early ʿAbbasids.

• EBRĀHĪM MĪRZĀ

  Marianna S. Simpson

  (b. April 1540; d. 23 February 1577), Safavid prince, patron, artist, and poet generally referred to as Solṭān Ebrāhīm Mīrzā.

• EBRĀHĪM NAẒẒĀM

  Cross-Reference

  See ABŪ ESḤĀQ NAẒẒĀM.

• EBRĀHĪM ṢAḤḤĀF-BĀŠĪ

  Cross-reference

  See ṢAḤḤĀF-BĀŠĪ.

• EBRĀHĪM ŠARQĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See ŠARQĪ.

• EBRĀHĪM SHAH AFŠĀR

  John R. Perry

  nephew of Nāder Shah, claiming the Afsharid throne briefly (1748-49)

• EBRĀHĪM ŠĪRĀZĪ

  Carl W. Ernst

  historian of the ʿĀdelšāhī dynasty of Bījāpūr (b. 1540-41).

• EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  (1394-35), b. Šāhroḵ, Timurid prince, ruler of Shiraz, military commander, and renowned calligrapher.

• EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN, ABU’L-QĀSEM

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-QĀSEM EBRĀHĪM SOLṬĀN.

• EBRĀHĪM ṬEHRĀNĪ

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  also known as Mīrzā ʿAmū, a 19th century calligrapher specializing in the nastaʿlīq script.

• EBRĀHĪMĀBĀDĪ DIALECT

  Cross-Reference

  See RĀMANDĪ.

• EBRĀHĪMĪ, ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-AL-REŻĀ KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ.

• EBRĀHĪMĪ, ABU’L-QĀSEM KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ABU’L-QĀSEM KHAN EBRĀHĪMĪ.

• ʿEBRAT

  EIr

  a monthly magazine first published on 4 February 1956 as the organ of Tūda party prisoners under the auspices and with the facilities of the Office of Tehran’s Military Governor, General Teymūr Baḵtīār.

• ʿEBRAT, Sayyed MOḤAMMAD-QĀSEM

  Munibur Rahman

  author of ʿEbrat-nāma, a history of the reigns of Awrangzēb’s successors to 1723.

• ʿEBRĪ

  Cross-Reference

  "hebrew." See under JUDEO-PERSIAN COMMUNITIES.

• EBTEHAJ, ABOLHASSAN

  Geoffrey Jones

  (1899-1999), prominent banker, economic planner, and one of the most important and powerful figures in the economic history of Iran during the middle decades of the 20th century.

• ECBATANA

  Stuart C. Brown

  present-day Hamadān, capital of the Median empire, summer capital of the Achaemenids, and satrapal seat of the province of Media from Achaemenid to Sasanian times.

• ECKMANN, János

  ANDRÁS BODROGLIGETI

  (1905-1971), a Hungarian Professor of Chaghatay.

• ECOLOGY

  Eckart Ehlers

  the study of organisms, both flora and fauna, in relation to their environments. Five primary ecological regions in Persia each have a characteristic combination of features: Caspian lowlands, Alborz system and mountains in Khorasan, Persian plateau,  Zagros system. Makrān mountains, and the Persian Gulf lowlands.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ECONOMY

  Multiple Authors

  i. Economic geography, ii. In the Pre-Achaemenid period, iii. In the Achaemenid period, iv. In the Sasanian period, v. From the Arab conquest to the end of the Il-khanids, vi. In the Timurid period, vii. From the Safavids through the Zands, viii. In the Qajar period, ix. In the Pahlavi period, x. Under the Islamic Republic, xi. In modern Afghanistan, xii. In Tajikistan.

• ECONOMY i. ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY

  Xavier de Planhol

  The high plateau and its external relations. The heartland of the Iranian world, encompassing both Persia and Afghanistan, is an arid high plateau, from which communication with the outside world is extraordinarily difficult.

• ECONOMY ii. IN THE PRE-ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Robert C. Henrickson

  Pre-Median Persia was a crucial economic component of ancient southwest Asia from the earliest times.

• ECONOMY iii. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  The Achaemenid empire, extending from the Indus river to the Aegean sea, comprised such economically developed countries as Egypt, Syria, Phoenicia, Babylonia, Elam, and Asia Minor, lands which had their long traditions of social institutions, as well as Sakai, Massagetai, Lycians, Libyans, Nubians and other tribes undergoing the disintegration of the primitive-communal phase.

• ECONOMY iv. IN THE SASANIAN PERIOD

  Ryka Gyselen

  The Sasanians, who inherited the economic conditions left by the Parthians, were quick to forge an economic state so powerful and distinctive that its fame spread well beyond their political frontiers and their period.

• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 1)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

  The economic order in Islamic Persia was in theory, if not always in practice, derived from Islamic norms.

• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 2)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

  The political breakdown of the caliphate in the 3rd/9th and 4th/10th centuries, although disastrous for the finances of the state and for agriculture in ʿErāq-e ʿArab and, perhaps, also in Ḵūzestān and parts of western Persia, did not have ill effects immediately on the economic life of Persia as a whole.

• ECONOMY v. FROM THE ARAB CONQUEST TO THE END OF THE IL-KHANIDS (part 3)

  Ann K. S. Lambton

  As the needs of the state grew, there was a constant shortage of specie to meet its expenses. As a result of the devastation and demographic decline brought about by the invasions, there was less land under cultivation and fewer people engaged in agriculture.

• ECONOMY vi. IN THE TIMURID PERIOD

  Maria E. Subtelny

  The Timurid invasions against the Kartid rulers of Khorasan, which began in 783/1381, caused socioeconomic dislocation and unprecedented wholesale destruction and pillaging of towns, as well as brutal massacres of their populations.

• ECONOMY vii. FROM THE SAFAVIDS THROUGH THE ZANDS

  Bert Fragner

  The first Safavid king, Esmāʿīl I (907-30/1501-24), initiated a process of political and religious change in Persia that profoundly affected the economic structure.

• ECONOMY viii. IN THE QAJAR PERIOD

  Hassan Hakimian

  At the outset of the Qajar dynasty, the Persian economy displayed the characteristics of a traditional economy disintegrating under the stress of political anarchy.

• ECONOMY ix. IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD

  M. Hashem Pesaran

  Overall, under the Pahlavis the Persian economy made significant advances which compared favorably with the experience of countries such as Turkey and Egypt, which were in a better state of development after the First World War.

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• ECONOMY x. UNDER THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC

  Vahid F. Nowshirvani

  Since 1979 there have been marked changes in the economic policies, institutions, and structure of the country, and major economic dislocation and disruption of production. Not all the changes have resulted directly from the revolution.

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• ECONOMY xi. IN MODERN AFGHANISTAN

  M. Siddieq Noorzoy

  From 1970 until the coup d’état in April 1978, followed by the Soviet invasion in December 1979, the Afghan economy experienced sustained high economic growth. Gross domestic product rose at a rate of 4.5 percent annually.

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• ECONOMY xii. IN TAJIKISTAN

  Habib Borjian

  During the seventy years of centralized Soviet administration, the economy of Tajikistan was modernized and integrated into the Soviet economy. The Tajik Soviet Republic exhibited comparatively remarkable growth in the agricultural and industrial sectors.

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• ʿEDĀLAT, ḤEZB-E

  Fakhreddin Azimi

  (Ar. ʿAdālat “justice”), Persian political party founded by ʿAlī Daštī in December 1941.

• ʿEDĀLAT-ḴĀNA

  Cross-Reference

  See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION.

• EDEB

  Amir Hassanpour

  b. Armanī Bolāḡī (1860-1918), pen name of the Kurdish poet ʿAbd-Allāh Beg b. Aḥmad Beg Bābāmīrī Miṣbāḥ-al-Dīwān.

• EDESSA

  Samuel Lieu

  now Urfa in southeastern Turkey, former capital of ancient Osrhoene.  Edessa was held successively by the Seleucids, Parthians, and Romans. The fact that coins were minted at Edessa under Antiochus IV suggests a degree of autonomy and importance in the Seleucid period. Greeks were never predominant in the population, however.

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• EDITING

  Karim Emami

  the techniques of preparing a text for publication, now widely practiced at the major publishing houses in Persia.

• EDMONDS, C. J

  Yann RICHARD

  The son of a British missionary, Edmonds was born in Japan, where he stayed up to the age of eight. He was educated in England at Bedford and Christ’s Hospital public schools and finally studied oriental languages at Cambridge under the supervision of E. G. Browne for two years.

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• EDUCATION

  Multiple Authors

  (Pers. āmūzeš o parvareš; earlier Ar. Per. taʿlīm o tarbīat) in Iranian-speaking areas.

• EDUCATION i. IN THE ACHAEMENID PERIOD

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  In two Elamite documents from Persepolis drafted in the 23rd regnal year of Darius I (499 B.C.E.) “Persian boys (who) are copying texts” are mentioned; the texts in question are records of the issue of grain to twenty-nine individuals and wine to sixteen.

• EDUCATION ii. IN THE PARTHIAN AND SASANIAN PERIODS

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  No concrete evidence on education in Parthian times has survived. It may be postulated, however, that it was similar to education in the Sasanian period.

• EDUCATION iii. THE TRADITIONAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOL

  Jalīl Dūstḵᵛāh and Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī

  Before the establishment of a modern educational system in Persia,  children received their early and intermediate education in the maktab (or maktab-ḵāna, lit., “place of writing”) under the tutelage of an āḵūnd, mulla (clerical teacher), or moʿallem (teacher).

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• EDUCATION iv. THE MEDIEVAL MADRASA

  Christopher Melchert

  lit., “place to study” Ar. darasa “to study”. It was a college for the professional study of the Islamic sciences, particularly jurisprudence (feqh) but also the Koran, Hadith, and such ancillary fields as Arabic grammar and philology, knowledge of which helped in understanding sacred and legal texts.

• EDUCATION v. THE MADRASA IN SHIʿITE PERSIA

  ʿAbbās Zaryāb

  After the introduction of the institutionalized madrasa by Neẓām-al-Molk in the late 11th century, above) Shiʿite madrasas were also founded in Persia and Iraq. These schools were local efforts, however, and did not constitute a unitary system of education.

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• EDUCATION vi. THE MADRASA IN SUNNI KURDISTAN

  ʿAbd-Allāh Mardūḵ

  Every mosque also contained a chamber called a ḥojra, where the mulla offered lessons in religion and theology free of charge to Muslim boys. Boys, though very seldom girls, began their studies at the age of seven years.

• EDUCATION vii. GENERAL SURVEY OF MODERN EDUCATION

  Ahmad Ashraf

  A modern system of national education emerged in Persia in the 1920s and 1930s, after the Pahlavi state had been founded; during this period the influence of the religious establishment was minimized, and the government gained control over schools, expanding enrollment at all levels.

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• EDUCATION viii. NURSERY SCHOOLS AND KINDERGARTENS

  Tūrān Mīrhādī

  Formalized preschool education in Persia can be traced back to ca. 1891, when Armenians in Jolfā, near Isfahan, founded a kindergarten, which continues today. By 1919 there were a few kindergartens in Tehran and other cities, primarily founded by missionaries and minority groups.

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• EDUCATION ix. PRIMARY SCHOOLS

  Sayyed ʿAlī Āl-e Dāwūd

  At first primary and secondary schools were not distinct, and the primary levels sometimes consisted of only four grades. There were no general instructional materials and no uniform curriculum, each school being under the direction of its founder or principal.

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• EDUCATION x. MIDDLE AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk

  Modern secondary education in Persia was originally based on the 19th-century European humanistic system, focused on general knowledge and building character rather than on professional or vocational training. This philosophy dominated the Persian system until the 1960s, when reforms were introduced by American advisers.

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• EDUCATION xi. PRIVATE SCHOOLS AND EDUCATIONAL GROUPS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk

  After the Constitutional Revolution some of these schools were closed, and the others were brought under state management. During the next fifteen years several more private schools were founded.

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• EDUCATION xii. VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

  Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr

  In 1958 the General Department of Vocational Training was established in the Ministry of Education. It was responsible for establishing a number of agricultural, industrial, commercial, and secretarial schools. 

