Table of Contents

  • EDUCATION xiii. RURAL AND TRIBAL SCHOOLS

    Moḥammad Bahmanbeygī, Nāṣer Mīr, Moḥammad Pūrsartīp, and EIr

    Compulsory-education laws enacted in 1911 and 1943 provided the