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• EDUCATION xiii. RURAL AND TRIBAL SCHOOLS

  Moḥammad Bahmanbeygī, Nāṣer Mīr, Moḥammad Pūrsartīp, and EIr

  Compulsory-education laws enacted in 1911 and 1943 provided the legal framework for the extension of modern education into rural and tribal areas. Until the 1950s, however, the Persian government did not possess the resources  to implement these laws; in addition, landowners and tribal khans resisted such efforts.

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• EDUCATION xiv. SPECIAL SCHOOLS

  Samineh Baghchehban-Pirnazar

  Until 1968 responsibility for children with special educational needs had fallen on the individual schools. In that year the National Organization for Special Education  was established as a general directorate under a deputy minister of education.

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• EDUCATION xv. FOREIGN AND MINORITY SCHOOLS IN PERSIA

  EIr

  Modern education was introduced to Persia in the 19th century by European and American religious institutions and military advisers.

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• EDUCATION xvi. SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS

  Aḥmad Bīrašk and EIr

  No standardized schoolbooks existed in Persia before the advent of the modern educational system. The first were written by European teachers at the Dār al-fonūn in the mid-19th century.

• EDUCATION xvii. HIGHER EDUCATION

  David Menashri

  Initially Reżā Shah’s government, like the Qajar government before it, encouraged aspiring professionals to study abroad, but, while urging them to absorb practical elements of Western culture, he also warned them to reject “harmful” influences and preserve their own national identity.

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• EDUCATION xix. TEACHERS’-TRAINING COLLEGES

  Majd-al-Dīn Keyvānī

  Dānešgāh-e tarbīat-e moʿallem, the oldest institution for educating teachers in Persia, was founded  in Tehran in 1336/1918. It has gone through various phases and changes of name since.

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• EDUCATION xviii. TEACHERS’-TRAINING SCHOOLS

  Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾ ī

  In March 1934 an act establishing lower and advanced schools for teachers’ training under the Ministry of Education (Wezārat-e maʿāref) was adopted by the Majles, and an operating charter for such schools was ratified in July of the same year.

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• EDUCATION xx. ADULT EDUCATION

  Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr

  The Ministry of Education (Wezārat-e maʿāref) established adult-literacy classes in state schools considered suitable. They were to last two years and to consist of ninety-six two-hour classes each year, free of charge. Reading and writing Persian, arithmetic, and elementary history, geography, and civics were to be taught.

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• EDUCATION xxi. EDUCATION ABROAD

  Afshin Matin-Asgari

  A survey of 350 students abroad between 1811 and 1920 indicates that more than 50 percent of the total studied in France, about 15 percent in Russia, and 5-10 percent in Germany, England, Switzerland, Istanbul, and Beirut. A small number studied in Egypt, India, and the United States.

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• EDUCATION xxii. PHYSICAL EDUCATION

  Cross-Reference

  See PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

• EDUCATION xxiii. MILITARY EDUCATION

  Cross-reference

  See MILITARY EDUCATION.

• EDUCATION xxiv. EDUCATION IN POSTREVOLUTIONARY PERSIA, 1979-95

  Golnar Mehran

  The history of education in the Islamic Republic falls into two phases: from the revolution to the cease-fire between Persia and Iraq in 1367 Š./1988 (the revolutionary period), when Islamic ideology predominated, and the subsequent period of reconstruction and privatization.

• EDUCATION xxv. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE QAJAR PERIOD

  Afsaneh Najmabadi

  The premodern conception of women’s education was varied. In some medieval books of ethical instruction and counsel teaching women to read was recommended, whereas other authors warned against it.

• EDUCATION xxvi. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD AND AFTER

  EIr

  In the 1920s and 1930s women’s public education in Persia was established and grew rapidly.  In 1926-27 the enrollment of females in primary schools was about 17,000, 21 percent of total enrollment at that level.

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• EDUCATION xxvii. IN AFGHANISTAN

  M. Mobin Shorish

  By the end of the 19th century, mosque schools (maktabs) and madrasas had lost their vitality, rigor, and scope. Internecine struggles among the ruling Abdālī  and subsequently among the Moḥammadzai clan ensured that no trace of regular and systematic education remained in the country.

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• EDUCATION xxviii. IN TAJIKISTAN

  Habib Borjian

  Modern education in Tajikistan developed as the country emerged as a Soviet socialist republic, under the Soviet policy of standardization, with language as virtually the only variable. In Tajikistan, as in other Central Asian republics, this policy brought about nearly universal literacy.

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• EFTEḴĀR DAWLATĀBĀDĪ, ʿABD-AL-WAHHĀB BOḴĀRĪ

  S. Moinul Haq

  (b. Ahmadnagar; d. Dawlatābād, 1776), Deccani biographer and poet in Urdu and Persian.

• EFTEḴĀRĪĀN

  François de Blois

  a family of officials and poets from Qazvīn, reputed descendants of the caliph Abū Bakr, who flourished under the early Il-khans in the 13th century.

• EGGPLANT

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀDENJĀN.

• EḠLAMEŠ

  Cross-Reference

  See SAYF-AL-DĪN ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN EḠLAMEŠ.

• EGLANTINE

  Cross-Reference

  See NASTARAN.

• EGYPT

  Multiple Authors

  relations with Persia and Afghanistan.

• EGYPT i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period

  Edda Bresciani

  The last pharaoh of the Twenty-Sixth dynasty, Psamtik III, was defeated by Cambyses II in the battle of Pelusium in the eastern Nile delta in 525 B.C.E.; Egypt was then joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid empire.

• EGYPT ii. Egyptian influence on Persia in the Pre-Islamic period

  Philip Huyse

  In the fields of artistic work, architecture and sculpture, the Persians do not seem to have had any lasting impact on Egyptian tradition, during either both Achaemenid occupations of Egypt, or the short-lived presence of the later Sasanians.

• EGYPT iii. Relations in the Seleucid and Parthian periods

  Heinz Heinen

  It remains difficult to ascertain the proportion of ethnic Persians who survived the transition from Achaemenid to Hellenistic rule in Egypt or who came to that country after the conquest by Alexander.

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• EGYPT iv. Relations in the Sasanian period

  Ruth Altheim-Stiehl

  The occupation of Egypt, beginning in 619 or 618, was one of the triumphs in the last Sasanian war against Byzantium. Ḵosrow II Parvēz had begun this war in retaliation for the assassination of the Byzantine emperor Mauricius.

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• EGYPT v. Political And Commercial Relations In The Islamic Period

  Cross-reference

  See under FATIMIDS; AYYUBIDS; IL-KHANIDS DYNASTY.

• EGYPT vi. Artistic relations with Persia in the Islamic period

  Jonathan M. Bloom

  Although direct evidence of artistic links between Persia and Egypt before the Mongol invasion of the Near East in the 13th century is limited, surviving works of art suggest that transfer of artistic ideas resulted from the movement of artisans and their works.

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• EGYPT vii. Political and religious relations with Persia in the modern period

  Shahrough Akhavi

  The beginnings of modern diplomatic relations between Egypt and Persia may be dated from 1847, when Mīrzā Taqī Khan Amīr(-e) Kabīr signed the second treaty of Erzurum with the Ottomans.

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• EGYPT viii. Egyptian cultural influence in Persia, modern times

  EIr

  Egypt, together with Turkey and the Caucasus, was one of the major sources of cultural and political influences in Persia during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

• EGYPT ix. Iran’s cultural influence in the Islamic period

  Moḥammad el Saʿīd ʿAbd al-Moʾmen

  During the 16th-18th centuries, when Egypt was a province of the Ottoman empire, Persian literature was widely studied IN THE EMPIRE, and the Persian language was one of the administrative languages. 

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• EGYPT x. Relations with Afghanistan

  Ludwig W. Adamec

  Both Egypt and Afghanistan came under British hegemony in the latter part of the 19th century; therefore no official relations existed between them.

• EGYPT xi. Persian Journalism in Egypt

  Nassereddin Parvin

  A number of Persian journals were published in Egypt, after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.

• EHRBEDESTĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See HERBEDESTĀN.

• ĒHRPAT

  Cross-Reference

  See HERBED.

• EḤSĀN-AL-ʿOLŪM

  Cross-Reference

  See FARĀBĪ.

• EḤSĀN-ALLĀH KHAN DŪSTDĀR

  Cosroe Chaqueri

  (ʿAlī-ābādī; b. Sārī, Māzandarān, 1883, d. Baku, ca. 1938), second most prominent figure in the the Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran (Ḥokūmat-e jomhūrī-e šūrawī-e Īrān), the radicalized second phase of the Jangalī movement in the years 1920-21.

• EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA

  Īraj Afšār

  (1839-92), first son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār and maternal grandson of Moḥammad-ʿAlī Mīrzā Dawlatšāh.

• EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA, ḴĀNLAR KHAN

  Kambiz Eslami

  (d. Tehran, April 1862), seventeenth son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā and governor of several regions in Persia during the reigns of Moḥammad Shah and Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qajar.

• EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA, ḴĀNLAR KHAN

  Iraj Afšār

  (1818-88), also known as Eḥtešām-al-Molk and Moʿtamed-al-Dawla, second son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār.

• EḤTEŠĀM-AL-SALṬANA

  Mehrdad Amanat

  (1863-1936), Mīrzā Maḥmūd Khan ʿAlāmīr Qajar, governor, diplomat, and speaker of the Persian Parliament.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EḤTĪĀJ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  weekly newspaper published in Tabrīz by ʿAlīqolī Khan Tabrīzī, known as Ṣafarov, who had distributed political šab-nāmas (lit. "night letters") in 1892.

• EḤYĀ-YEʿOLŪM-AL-DĪN

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠAZĀLĪ ii.

• EILERS, WILHELM

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  In 1958 Eilers was appointed to the professorship in Oriental philology at the University of Würzburg. Although he was offered in 1962 the professorship in ancient Near Eastern studies at the University of Vienna, he stayed in Würzburg and taught there until his retirement in 1974.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EJĀZA

  Devin J. Stewart

  "lit. permission, license, authorization"; a term describing a variety of academic certificates ranging in length from a few lines to many fascicles.

• EJMĀʿ

  Devin J. Stewart

  lit. "consensus"; a technical term in Islamic jurisprudence (oṣūl al-feqh).

• EJMIATSIN

  S. Peter Cowe

  currently designation of three separate but interrelated entities: the cathedral and monastic complex which forms the residence of the supreme patriarch and catholicos of all the Armenians, the city in which this complex is located, and the district of which the latter is the administrative center.

• EJTEHĀD

  Aron Zysow

  in Shiʿism, an Arabic verbal noun having the literal sense of "exerting effort."

• EJTEMĀʿĪŪN, FERQA-YE

  Janet Afary

  (FEAM; lit., "Social-Democratic party"), an organization founded in 1905 by Persian emigrants in Transcaucasia with the help of local revolutionaries.

• EKBĀTĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ECBATANA.

• EKEŁEACʿ

  James Russell

  Gk. Akilisēnē, region along the Euphrates in northwest Armenia.

• EKRĀM, MOḤAMMAD

  J. Bečka

  or Ekrom, b. ʿAbd-al-Salām (1847-1925), known as Dāmollā Ekrāmče, a Bukharan scholar and madrasa teacher.

• EKRĀMĪ, JALĀL

  J. Bečka

  or Jalol Ikromī (1909-93), considered to be Tajikistan’s most important fiction writer and playwright of the Soviet period.

• EḴŠĪD

  F. Grenet and N. Sims-Williams

  Arabo-Persian form of a Sogdian royal title attested in Sogdian script as (ʾ)xšyδ and in Manichean script as (ʾ)xšy(y)δ.

• EKSĪR

  Cross-Reference

  See KĪMĪĀ.

• EḴTESĀN, TĀJ-AL-MOLK MOḤAMMAD

  Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi

  b. Aḥmad b. Ḥasan ʿAbdūsī Dehlavī (1300-51), author in Persian and secretary (dabīr) at the courts of the Tughluqid sultans Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Tōḡloq and his son Ḡīāṯ-al-Dīn Mo-ḥammad.

• EḴTĪĀR MONŠĪ, ḴᵛĀJA

  W. Thackston

  (fl. mid 10th/16th cent.), a master calligrapher of the chancery taʿlīq style from Herat.

• EḴTĪĀR-AL-DĪN

  Maria Eva Subtelny

  the citadel of Herat located on an elevation adjacent to the north wall of the old city and actually consisting of two parts, the stronghold proper—a rectangle of fired brick and a larger area to the west of unfired brick—that were originally buttressed by 25 towers which reflect various periods of construction.

• EḴTĪĀRĀT

  David Pingree

  lit. "choices, elections"; a term used in Islamic divination and astrology in at least four principle meanings.

• EḴWĀN AL-MOSLEMĪN, JAMʿĪYAT AL-

  Rudi Matthee

  lit. "Society of Muslim brethren"; the first modern religio-political movement in the Islamic world, founded in 1928 by Ḥasan Bannāʾ in Esmāʿīlīya Egypt.

• EḴWĀN AL-ṢAFĀʾ

  Paul E. Walker

  a self-professed brotherhood of piously ascetic scholars.

• ELĀHĪ

  Hamid Algar, J. W. Morris, Jean During

  or ʿAlīšāh (1895-1974), innovative and charismatic leader of one branch of the Ahl-e Ḥaqq and author of several texts on its teachings. The most complete presentation is to be found not in his Persian books, destined for circulation among Twelver Shiʿites, but in his unpublished writings in Gūrānī, intended to be read only by Ahl-e Ḥaqq initiates.

• ELĀHĪ HAMADĀNĪ, SAYYED MĪR ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD

  M. Asif Naim-Siddiqi

  b. Ḥojjat-Allāh Asadābādī, a poet of the 17th century from Asadābād, a village near Hamadān.

• ELĀHĪ QOMŠA’Ī, MAHDĪ

  S. Moḥammad Dabīrsīāqī

  b. Abu’l-Ḥasan (b. in Qomša, 1902; d. in Tehran, 1975), poet and professor of Islamic law and philosophy.

• ELAHI, BIJAN

  Mahdi Ganjavi

  (1945-2010), modernist Persian poet and translator.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ELĀHĪ-NĀMA

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAṬṬĀR.

• ELĀHĪYĀT

  Cross-Reference

  See PHILOSOPHY.

• ELAM

  Multiple Authors

  ancient country encompassing a large part of the Persian plateau at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. but reduced to the territory of Susiana in the Achaemenid period.

• ELAM i. The history of Elam

  F. Vallat

  During the several millennia of its history the limits of Elam varied, not only from period to period, but also with the point of view of the person describing it. It seems that Mesopotamians in the late 3rd millennium B.C.E. considered Elam to encompass the entire Persian plateau.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ELAM ii. The archeology of Elam

  Elizabeth Carter

  The archeological use of the term “Elam” is based on a loose unity recognizable in the material cultures of the period 3400-525 BCE at Susa in Ḵūzestān, at Anshan in Fārs, and at sites in adjacent areas of the Zagros mountains. Text-based definitions often lead to interpretations that are at odds with those derived from the study of material culture.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ELAM iii. Proto-Elamite

  R. K. Englund

  "Proto-Elamite” is the term for a writing system in use in the Susiana plain and the Iranian highlands east of Mesopotamia between ca. 3050 and 2900 B.C.E., a period generally considered to correspond to the Jamdat Nasr/Uruk III through Early Dynastic I periods in Mesopotamia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ELAM iv. Linear Elamite

  MIRJO SALVINI

  a system of writing used at the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. by Puzur-Inšušinak, the last of the twelve “kings of Awan,” according to a king list found at Susa. He ruled ca. 2150 B.C.E. and was a contemporary of Ur-Nammu, the first ruler of the Ur III dynasty in Mesopotamia.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ELAM v. Elamite language

  FRANÇOISE GRILLOT-SUSINI

  is known from texts in cuneiform script, most of them found at Susa but some from other sites in western and southwestern Iran and, in the east, in Fārs and ranging in date from the 24th to the 4th century B.C.E.

• ELAM vi. Elamite religion

  F. Vallat

  The information furnished by archeological excavations in Persia and by cuneiform documents permit a summary description of some aspects of Elamite religion from the end of the 3rd millennium B.C.E. until the Achaemenid period.

• ELAM vii. Non-Elamite texts in Elam

  SYLVIE LACKENBACHER

  Most non-Elamite texts inscribed on Elamite territories have been found in Susiana, that is, the region nearest to Mesopotamia and most exposed to Mesopotamian political and cultural influences.

• ELBURZ

  Cross-Reference

  See ALBORZ.

• ELBURZ COLLEGE

  Cross-Reference

  See ALBORZ COLLEGE.

• ELČĪ

  David O. Morgan

  (īlčī) envoy, messenger, or official traveling on government business during the Mongol period and thereafter. 

• ELECTIONS

  Fakhreddin Azimi, Shaul Bakhash, M. Hassan Kakar

  i. Under the Qajar and Pahlavi monarchies. ii. Under the Islamic republic, 1979-92. iii. In Afghanistan. 

• ELEGY

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (Ar. marṯīa, Pers. mūya), poetry of mourning in Persian literature. 

• ELEMENTS

  Mansour Shaki

  i. In Zoroastrianism. ii. In Manicheism. iii. In Persian.

• ELEPHANT i. IN THE NEAR EAST

  François De Blois

   i. IN THE NEAR EAST

• ELEPHANT ii. In the Sasanian Army

  Michael B. Charles

  ii. IN THE SASANIAN ARMY

• ELEPHANTINE

  Edda Bresciani

  the largest island in the Nile, opposite Syene.

• ELGOOD, CYRIL LLOYD

  F. R. C. Bagley

  (1893-1970), British historian of medicine in Persia.

• ELIAS OF NISIBIS

  Cross-Reference

  See ELĪJĀ BAR ŠĪNĀJĀ.

• ELĪF EFENDI, Ḥaṣīrīzāda

  Tahsin Yaziçi

  (b. in Sütlüce, May 1850; d. 4 December 1926), Turkish poet and scholar.

• ELĪJĀ BAR ŠĪNĀJĀ

  Wolfgang Felix

  (975-1049) prominent Nestorian polyhistor. 975-1049). His work is an important source for Sasanian history. In 1002 he was made bishop of Bēṯ Nuhādrē in Adiabene, and in 1008 metropolitan of Nisibis (Naṣībīn). He wrote in Syriac and Arabic on theological issues.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ELIKEAN, GRIGOR E.

  Aram Arkun

  (1880-1951), an active figure in Persian and Armenian politics, the press, and literature. 

• ELIŠĒ

  Robert W. Thomson

  or Elisaeus, fifth century author of the History of Vardan and the Armenian War, a detailed account of the Armenian rebellion against Yazdegerd II in 450, which was prompted by his persecution of their Christian faith.

• ELJIGIDEI

  Peter Jackson

  or Īlčīktāy, Īljīkdāy; the name of two Mongol generals.

• ELLIPI

  Cross-Reference

  See ASSYRIA.

• ELM

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  any of several species of hardy deciduous ornamental or forest trees of the genus Ulmus L. (fam. Ulmaceae), typically called nārvan in Persian.

• ʿELM AL-KETĀB

  Cross-Reference

  See DARD, ḴᵛĀJA MĪR.

• ʿELM O HONAR

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of two Persian magazines.

• ʿELMĪ

  Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī

  a high school in Tehran with 500 students studying experimental sciences, mathematics, and economy.

• ELOQUENCE

  Cross-Reference

  (Faṣāḥāt). See BAYĀN (1).

• ELPHINSTONE, MOUNTSTUART

  Malcolm E. Yapp

  (1779-1859), author of an important description of Afghanistan; a British Indian official who rose to become governor of Bombay.

• ELQĀNIĀN, ḤABIB

  Shaul Bakhash

  Jewish merchant, industrialist, and philanthropist, who rose from modest beginnings to become one of Iran’s leading entrepreneurs.

• ELTON, JOHN

  John Perry

  (?-1751), English merchant, seaman and shipbuilder for Nāder Shah Afšār.

• ĒLTOTMEŠ, ŠAMS-AL-DĪN

  Peter Jackson

  (d. 1236), first Sultan of Delhi.

• ELWELL-SUTTON, LAURENCE PAUL

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Elwell-Sutton’s interests and publications in Persian studies fall into five categories: Persian language; Persian literature; modern Persian history and politics; Persian folklore; and Islamic science. His Colloquial Persian and Elementary Persian Grammar have remained in print as standard works.

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• ELYĀSIDS

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀL-E ELYĀS.

• ELYMAIS

  John F. Hansman

  semi-independent state frequently subject to Parthian domination, which existed between the second century B.C.E. and the early third century C. E. in the territories of Ḵūzestān, in southwestern Persia.

• ʿEMĀD ḤASANĪ, MĪR, ʿEMĀD-AL-MOLK

  Kambiz Eslami

  b. Ebrāhīm (ca. 1554-1615), calligrapher. His rendition of nastaʿlīq, with smooth lines, many curves, very occasional diacritical marks, symmetry of letters and words, and usually excellent choice of decorations surrounding the words, had widespread appeal. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿEMĀD-AL-DAWLA

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Būya b. Fanā-Ḵosrow, the eldest of three brothers who came to power in western Persia during the tenth century as military adventurers and founded the Buyid dynasty.

• ʿEMĀD-al-DAWLA, Mīrzā MOḤAMMAD-ṬĀHER

  Kathryn Babayan

  WAḤĪD QAZVĪNĪ (ca. 1615-1701), poet and Safavid court historiographer for nearly three decades (1645-74).

• ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN ʿALĪ FAQĪH KERMĀNĪ

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  mystic and poet of the 14th century who used ʿEmād or, more rarely, ʿEmād-e Faqīh, as a pen name.

• ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN KĀTEB, ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH MOḤAMMAD

  Donald S. Richards

  b. Moḥammad b. Ḥāmed EṢFAHĀNĪ, an eminent 12th-century government servant and man of letters, born in Isfahan in 1125.

• ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN MAḤMŪD

  Emilie Savage-Smith

  b. Serāj-al-Dīn Masʿūd ŠĪRĀZĪ, the most prominent member of a 16th-century family of physicians in Shiraz.

• ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN MARZBĀN, ABŪ KĀLĪJĀR

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  b. Solṭān-al-Dawla Abū Šojāʿ (1009-48), amir of the Buyid dynasty in the period of that family’s decadence and incipient disintegration, being the last effective ruler of the line.

• ʿEMĀD-AL-ESLĀM

  Maria E. Subtelny

  b. Moḥammad ʿAtīq-Allāh (1470-1506), a vizier of the Timurid Sultan Ḥosayn Bāyqarā, executed in Herat in 1498.

• ʿEMĀD-AL-KOTTĀB, MOḤAMMAD-ḤOSAYN SAYFĪ QAZVĪNĪ

  ʿAbd-Allāh Forādi

  (b. Qazvīn, 16 April 1866; d. Tehran, 17 July 1936), calligrapher.

• ʿEMĀDĪ RĀZĪ

  Taqi Pūr-Nāmdārīān

  poet of the first half of the 12th century.

• EMĀM

  Cross-Reference

  (Imam), see SHIʿITE DOCTRINE; ČAHĀRDAH MAʿSŪM.

• EMĀM ṢĀḤEB

  Mehrdad Shokouhi

  two archeological sites in Afghanistan: (1) a village near the south bank of the Amū Daryā, about 50 km north of Qondūz, (2) a village in the Jōzjān region, south of the river Balḵāb, halfway between Balḵ and Āqča.

• EMĀM-AL-ḤARAMAYN

  Cross-Reference

  See JOVAYNĪ, Emām-al-Ḥaramayn.

• EMĀM-E ḠĀʾEB

  Cross-Reference

  "The Hidden Imam." See ḠAYBA and ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM.

• EMĀM-E JOMʿA

  Hamid Algar

  leader of the congregational prayer performed at midday on Fridays.

• EMĀM-E ZAMĀN

  Cross-Reference

  Mahdi or "The Hidden Imam." See ḠAYBA and ISLAM IN IRAN vii. THE CONCEPT OF MAHDI IN TWELVER SHIʿISM.

• ʿEMĀMA

  Cross-Reference

  the turban. See ʿAMĀMA.

• EMĀMA

  Cross-Reference

  (Imamate), see SHIʿITE DOCTRINE.

• EMĀMĪ HERĀVĪ, RAŻĪ-AL-DĪN ABŪ ʿABD-ALLĀH MOḤAMMAD

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  b. Abī Bakr b. ʿOṯmān (b. in Herat; d. in Isfahan, 1287), Persian poet of the Mongol period also noted for his learning.

• EMĀMĪ, JAMĀL

  Fakhreddin Azimi

  (b. 1901, Koy; d. 1966, Paris), politician.

• EMAMI, KARIM

  ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Āzarang and EIr

  Emami took an early interest in contemporary Persian art and literature. In 1959, before starting his career as a journalist and translator, he worked as a photographer and filmmaker at the film studio of Ebrāhim Golestān (b. 1922), modernist writer and director.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EMĀMĪ, Sayyed ḤASAN

  Cyrus Mir

  (1903-1981), Friday prayer leader of Tehran from 1947 to 1978. He studied traditional Islamic sciences in Tehran and continental law in Lausanne, Switzerland. Upon completing his doctorate, he returned to Iran and worked as a judge in the Ministry of Justice. He was regarded as a member of the shah’s inner circle. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EMĀMĪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See SHIʿITE DOCTRINE; SHIʿITE DOCTRINE ii. Hierarchy in the Imamiyya.

• EMĀMQOLĪ KHAN

  Roger M. Savory

  son of the celebrated Georgian ḡolām Allāhverdī Khan; governor-general (beglarbeg) of Fārs in the early 17th century.

• EMĀMVERDĪ MĪRZĀ ĪL-ḴĀNĪ

  Ḥosayn Maḥbūbī Ardakānī

  (b. 9 March 1796), the twelfth son of Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah Qajar; his mother was Begom Jān Qazvīnī.

• EMĀMZĀDA

  Multiple Authors

  a shrine believed to be the tomb of a descendent of a Shiʿite Imam. such structures are also known as āstāna (lit., threshold), marqad (resting place, mausoleum), boqʿa (revered site), rawża (garden/tomb), gonbad (dome), mašhad (place of martyrdom), maqām (site/abode), qadamgāh (stepping place), and torbat (dust, grave).

• EMĀMZĀDA i. Function and devotional practice

  Hamid Algar

  "Sites where divine favor and blessing occur, where mercy and grace descend; they are a refuge for the distressed, a shelter for the despondent, a haven for the oppressed, and a place of consolation for weary hearts, and will ever remain so until resurrection.”

• EMĀMZĀDA ii. Forms, decorations, and other characteristics

  PARVĪZ VARJĀVAND

  The identity of the people interred in emāmzādas and the exact location where they are entombed are often moot questions, as in most cases there are no historical documents authenticating the claims for these shrines.

• EMĀMZĀDA iii. Number, distribution, and important examples

  PARVĪZ VARJĀVAND

  Information and statistics regarding the number and distribution of emāmzādas in Persia vary from one source to another.

• EMBROIDERY

  Cross-Reference

  See CLOTHING.

• EMDĀD-ALLĀH ḤĀJĪ

  Barbara D. Metcalf

  (b. Thana Bhawan, India, 1817, d. Mecca, 1899), spiritual guide and scholar.

• ĒMĒD Ī AŠAWAHIŠTĀN

  Mansour Shaki

  (Exposition [of Zoroastrian doctrines] by Ēmēd, son of Ašawahišt), a major 10th-century Pahlavi work comprising forty-four questions (pursišn).

• EMERSON, RALPH WALDO

  John D. Yohannan

  (b. 25 May 1803, Boston; d. 27 April 1882, Concord), distinguished American transcendentalist, philosopher, and poet.

• EMIGRATION

  Cross-Reference

  See HUMAN MIGRATION.

• EMĪN YOMNĪ, MEḤMED

  Tahsın Yazici

  Moḥammad Amīn (b. Solaymānīya in Persia, 1845, d. Istanbul, 5 April 1924), Turkish poet and man of letters who also wrote in Persian.

• EMIR

  Cross-Reference

  See AMIR.

• EMIRATES OF THE PERSIAN GULF

  Cross-Reference

  See UNITED ARAB EMIRATES.

• EMLĀ BOḴĀRĀʾĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Jirí Bečka

  b. ʿAlāʾ-al-Dīn (b. 1688, Sangārak, Afghanistan; d. 1749, Bukhara), Sufi poet of Arab descent.

• EMMERICK, RONALD ERIC

  Mauro Maggi

  (1937-2001), distinguished Australian scholar of the ancient civilizations and languages of Iran, India, and Tibet.

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• EMPLOYMENT

  M. Amani

  economic activity in which one engages and employs his or her time and energy. One of the major factors contributing to the growth of services is the considerable number of people working for the government.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EMRĀNĪ

  David Yeroushalmi

  the name or most likely the penname (taḵalloṣ) of the fifteenth century Jewish-Persian poet of Isfahan and Kāšān.

• EMTĪĀZĀT

  Cross-Reference

  See CONCESSIONS.

• EN ISLAM IRANIEN, ASPECTS SPIRITUELS ET PHILOSOPHIQUES

  Daryush Shayegan

  (4 vols., Paris, 1971-73), the magnum opus of Henry Corbin, consisting of essays summarizing most of the major themes that defined his scholarly career and revealing his intellectual grasp of Persian philosophical thought.

• ENAMEL

  EIr, Layla S. Diba

  a heat-fused glass paste colored by metal oxides and used to decorate metal surfaces. Enamel was associated with lapidary, glassworking, and goldmithing crafts and was probably used primarily in place of precious stones before the 17th century.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ʿENĀYAT, ḤAMĪD

  Ahmad Ashraf

  (1932-82), political scientist and translator.

• ʿENĀYAT-ALLĀH

  Sheila S. Blair

  Timurid builder or tile maker of the 15th century.

• ʿENĀYAT-ALLĀH KANBO

  Iqtidar Husain Siddiqi

  (b. Burhanpur, 31 August 1608; d. Delhi, 23 September 1671), Sufi and scholar, descendant of an old respected Lahore family that had converted to Islam in Punjab.

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA IRANICA

  Elton L. Daniel

  an alphabetically arranged reference work which seeks to provide scholarly articles relating to “all aspects of Iranian life and culture.”

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF ISLAM

  Elton L. Daniel

  a reference work of fundamental importance on topics dealing, according to its self-description, with “the geography, ethnography and biography of the Muhammadan peoples.”

• ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF TAJIKISTAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ĖNTSIKLOPEDIYAI SOVETII TOJIK.

• ENCYCLOPAEDIAS, PERSIAN

  Živa Vesel and Hūšang Aʿlam

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Premodern, ii. Modern.

• ENDOWMENT

  Cross-Reference

  On charitable endowments (waqf), at present see  AMLĀK, ḴĀṢṢA.

  Regarding institutions, see CHARITABLE FOUNDATIONS. See under individual entries, such as BONYĀD-E FARHANG-E ĪRĀN;BONYĀD-E ŠAHĪD; BONYĀD-E ŠĀH-NĀMA-YE FERDOWSĪ.

• ENGLAND

  Cross-Reference

  See GREAT BRITAIN.

• ENGLISH i. Persian Elements in English

  D. N. Mackenzie

  OVERVIEW of the entry: i. Persian elements in English. ii. Persian influences in English and American literature. iii. Translations of classical Persian literature. iv. Translations of modern Persian literature. v. i. Translations of English literature into Persian.

• ENGLISH ii. Persian Influences in English and American Literature

  John D. Yohannan

  Although academic Persian studies may be said to have begun in England in the early 17th century, it was not until the late 18th century that the Persian poets began to be read in English translations. 

• ENGLISH iii. Translations Of Classical Persian Literature

  Michael Beard

  fall initially into two categories. There is a group of texts whose purpose is to convey the information of the original in discrete units, most useful with prose or narrative poetry and not necessarily “literary.” There are other translations designed to carry over the formal elements of a literary text.

• ENGLISH iv. Translations Of Modern Persian Literature

  Michael Beard

  Modernist literature in Persia can be said to develop gradually throughout the 19th century, but for English readers it begins abruptly, shortly after the Constitutional revolution, with the translations of Edward Browne.

• ENGLISH v. Translation Of English Literature into Persian

  Karīm Emāmi

  The first texts translated from English into Persian were diplomatic exchanges and bilateral treaties.

• ENJAVĪ ŠĪRĀZĪ, SAYYED ABU’L-QĀSEM

  Ulrich Marzolph

  (b. Shiraz, 1921; d. Tehran, 16 September 1993), eminent Persian folklorist.

• ENJĪL

  Cross-Reference

  See BIBLE.

• ENJŪ

  Cross-Reference

  See INJU DYNASTY.

• ENOCH

  Cross-Reference

  See AḴNŪḴ.

• ENOCH, BOOKS OF

  J. C. Reeves

  attributed to the seventh antediluvian biblical patriarch Enoch (Genesis 5.21-24), which show Iranian influence.

• ENQELĀB-E ESLĀMĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See REVOLUTION OF 1978-79.

• ENQELĀB-E ESLĀMĪ NEWSPAPER

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a newspaper published by Abu’l-Ḥasan Banī-Ṣadr and supporting his political views. 

• ENQELĀB-E MAŠṞUṬĪYĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION.

• ENQELĀB-E SAFĪD

  Cross-Reference

  See WHITE REVOLUTION.

• ENŠĀʾ

  Jürgen Paul

  lit. "composition"; the process of creating or composing something as well as the result of this process and the rules of the art; it denotes a genre of prose literature, copies, drafts, or specimens of official and private correspondence.

• ENŠĀʾ-ALLĀH KHĀN, SAYYED

  M. Asif Naim Siddiqui

  (b. Moršedābād, 1756; d. Lucknow, 1818), Urdu-Persian poet and writer.

• ENSĀN-E KĀMEL

  Gerhard Böwering

  lit. "the Perfect Human Being"; a key idea in the philosophy and ethics of Islamic mysticism.

• ENTEBĀH

  L. P. ELWELL-SUTTON

  lit. “Awakening”; a Persian newspaper published in Karbalā, Iraq, in 1914 by Mīrzā ʿAlī Āqā Šīrāzī Labīb-al-Molk, editor of Moẓaffarī published in Būšehr and Mecca.

• ENTEẒĀM, ʿABD-ALLĀH and NAṢR-ALLĀH

  Fakhreddin Azimi

  two brothers active in 20th-century Persian politics. ʿAbd-Allāh (1895-1983), as a career diplomat, served in various posts, including minister of foreign affairs. Naṣr-Allāh (1899-1980) held a series of ministerial posts under Moḥammad Reżā Shah, including the ambassadorship to the United States.

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• ĖNTSIKLOPEDIYAI SOVETII TOJIK

  H. Borjian

  (Tajik Soviet Encyclopedia), the first general encyclopedia of Tajikistan, published in the Tajik Persian language and Cyrillic alphabet (8 vols., Dushanbe, 1978-88).

• ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

  Eskandar Firouz, Daniel Balland

  efforts to protect natural resources, wildlife, and ecosystems and to control pollution. In Persia conservation consciousness began, as it so often does, with concern for wildlife.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ENZELI

  Cross-Reference

  See ANZALĪ.

• EPHESUS, SEVEN SLEEPERS OF

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  Christian legend attested by texts in many languages.

• EPHRAIM KHAN

  Cross-Reference

  See EPʿREM KHAN.

• EPICS

  François de Blois

  narrative poems of legendary and heroic content.

• EPIDEMICS

  Cross-Reference

  See PLAGUES.

• EPIGRAM

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  originally a Greek word meaning “inscription” and denoting in Western literatures a genre of short poems characterized by their contents and style rather than by a specific prosodic form.

• EPIGRAPHY

  Multiple Authors

  the study of inscriptions, particularly their collection, decipherment, interpretation, dating, and classification.

• EPIGRAPHY i. Old Persian and Middle Iranian epigraphy

  Helmut Humbach

  Iranian epigraphy of the pre-Islamic period covers mainly inscriptions in the Old and Middle Iranian languages. Old and Middle Persian inscriptions span by far the longest period of time, from the Bīsotūn inscription until the early Islamic period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EPIGRAPHY ii. Greek inscriptions from ancient Iran

  Philip Huyse

  In April 1815 the Prussian Akademie der Wissenschaften in Berlin enthusiastically accepted the proposal by August Boeckh to produce a comprehensive thesaurus of inscriptions that would include all Greek inscriptional material published to date.

• EPIGRAPHY iii. Arabic inscriptions in Persia

  Sheila S. Blair

  In Persia, as in other Islamic lands, Arabic was the basic language for religious texts on buildings and objects. In the early Islamic period these texts were usually written in some variant of the angular script known as Kufic. From the 12th century inscriptions in Persian became more common.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EPIGRAPHY iv. Safavid and later inscriptions

  Sussan Babaie

  The principal characteristic of epigraphy in Persia after the advent of the Safavids (1501) is the emphasis on Persian poetry and pious Shiʿite texts with an iconographic potency and deliberate frequency hitherto unknown. Arabic remained the language of koranic and Hadith quotations while Persian became increasingly prominent.

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• EPIGRAPHY v. Inscriptions from the Indian subcontinent

  Ziyaud-Din A. Desai

  The systematic survey and study of Perso-Arabic epigraphy of the Indian subcontinent is not even half a century old.

• EPIPHANIUS

  Jacques Duchesne-Guillemin

  (b. Eleutheropolis, Judaea, ca. 315; d. Constantia, Cyprus), bishop of Constantia on Cyprus, founded on the remains of Salamis.

• EPISCOPAL

  Hassan B. Dehqani-Tafti

  a diocese of the Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East, one of thirty-seven independent churches of the worldwide Anglican Communion.

• EPISTLES OF MANI

  Cross-Reference

  See MANICHEISM.

• EPISTOLARY STYLE

  Cross-Reference

  See CORRESPONDENCE.

• EPʿREM KHAN

  Aram Arkun

  Pers. Yeprem/Efrem (1868-1912), Armenian revolutionary and important military leader of the Constitutional Revolution. He uneasily reconciled his beliefs with his position as police chief of Tehran, resigning and returning to office several times.  On 24 December 1911, he shut down the parliament to comply with a Russian ultimatum, and this marked the close of Persia’s Constitutional Revolution.

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• EQBĀL

  Cross-Reference

  a newspaper. See EḤTĪĀJ.

• EQBĀL ĀḎAR, ABU’L-ḤASAN KHAN QAZVĪNĪ

  Moḥammad-Taqī Masʿudiya

  or EQBĀL-AL-SOLṬĀN (b. Alvand, near Qazvīn, ca. 1869; d. Tabrīz, probably 1973), singer of Persian traditional music.

• EQBĀL ĀŠTĪĀNĪ, ʿABBĀS

  Īraj Afšār

  During his years at Dār al-fonūn, Eqbāl came to know such litterati as Moḥammad-ʿAlī Forūḡī, Abu’l-Ḥasan Forūḡī, Mortażā Najmābādī, ʿAbd-al-ʿAẓīm Qarīb, Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Rahnemā, and ʿAbd-al-Razzāq Bōḡāyerī, under whose influence he embarked on a career of scholarship that continued until his death.

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• EQBĀL LĀHŪRĪ, MOḤAMMAD

  Cross-Reference

  See IQBAL, MUHAMMAD.

• EQBĀL PUBLISHERS

  Cross-Reference

  See PUBLISHERS.

• EQBĀL, MANŪČEHR

  Ahmad Ashraf

  (1909-1977), prime minister 1957-60, minister of the Royal Court, head of National Iranian Oil Company, and professor of medicine. He was regarded as an honest and ascetic man. His authoritarian character, obedience and unswerving loyalty to the shah, and political ambition, made him a trusted aide, but not a popular political figure.

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• EQBĀL-AL-SOLṬĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See EQBĀL ĀḎAR.

• EQBĀL-NĀMA

  Cross-Reference

  See ESKANDAR-NĀMA-ye NEẒĀMI.

• ʿEQD-AL-ʿOLĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See AFŻAL-AL-DIN KERMĀNI.

• EQDĀM

  Nassereddin Parvin

  name of two separate series of a Persian newspaper published and edited in the first half of the twentieth century in Tehran by the journalist, poet, novelist, and translator, ʿAbbās Ḵalīlī.

• EQLĪD

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a small town of medieval Fārs, now in the modern rural subdistrict of the same name.

• EQLĪM

  Cross-Reference

  See CLIME.

• EQṬĀʿ

  A. K. S. Lambton

  in its various forms one of the most persistent and important tenurial, economic and social institutions of medieval Persia.

• EQTEṢĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See ECONOMY.

• ĒR, ĒR MAZDĒSN

  Gherardo Gnoli

  an ethnonym, like Old Persian ariya- and Avestan airya-, meaning “Aryan” or “Iranian.”

• ERĀDA-YE MELLĪ

  Pīrāya Yaḡmāʾī

  lit. "national will"; a pro-British political party founded on 19 January 1944 by Sayyed Żīāʾ al-Dīn Ṭabāṭabāʾī (1891-1969), a devout anglophile politician and journalist.

• ĒRĀN, ĒRĀNŠAHR

  D. N. MacKenzie

  ērānšahr properly denotes the empire, while ērān signifies “of the Iranians.”

• ĒRĀN-ĀMĀRGAR

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀMĀRGAR.

• ĒRĀN-ĀSĀN-KERD-KAWĀD

  Rika Gyselen

  lit. "Kawād [has] made Ērān peaceful"; name of a Sasanian province (šahr) created by Kawād I (r. 488-531).

• ĒRĀN-ŠĀD-KAWĀD

  Rika Gyselen

  name of a Sasanian town occurring in post-Sasanian sources only.

• ĒRĀN-ŠAHR

  Cross-Reference

  See ĒRĀN.

• ĒRĀN-WĒZ

  D. N. MacKenzie

  the Middle Persian designation of the territory of the Aryans.

• ĒRĀN-WIN(N)ĀRD-KAWĀ

  Rika Gyselen

  lit. "Kawād[has] arranged Ērān"; name of a Sasanian province (šahrestān) created by Kawād I (r. 488-531) in his reorganization of the empire.

• ĒRĀN-XWARRAH-ŠĀBUHR

  Rika Gyselen

  lit. "Ērān, glory of Šāpūr"; Sasanian province (šahrestān) containing Susa and probably created by Šāpūr II (r. 309-379).

• ĒRĀN-XWARRAH-YAZDGERD

  Rika Gyselen

  lit. "Ērān, glory of Yazdegerd"; Sasanian province probably created by Yazdegerd II (438-457).

• ʿERĀQ

  Jean During

  musical mode mentioned for the first time in the 11th century by Kaykāvūs among some ten modes.

• ‘Erāq, Nahib, Moḥāyyer, Ašur-āvand, Esfahānak, Ḥazin, Kerešma, Zangule

  music sample

• ʿERĀQ-E ʿAJAM

  Pardis Minuchehr

  constitutionalist newspaper published in Tehran, 1907-08. 

• ʿERĀQ-E ʿAJAM(Ī)

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  lit. “Persian Iraq”; the name given in medieval times to the largely mountainous, western portion of modern Persia.

• ʿERĀQĪ,FAḴR-al-DĪN EBRĀHĪM

  William C. Chittick

  b. Bozorgmehr Javāleqī Hamadānī (b. Komjān, ca. 1213-14, d. Damascus, 1289), Sufi poet and author.

• ERBEL

  Cross-Reference

  See ARBELA.

• ERDMANN, KURT

  Jens Kr

  (b. Hamburg, 9 September 1901; d. Berlin, 30 September 1964), leading historian of Sasanian and Islamic art.

• EREKLE II

  Keith Hitchins

  (1720-1798), king of Kakheti (r. 1744-62) and king of Kartli-Kakheti in Caucasus (r. 1762-98).

• ƎRƎTI

  William W. Malandra

  the name of a minor goddess, one of a number of abstract deities who appear in the Avesta only in formulaic invocations of divinities.

• EREVAN

  Erich Kettenhofen, George A. Bournoutian and Robert H. Hewsen

  ancient city and modern capital of the Republic of Armenia. After the Qara Qoyunlu made Erevan the administrative center of the Ararat region in the 15th century, travelers and historians frequently mentioned it as a major city of the region. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ERĒZ

  Cross-Reference

  See ARZENJĀN.

• ʿERFĀN (1)

  Gerhard Böwering

  lit. "knowledge"; Islamic theosophy.

• ʿERFĀN (2)

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of two Persian magazines and a newspaper.

• ʿERFĀN, ḤASAN

  Habib Borjian

  Hasan Aliḵonovič Mamadḵonov (b. Samarkand, 3 March 1900; d. 22 June 1973), Tajik translator and writer.

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• ERGATIVE CONSTRUCTION

  John R. Payne

  The most generally accepted definition of an ergative construction begins with the notion that languages utilize three primitive syntactic relations, referred to as S, A, and O. S is the subject of an intransitive clause, A is the subject of a transitive clause, and O is the object of a transitive clause.

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• ĒRĪČ MOUNTAIN

  Gherardo Gnoli

  mentioned in a chapter of the Bundahišn devoted to mountains.

• EROTIC LITERATURE

  Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh

  expressed in Persian by the neologism "adabīyāt-e erotīk"; not a clearly defined genre, since the concept of what is “erotic” varies considerably from time to time and place to place.

• ERŠĀD

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of two Persian newspapers and a magazine.

• ERŠĀD AL-NESWĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  the first women’s periodical in Afghanistan, published weekly in Kabul from 16 March-9 June 1921.

• ERŠĀD al-ZERĀʿA

  Maria E. Subtelny

  a Persian agricultural manual completed in Herat in 1515 by Qāsem b. Yūsof Abūnaṣrī, who was previously identified in the scholarly literature simply as Fāżel Heravī.

• ERṮ

  Cross-Reference

  See INHERITANCE.

• ERUANDAŠAT

  Robert H. Hewsen

  a city in Armenia located on a rocky hill at the juncture of the Akhurean and Araxes rivers.

• ERZENJĀN

  Cross-Reference

  a town in northeastern Anatolia. See ARZENJĀN.

• ERZİ, ADNAN SADIK

  Osman G. Özgüdenlı and Mustafa Uyar

  After graduating in 1947, ERZİ began work for the Society of Turkish History as a library and publications specialist. In April 1947 he was appointed the Library Manager of the Faculty of Language and History/Geography at the University of Ankara.

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• ESʿAD DEDE, MEHMED

  Tahsın Yazici

  Moḥammad Asʿad Dada (b. Salonika, 1841; d. Istanbul, 9 August 1911), Turkish author and Sufi poet of the Mawlawī order.

• ESʿAD EFENDİ, MEHMED

  Tahsın Yazici

  Moḥammad Asʿad Efendi (b. Istanbul, 14 June 1570; d. Istanbul, 21 June 1625), Ottoman religious figure and author of both Persian and Turkish poetry.

• ʿEṢĀMĪ, ʿABD-AL-MALEK

  Peter Jackson

  (fl. 1350), Indo-Muslim poet writing in Persian.

• EŠĀRĀT WA’L-TANBĪHĀT, AL-

  M. E. Marmura

  a late work of Avicenna (Ebn Sīnā, d. 1037), written sometime between 1030 and 1034, which sums up his thought in a language that is often deeply personal and expressive.

• ESCHATOLOGY

  Multiple Authors

  the branch of theology concerned with final things, i.e., the advent of the savior to defeat evil and the end of the world.

• ESCHATOLOGY i. In Zoroastrianism and Zoroastrian Influence

  Shaul Shaked

  Faith in the events beyond life on this earth is attested in the Zoroastrian scriptures from the very first, from the Gāθās. This faith developed and became central to later Zoroastrianism so that it colors almost all aspects of the religious life.

• ESCHATOLOGY ii. Manichean Eschatology

  Werner Sundermann

  Manichean eschatology, teachings about final things, provided information on what happened during and after the death of a single human being and also on what would happen before and at the end of this world.

• ESCHATOLOGY iii. Imami Shiʿism

  M. A. Amir-Moezzi

  It is known that among Islamic doctrinal trends and schools of thought that Shiʿism, Imami Shiʿism in particular, has developed eschatological doctrine most fully.

• ESCHATOLOGY iv. In Babism and Bahaism

  Stephen Lambden

  Individual Babis and Bahais have compiled testimonia and written “demonstrative treatises” (estedlālīya) to show the fulfillment, in their religion, of apocalyptic and eschatological prophecies.

• EṢFAHĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ISFAHAN.

• EṢFAHĀN and EṢFAHĀNĀT

  Cross-Reference

  See BAYĀT-E EṢFAHĀN.

• EṢFAHĀNĪ, ʿABD-AL-ḤASAN

  David Pingree

  b. Aḥmad b. ʿAlī b. Ḥasan, author of the Ketāb al-bolhān on astrology, magic, divination, and demonology, which he composed around 1400 for Ḥosayn b. Aḥmad b. Moḥammad Erbelī.

• EṢFAHĀNĪ, ABU’L-ŠAYḴ ABŪ MOḤAMMAD ʿABD-ALLĀH

  Martin McDermott

  b. Moḥammad b. Jaʿfar b. Ḥayyān ḤĀFEẒ ANṢĀRĪ (887-979), traditionist and Koran commentator, important principally for his Ṭabaqāt al-moḥaddeṯīn.

• ESFAHANI, Jaleh

  Shadab Vajdi

  (Žāla Eṣfahāni, b. Esfahan, 1921; d. London, 29 November 2007), poet and political activist. Esfahani’s poetry is ensconced in the tradition of Persian prosody. With few exceptions, she adheres to the metrical traditions of classical Persian poetry. She frequently borrows imageries from poets of the classical period and adapts them to the requirements of her politically laden poems.

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• EṢFAHĀNI, MOḤAMMAD MAʿṢUM

  Kioumars Ghereghlou

  (ca. 1597-ca. 1647), Safavid bureaucrat and historian, whose history entitled the Ḵolāṣat al-siar chronicles the reign of Shah Ṣafi.

• ESFAHSĀLĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See SEPAHSĀLĀR.

• ESFAND

  Mahmoud Omidsalar

  a common weed found in Persia, Central Asia, and the adjacent areas.

• ESFANDĪĀR (1)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  son of Goštāsp, Kayanian prince of Iranian legendary history and hero of Zoroastrian holy wars, best known for his tragic combat with with Rostam, the mightiest warrior of Iranian national epic.

• ESFANDĪĀR (2)

  Ehsan Yarshater

  one of the seven great clans of Parthian and Sasanian times.

• ESFANDĪĀR KHAN BAḴTĪĀRĪ, ṢAMṢĀM-AL-SALṬANA, SARDĀR(-E) ASʿAD

  G. R. Garthwaite

  (1844-1902), important leader of the Baḵtīārī tribe in southwestern Persia and grandfather of Queen Ṯorayyā.

• ESFANDĪĀRĪ, ḤĀJJ MOḤTAŠAM-AL-SALṬANA ḤASAN

  Bāqer ʿĀqelī

  (b. 23 April 1867; d. 24 February 1945), politician, governor, and speaker of the Majles.

• ESFARA

  Habib Borjian

  a district in the Fergana valley south of the Jaxartes which extends to the foothills of the Turkestan range.

• ESFARĀYEN

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  or ESFARĀʾĪN; a district, and in pre-modern Islamic times, a town, of northwestern Khorasan.

• ESFEZĀRĪ, ABŪ ḤĀTEM

  Cross-Reference

  5th/12th-century astronomer. See ASFEZĀRĪ, ABŪ ḤĀTEM.

• ESFEZĀRĪ, MOʿĪN-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD ZAMČĪ

  MARIA E. Subtelny

  (ca. 1446-1510), calligrapher specializing in the taʿlīq script, minor poet (pen name Nāmī), and master of the epistolary art who flourished in Herat during the reign of the Timurid Solṭān-Ḥosayn Bāyqarā.

• ESFĪJĀB

  Cross-Reference

  See ASFĪJĀB.

• ESḤĀQ

  Mohsen Zakeri

  b. ṬOLAYQ (or Ṭalīq), the secretary responsible for translating the financial dīvāns of Khorasan into Arabic in 741-42.

• ESḤĀQ AḤMAR NAḴAʿI

  Mushegh Asatryan

  a prominent Shiʿi extremist active in Iraq, founder of the Esḥāqiya ḡolāt sect, and the supposed author of a number of texts.

• ESḤĀQ KHAN QARĀʾĪ TORBATĪ

  Kambiz Eslami

  (ca. 1743-1816), one of the wealthiest and most powerful chieftains in Khorasan during the reigns of Āḡā Moḥammad Khan and Fatḥ-ʿAlī Shah Qājār.

• ESḤĀQ MAWṢELĪ

  Everett K. Rowson

  (767?-850), prominent musician at the ʿAbbasid court in Baghdad and the successor of his equally famous father Ebrāhīm Mawṣelī as leader of the conservative school of musicians of the time.

• ESḤĀQ TORK

  ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn Zarrīnkūb

  propagandist sent by Abū Moslem Ḵorāsānī (governor of Khorasan and leading figure in the ʿAbbasid revolution) to the Turkish people of Transoxania.

• ESḤAQĪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠOLĀT.

• ESḤĀQZĪ

  Daniel Balland

  The geographical distribution of the tribe shows the dualism typical to those Pashtun tribes who have massively taken part in the colonization of North Afghanistan, a process in which the Esḥāqzī played a leading role.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• EŠĪK-ĀQĀSĪ-BĀŠĪ

  Roger M. Savory

  or Īšīk-āqāsī-bāšī, the title of two officials in the Safavid central administration, namely ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī-e dīvān, and ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī-e ḥaram.

• ESKĀFI, ABŪ ḤANĪFA

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  11th century Persian poet, mentioned among the court poets of Ḡazna.

• ESKĀFĪ, ABŪ JAʿFAR MOḤAMMAD

  Josef van Ess

  b. ʿAbd-Allāh, Muʿtazilite theologian of the 9th century (d. 854).

• ESKANDAR

  Cross-Reference

  See ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

• ESKANDAR

  Cross-Reference

  See QĀBŪS b. VOŠMGĪR.

• ESKANDAR B. JĀNĪ BEG

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿABD-ALLĀH KHAN b. ESKANDAR.

• ESKANDAR BEG TORKAMĀN MONŠĪ

  Roger M. Savory

  sixteenth century author of Tārīḵ-e ʿālamārā-ye ʿabbāsī, a history of the reign of Shah ʿAbbās I.

• ESKANDAR MĪRZĀ

  Cross-Reference

  pro-Persian member of the royal family of Georgia (b. 1770, d. after 1830).See ALEXANDER, PRINCE.

• ESKANDAR SOLṬĀN

  Priscilla Soucek

  b. ʿOmar Šayḵ b. Tīmūr (1384-1415), Timurid prince who ruled a succession of cities in western Persia between 1403 and 1415 but is remembered mostly for his cultural patronage.

• ESKANDAR-NĀMA

  William L. Hanaway

  Alexander the Great and the adventure tale about him known generically as the Alexander romance.

• ESKANDAR-NĀMA OF NEŻĀMĪ

  François de Blois

  the poetical version of the life of Alexander by the great 12th century narrative poet Neẓāmī Ganjavī (1141-1209).

• ESKANDARĪ, ĪRAJ

  Cosroe Chaqueri

  (1907-1985), prominent leader of the Tudeh Party. From 1948 he worked for the Tudeh party in Paris, Vienna, Budapest, Moscow, and finally Leipzig. His lukewarm attitude toward the Islamic Revolution and refusal of a Soviet offer to help turn Persia into another Afghanistan cost him his leadership position in 1979.

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• ESKANDARĪ, MOḤTARAM

  Mehrangīz Dawlatšāhī

  a pioneer advocate of women’s rights in Persia (1895-1925) and the founder and leader of the first women’s association in Persia, namely Jamʿīyat-e taraqqī-e neswān, later Jamʿīyat-e neswān-e waṭanḵᵛāh (Society of Patriotic Women).

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• ESKANDARĪ, SOLAYMĀN (MOḤSEN) MĪRZĀ

  Cosroe Chaqueri

  (1875-1944), constitutionalist, civil servant, statesman, founder of the Ejtemāʿīyūn (Socialists) political party in the 1920s. His interest in social justice and egalitarianism was more rooted in Islam than in the European Enlightenment or European socialism. 

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• ESKANDARĪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See ALEXANDRIA.

• EŠKĀŠ(E)M

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  a settlement in medieval Badaḵšān in northeastern Afghanistan, now in the modern Afghan province of Eškāšem.

• EŠKĀŠ(E)MĪ

  I. M. Steblin-Kamensky

  or Ishkashmi; one of the so-called “Pamir group” of the Eastern Iranian languages spoken in a few villages of the region of Eškāšem straddling the upper reaches of the Panj river.

• ESKENĀS

  Ali Shargi

  bank note, paper currency. In 1888 an English-owned New Oriental Bank established branches in Tehran and other cities, and for the first time Persians became acquainted with a bank in the modern sense. in 1889, Baron Julius de Reuter obtained from Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah the concession of establishing the Imperial Bank of Persia and the monopoly of issuing bank notes in Persia.

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• EṢLĀḤ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of several Persian-language newspapers, especially the major 20th-century Kabul daily.

• EṢLĀḤĀT-E ARŻĪ

  Cross-Reference

  See LAND REFORM.

• ESLĀM

  Cross-Reference

  See ISLAM in IRAN.

• ESLĀMĪYA

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of two Persian newspapers first appearing in Tabrīz in 1906.

• ESM

  Cross-Reference

  See PERSONAL NAMES; ALQĀB WA ʿANĀWĪN.

• EŠM b. ŠEḠĀY

  Cross-Reference

  See CENTRAL ASIA.

• ESMĀʿĪL

  Cross-Reference

  (ISHMAEL). See EBRĀHĪM.

• ESMĀʿĪL b. JAʿFAR AL-ṢĀDEQ

  Farhad Daftary

  the sixth Imam and the eponym of the Ismaʿilis.

• ESMĀʿĪL ḤAQQĪ BORSAVĪ

  Tahsin Yazıcı

  or Oskodārī, b. MOṢṬAFĀ, Shaikh Abu’l-Fedāʾ (b. Aydos 1652; d. Bursa, 1725), Turkish scholar, theologian, and mystic.

• ESMĀʿĪL I ṢAFAWĪ

  Roger M. Savory, Ahmet T. Karamustafa

  (1487-1524), SHAH ABU’L-MOẒAFFAR, founder of the Safavid dynasty whose decision, the promulgation of the Eṯnā-ʿašarī rite of Shiʿism to be the official religion of the state, had profound consequences for the subsequent history of Persia.

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• ESMĀʿIL II

  Kioumars Ghereghlou

  (1537-1577), the third Safavid monarch, fought the Ottomans as the governor of Šervan and later was made the crown prince by Ṭahmāsp I and sent to Qazvin. His liaisons with male companions led to his demotion and imprisonment, until he took the throne with the backing of his supporters.

• ESMĀʿĪL III ṢAFAWĪ

  John R. Perry

  (r. 1750-73), ABŪ TORĀB, Safavid shadow-king, the third Safavid dynast of that name.

• ESMĀʿĪL ḴANDĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See ALTUNTĀŠ.

• ESMĀʿIL KHAN BURBUR

  Dariush Borbor

  (1800-1888), high ranking military official under the Qajars.

• ESMĀʿĪL KHAN QAŠQĀʾĪ

  Cross-Reference

  ṢAWLAT-AL-DAWLA, SARDĀR-E ʿAŠĀYER. See ṢAWLAT-AL-DAWLA.

• ESMĀʿĪL KHAN ṢĪMQO

  Cross-Reference

  or SEMĪTQŪ. See ṢĪMQO.

• ESMĀʿĪL ZĀDA, ḤOSAYN KHAN

  Moḥammad-Taqī Masʿūdīya

  (d. 1941), teacher and master player of the kamānča.

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. ʿABBĀD, ṢĀḤEB

  Cross-Reference

  See ṢĀḤEB b. ʿABBĀD.

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. Aḥmad b. Asad SĀMĀNĪ, ABŪ EBRĀHĪM

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  (849-907), the first member of the Samanid dynasty to rule over all Transoxania and Farḡāna.

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. Nūḥ, ABŪ EBRĀHĪM MONTAṢER

  Cross-Reference

  (d. 1004), last Samanid amir.

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. Rokn-al-Dīn Yaḥyā

  Cross-Reference

  See MAJD-AL-DĪN ESMĀʿĪL.

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. Seboktegīn

  C. Edmund Bosworth

  Ghaznavid prince and briefly amir in Ḡazna in 997-98.

• ESMĀʿĪL, b. Yasār NESĀʾĪ

  Kevin Lacey

  an eighth century poet of Persian origin from Medina.

• ʿEṢMAT

  Cross-Reference

  See ČAHĀRDAH MAʿṢŪM.

• ʿEṢMAT BOḴĀRĪ, Ḵᵛāja ʿEṢMAT-ALLĀH

  Ḏabīḥ-Allāh Ṣafā

  b. Masʿūd Boḵārī (d. 1436), poet and scholar of the early Timurid period, known also for his expertise in mathematics, history, prosody, riddles, and mastery of enšāʾ.

• ESOTERIC SECTS

  Cross-Reference

  See BĀṬENĪYA; ḠOLĀT; ISMAʿILISM.

• ESPAHBOD, ALI-REZA

  Hengameh Fouladvand

  (1951-2007), painter and graphic designer who aimed to represent ideals of equality and justice; he was banned from exhibiting his paintings from 1991 to 2001.

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• EŠPOḴTOR

  Cross-Reference

  See TSITSIANOV.

• ʿEŠQ

  Cross-Reference

  See LOVE.

• EŠQ O RŪḤ

  Cross-Reference

  See ḤOSN O RŪḤ.

• ʿEŠQ, shaikh ḡolām moḥyĪ-al-dĪn MOBTALĀ

  Munibur Rahman

  8th-19th century author writing in Persian and Urdu.

• EŠQĀBĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See ASHKABAD.

• ʿEŠQĪ BELGRĀMĪ, SHAH BARKAT-ALLĀH

  Asifa Zamani

  (1659?-1729), Indo-Persian poet and author.

• ʿEŠQĪ, MOḤAMMAD-REŻĀ MĪRZĀDA

  Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak

  (1894-1923), poet and journalist of the post-constitution era and an important contributor to the modernization of poetry in Persia. After he was assassinated by two gunmen, the Majles members of the minority party and other opponents of Prime Minister Reżā Khan quickly turned his funeral into an occasion for public protest against the rising tide of Reżā Khan's power.

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• EŠQĪ, MOLLĀ BĀBOR

  Jirí Bečka

  b. Hedāyat-Allāh (1792-1863), Central Asian poet writing in Persian.

• ʿEŠQĪʿAẒĪMĀBĀDĪ, SHAIKH MOḤAMMAD WAJĪH-AL-DĪN

  Munibur Rahman

  18th-19th century poet and writer in Persian and Urdu.

• EŠRĀQ ḴĀVARĪ, ʿABD-AL-ḤAMĪD

  Vahid Rafati

  (b. Mašhad, 1902; d. Tehran, 1972), Bahai scholar, teacher, and author.

• EŠRĀQĪ SCHOOL

  Cross-Reference

  See ILLUMINATIONISM.

• ʿEŠRĪNĪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See BĪSTGĀNĪ.

• ESTAHBĀN

  Mīnū Yūsof-nežād

  town and district in Fārs, bordered in the north by the Baḵtagān lake, in the northeast and the east by Neyrīz/Nīrīz, in the south by Dārāb, in the southwest by Fasā, and in the west by Shiraz.

• EṢṬAḴR

  A. D. H. Bivar, Mary Boyce

  (ESTAḴR, STAḴR), city and district in ancient Persia (Fārs). It was presumably a suburb of the urban settlement once surrounding the Achaemenid royal residences, of which few traces survive. After the death of Seleucus I (280 B.C.), when the province began to re-assert its independence, its center seems to have developed at Eṣṭaḵr.

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• ESTAḴR NEWSPAPER

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a newspaper published in Shiraz from 1918-1932 and 1942-1962.

• EṢṬAḴRĪ, ABŪ ESḤĀQ EBRĀHĪM

  O. G. Bolshakov

  b. Moḥammad Fāresī Karḵī, 10th-century Muslim traveler and geographer and founder of the genre of masālek (lit. “itineraries”) literature.

• EṢṬAḴRĪ, ABŪ SAʿĪD ḤASAN

  Jeanette Wakin

  b. Aḥmad b. Yazīd (858-939), Shafiʿite jurisconsult and author.

• ESTĀLEF

  Daniel Balland

  large Persian-speaking village of the Kōhdāman, 55 km north of Kabul, built on a foothill of the Paḡmān range of the Hindu Kush between 1,875 and 1,950 m above sea-level.

• ESTEʿĀRA

  Julie S. Meisami

  lit. "to borrow"; the general term for metaphor.

• ESTEBDĀD-E ṢAGĪR

  Cross-Reference

  "the lesser tyranny." See CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION.

• ESTEBṢĀR

  Cross-Reference

  See ṬŪSĪ, ABŪ JAʿFAR.

• EŠTEHĀRD

  Mīnū Yūsof-nežād

  a town and district (baḵš) in the province of Tehran.

• EŠTEHĀRDĪ

  Gernot L. Windfuhr

  the easternmost of the nine Southern Tati (Tātī) dialects and sharing with the others most phonological, morphological, syntactic, and lexical features. These are part of a band of dialects extending from the Aras River to central Persia and farther east.

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• ESTEḴĀRA

  Cross-Reference

  See DIVINATION.

• ESTEQLĀL

  Nassereddin Parvin

  newspaper published by the constitutionalists who had taken refuge in the Ottoman consulate in Tabrīz during the Russian occupation of the city in 1909.

• ESTEQLĀL-e ĪRĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  an evening daily published in Tehran from 31 May 1910-17 August 1911; it was the organ of the small Unity and Progress party (Ḥezb-e ettefāq o taraqqī) and was published by the party’s leader, the well-known constitutionalist Zayn-al-ʿĀbedīn Mostaʿān-al-Molk

• ESTHER AND MORDECHAI

  Amnon Netzer

  a Jewish shrine in the city of Hamadān, where, according to Judeo-Persian tradition, Esther and Mordechai are buried.

• ESTHER, BOOK OF

  Shaul Shaked

  a short book of the Old Testament, written in Hebrew.

• ESTRĀBĀD

  Cross-Reference

  See ASTARĀBĀD.

• EʿTEDĀLĪ, ḤEZB-E

  Cross-Reference

  See EJTEMĀʿĪYŪN.

• EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA

  Cross-Reference

  lit. “Confidant of the State”; an important title given to people in the administration favored by the court.

• EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA, ĀQĀ KHAN NŪRĪ

  Abbas Amanat

  (1807-1865), MĪRZĀ, prime minister (ṣadr-e aʿẓam) of Persia  under Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qajar; though relatively young when he took office, he represented the old school of Qajar statecraft.

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• EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA, EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR

  Cross-Reference

  See EBRĀHĪM KALĀNTAR.

• EʿTEMĀD-AL-DAWLA, GĪĀṮ-AL-DĪN MOḤAMMAD BEG TEHRĀNĪ

  Cross-Reference

  Gīāṯ-al-Dīn Moḥammad Tehrānī (d. 1622), prime minister of the Mughal emperor Jahāngīr and father of the emperor’s wife, Nūr Jahān. See GĪĀṮ BEG.

• EʿTEMĀD-AL-SALṬANA, MOḤAMMAD-ḤASAN KHAN MOQADDAM MARĀḠAʾĪ

  Abbas Amanat

  or ṢANĪʿ-AL-DAWLA (1843-1896), Qajar statesman, scholar, and author.

• EʿTEṢĀMĪ, MĪRZĀ YŪSOF KHAN ĀŠTĪĀNĪ, EʿTEṢĀM-AL-MOLK

  Heshmat Moayyad

  (b. Tabrīz, 1874; d. Tehran, 1938), Persian writer and journalist.

• EʿTEṢĀMĪ, PARVĪN

  Heshmat Moayyad

  Parvīn was only seven or eight years old when her poetic talent revealed itself. Encouraged by her father, she rendered into verse some literary pieces that her father had translated from Western sources. Her earliest known poems, eleven compositions printed in 1921-22 issues of her father’s monthly magazine, Bahār, display maturity of thought and craft.

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• EʿTEŻĀD-AL-DAWLA

  Cross-Reference

  See SOLAYMĀN KHAN QĀJĀR QOVĀNLŪ.

• EʿTEŻĀD-AL-SALṬANA, ʿALĪQOLĪ MĪRZĀ

  Abbas Amanat

  (1822-1880), first minister of sciences (ʿolūm, meaning education) of the Qajar period and a scholar.

• ETHÉ, CARL HERMANN

  J. T. P. de Bruijn

  Initially Ethé worked as an assistant librarian at the Bodleian, on leave of absence from the University of Munich. In 1874 he abandoned his lectureship in Germany and settled down in Great Britain. The motivation for this move may have been political, at least in part, because Ethé is described as “a German radical, . . . a persona ingrata with absolutist governments”

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• ETHICS

  C.-H. de Fouchıcour

  a body of practical moral doctrine was elaborated as part of the earliest development of Persian literature, at which time considerable reflection was devoted to topics ranging from morals to ethics, from the exhortation not to harm one’s fellow creature to the search for the meaning of life.

• ETHIOPIA

  E. van Donzel

  Ethiopia (OPers. Kuša-) was located on the western fringe of the Achaemenid empire. The Ethiopians (OPers. Kušiyā; Gr. Aithí-opes “with [sun]burnt faces”) are named among the peoples of the Persian Empire and are included at the end of Herodotus’s satrapy list. 

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• ETHNOGRAPHY (Text)

  Brian Spooner

  the basic field research method in anthropology. Apart from ancient and medieval travelers such as Herodotus, Marco Polo and Clavijo, the record of close observation by foreigners in the Iranian region begins with the reports of travelers to the Safavid Court in the sixteenth century.

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• ETHNOGRAPHY (Bibliography)

  Brian Spooner

  For cited works not given in detail, see “Short References.” Priority has been given to coverage of ethnographic data based on long-term participant observation, but other  ethnographically significant sources are also listed, including some based on shorter works, some by travelers from before the emergence of professional ethnography, and some from scholars trained in related fields such as folklore, linguistics and cultural geography.

• ETIQUETTE

  Nancy H. Dupree

  (Pers. nazākat, ādāb-e moʿāšarat), defined as the observance of conventional decorum particularly among the elite, is itself part of the wider topic of adab.

• EṮNĀ-ʿAŠARĪYA

  Cross-Reference

  See SHIʿITE DOCTRINE; SHIʿITE DOCTRINE ii. Hierarchy in the Imamiyya.

• ʿEṬR

  Cross-Reference

  See ʿAṬR.

• ETTEFĀQ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of five Persian newspapers.

• ETTEFĀQ-E ESLĀM

  Nassereddin Parvin

  lit. “Islamic Solidarity"; a weekly government newspaper which began publication in Herat as of 24 August 1920; renamed Faryād in November 1922.

• ETTEFĀQ-E KĀRGARĀN

  Nassereddin Parvin

  a daily newspaper published by the striking print-workers union in Tehran in 1910, one of the first labor or socialist newspaper published in Persia.

• ETTEḤĀD

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of eleven Persian language newspapers.

• ETTEHĀD-E ESLĀM

  Cross-Reference

  See KUČEK KHAN.

• ETTEHĀDĪYA, ŠERKAT-E

  Mansoureh Ettehadiyeh Nezam-Mafi

  an exchange company (ṣarrāfī) founded in Tabrīz in 1887 by the brothers Ḥājī ʿAlī and Ḥājī Mahdī Kūzakanānī in partnership with two local money changers, Sayed Mortażā and Ḥājī Loṭf-ʿAlī, and other Tabrīzī merchants.

• EṬṬELĀʿ

  Nassereddin Parvin

  title of a Persian newspaper and a magazine.

• EṬṬELĀʿĀT

  Nasserddin Parvin

  lit. “information, knowledge”; the oldest running Tehran afternoon daily newspaper and the oldest running Persian daily in the world. It was first published on 10 July 1926 as the organ of Markaz-e Eṭṭelāʿāt-e Īrān, the first Persian news agency.

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• ETTINGHAUSEN, RICHARD

  Priscilla P. Soucek

  Although Ettinghausen’s official role at the Berlin Museum ended in early 1933 because of decrees issued by the National Socialist Party, he retained an admiration for the work of his former colleagues, epecially that of F. Sarre.

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• EUCRATIDES

  Paul Bernard

  name of two Greco-Bactrian kings: (1) Eucratides I (r. 170-145 B.C.E.), one of the last and most powerful of the Greco-Bactrian kings and (2) Eucratides II, another Greco-Bactrian king, (r. 145-140 B.C.E.) known only through his coinage.

• EUGENIUS

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  or MĀRAWGEN; legendary Christian saint traditionally credited with the introduction of Egyptian monasticism into Mesopotamia and Persia.

• EULAEUS RIVER

  Cross-Reference

  See KARḴEH.

• EUNUCHS

  Multiple Authors

  castrated males who were in charge of the concubines of royal harems, served in the daily life of the court, and sometimes carried out administrative functions.

• EUPHRATES

  Samuel N. C. Lieu

  together with the Tigris, historically and geographically constituting one of the most important river-systems in the Near East.

• EUROPE, PERSIAN IMAGE OF

  Rudi Matthee

  To Persians, as to other Muslim peoples, Europe was long synonymous with Christendom and was thus closely associated with Rūm, the realm of Byzantium or eastern Christianity.

• EUSEBIUS OF CAESAREA

  Philip Huyse

  (260-339), Greek ecclesiastical historian and theologian.

• EUSTATHIUS, ACTS of

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  Christian martyrological text, of which versions survive in many languages, including Greek, Latin, Syriac, and Armenian.

• EUTHYDEMUS

  A. D. H. Bivar

  name of two Greek kings of Bactria: (1) Euthydemus I (ca. 230-200 B.C.E.), considered the real founder of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and (2) Euthydemus II (ca. 190-185 B.C.E.), presumably the second son of Euthydemus I, or less probably eldest son of Demetrius I.

• EUTROPIUS

  Samuel N. C. Lieu

  Roman administrator and historian, probably from Bordeaux, who accompanied the emperor Julian the Apostate on his ill-fated Persian expedition in 363.

• EUTYCHIUS of Alexandria

  Sidney H. Griffith and EIr

  (877-940), Christian physician and historian whose Annales (written in Arabic and called Ketāb al-tārīḵ al-majmūʿ ʿalā’l-taḥqīq wa’l-taṣdīq or Naẓm al-jawhar) is a rich repository of much otherwise unobtainable information about the history of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, especially in the periods of Persian occupation in the seventh century and in Islamic times up to the early tenth century.

• EV-OḠLĪ family

  Kathryn Babayan

  (or Īv-ōḡlī), name of a family that served three Safavid kings (ʿAbbās I, Ṣafī, and ʿAbbās II) as ešīk-āqāsī-bāšī of the harem, for a period of twenty-seven years (1617-43).

• EV-OḠLĪ, ḤAYDAR BEG

  K. Allin Luther

  or Īv-ōḡlī, b. Abu’l-Qāsem, a court official of the later Safavid period.

• EVAGRIUS PONTICUS

  Nicholas Sims-Williams

  (346-399 C.E.), prolific author of Christian literature in Greek. After passing the first part of his career as a preacher in Constantinople, Evagrius took up abode in the Egyptian desert and became one of the most renowned of its many ascetics.

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• EVANGELICAL CHURCH OF IRAN

  Cross-Reference

  See CHRISTIANITY viii. Christian Missions in Persia.

• EVANGELION

  Cross-Reference

  “gospel” (Gk. euangélion). For the Manichean scripture of that name, see ANGALYŪN; MĀNĪ; MANICHEISM.

• EVIL

  Etan Kohlberg

  wickedness, harm, ill fortune.

• EVIL EYE

  Cross-Reference

  See ČAŠM-ZAḴM.

• EVIL MIND

  Cross-Reference

  See AKŌMAN.

• EVIL SPIRIT

  Cross-Reference

  See AHRIMAN.

• EVĪN PRISON

  Forthcoming

  See Supplement.

• EVOLUTION

  based on a longer article by ʿAbd-al-Ḥosayn ZarrĪnkūb

  (takāmol, taḥawwol), a family of ideas embodying the belief that the physical universe and living organisms have developed in a process of continuous change from a lower, simpler to a higher, more complex state.

• EWEN NĀMAG

  Cross-Reference

  See ĀʾĪN-NĀMA.

• ĒWĒNBED

  Philippe Gignoux

  lit. "master of manners"; Pahlavi title attested from the 3rd century C.E.

• EXCAVATIONS

  Multiple Authors

  i. In Persia, ii. In Afghanistan, iii. In Central Asia, iv. In Chinese Turkestan

• EXCAVATIONS i. In Persia

  David Stronach

  a diachronic survey of the main patterns of archaeological field research in Persia from the time of the first excavations in the middle of the 19th century to the late l990s.

• EXCAVATIONS ii. In Afghanistan

  Warwick Ball

  Archeological investigation, both excavation and recording of sites and monuments, began in Afghanistan in the early 19^th century. Many of the reports were made by travelers and British Indian Army officers; often passing observations.

• EXCAVATIONS iii. In Central Asia

  B. A. LitvinskiĬ

  Archeological and architectural monuments of Central Asia are mentioned in reports from the 18^th and early 19^th centuries. Major archaeological work began only after the Russian conquest of the region; it was first done by amateurs, in particular military officers.

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• EXCAVATIONS iv. In Chinese Turkestan

  B. A. LitvinskiĬ

  In spite of the large number of published archaeological reports, our knowledge about the archaeology of Chinese Turkestan is still incomplete and full of serious lacunae.

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• EXEGESIS

  Multiple Authors

  (Ar. tafsīr), commentary on or interpretation of sacred texts.

• EXEGESIS i. In Zoroastrianism

  Philip G. Kreyenbroek

  Zoroastrian exegesis consists basically of the interpretation of the Avesta (q.v.). However, the closest equivalent Iranian concept, zand, generally includes Pahlavi texts which were believed to derive from commentaries upon Avestan scripture, but whose extant form contains no Avestan passages.

• EXEGESIS ii. In Shiʿism

  Meir M. Bar-Asher

  Shiʿite exegetes, perhaps even more than their Sunni counterparts, support their distinctive views by reference to Koranic proof-texts.

• EXEGESIS iii. In Persian

  Annabel Keeler

  The writing of commentaries on the Koran in Persian seems to have begun during the second half of the 4th/10th century. The principal objective of such tafsīrs was ostensibly to give Persian speakers who were not proficient in Arabic direct access to the exegesis of the Koran.

• EXEGESIS vi. In Aḵbārī and Post-Safavid Esoteric Shiʿism

  Todd Lawson

  Aḵbārī exegesis of the Koran, the style and content of which are much older than the Safavid period, became during that time a common method of interpreting Islamic scripture.

• EXEGESIS vii. In Bahaism

  Todd Lawson

  importance of Koranic exegesis (tafsīr) and interpretation (taʾwīl)—a somewhat arbitrary distinction—for the Bābī and Bahai religions may be gathered from the fact that the inception of the former is dated to the commencement of a work of scriptural interpretation, namely the Bāb’s Tafsīr sūrat Yūsof, and that, in many ways, the most important work in the Bahai canon is the Ketāb-e īqān by Bahāʾ-Allāh.

• EXEGESIS viii. Nishapuri School of Quranic Exegesis

  Walid A. Saleh

  A school of Quranic exegesis was established by three scholars from Nishapur in the 11th century which transformed the genre of tafsir and Quranic sciences and came to be known as the Nishapuri School.

• EXILARCH

  Isaiah M. Gafni

  (Hebrew resh galuta), the leading authority in the Jewish community in Babylonia.

• EXILE

  Cross-Reference

  See DEPORTATIONS; DIASPORA.

• EXTRATERRITORIALITY

  Cross-Reference

  See JUDICIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEMS.

• EXTREMIST SHIʿITES

  Cross-Reference

  See ḠOLĀT.

• EY IRĀN

  Morteza Hoseyni Dehkordi and Parvin Loloi

  (O Iran, O bejeweled land), the title of an ardently patriotic hymn of praise to the land of Iran.

• EYES and EARS of KING

  Cross-Reference

  See COURTS AND COURTIERS.

• EYVĀN

  Cross-Reference

  See AYVĀN.

• EŻĀFA

  John R. Perry and Ali Ashraf Sadeghi

  (annexation, suppletion), a grammatical term embracing several types of Persian noun phrase in which the constituents are connected by the enclitic -e/-ye (kasra-ye eżāfa “the eżāfa particle”).

• EZGĪL

  Cross-Reference

  or AZGĪL. See MEDLAR.

• EZĪRĀN

  Sheila S. Blair

  a village 32 km southeast of Isfahan on the south bank of the river Zāyandarūd. 

• EZNIK OF KOŁB

  James R. Russell

  or KOŁBACʿI (b. ca. 374-80), Armenian Christian theologian and cleric; his work contains a refutation of the Zoroastrian religion. 

• ʿEZRĀ

  Cross-Reference

  See BIBLE.

• ʿEZRĀ, BOOK OF

  J.C. Reeves

  canonical biblical book emanating from the early portion of the Second Temple period (515 B.C.E.-70 C.E.) of Jewish history. 

• ʿEZRĀ-NĀMA

  Amnon Netzer

  paraphrased versification of the Book of ʿEzrā containing midrashic and Iranian legends. 

• ʿEZRĀʾĪL

  Cross-Reference

  lit. "Angel of Death." See Supplement (ANGELS).

• ʿEZZ-AL-DAWLA, ʿABD-al-RAŠĪD

  C. E. Bosworth

  See ʿABD-AL-RAŠĪD, ABŪ MANṢŪR.

• ʿEZZ-AL-DAWLA, ʿABD-AL-ṢAMAD MĪRZĀ

  Kambiz Eslami

  In 1872, ʿEzz-al-Dawla became the chieftain of the Qajar tribe, a prestigious albeit ceremonial position that he held for a year. It was in this capacity that he was selected to join Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah’s entourage on his first tour of Europe in 1873. 

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• ʿEZZ-AL-DĪN KĀŠĀNĪ, MAḤMŪD

  Māšā-Allāh Ajūdānī

  b. ʿAlī Naṭanzī (d. 1334-35), an author and Sufi of the early 14th century.

• ʿEZZAT PĀŠĀ, MOḤAMMAD

  Tahsın Yazici

  (1843-1914), author of a Persian-Turkish dictionary and translator of Persian literary works.

• ʿEZZAT-AL-DAWLA, MALEKAZĀDA ḴĀNOM

  Kambiz Eslami

  (1834/35-1905), the only full sister of Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah. The first (1849-52) of her five marriages was as second wife of Mīrzā Taqī Khan Amīr Kabīr. One of her two daughters by him married the crown prince Moẓaffar-al-Din Mirza and bore a son, the future Moḥammad-ʿAlī Shah (r. 1907-09). 

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• Ebādī Aḥmad

  music sample

• Ebrāhīm b. Adham

  music sample

• Eqbāl Āḏar, Abu’l Ḥasan Khan Qazvīnī

  music sample

• Eydetun mobārak

  music sample

• E~ CAPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS

  Cross-Reference

  list of all the figure and plate images in the letter E entries.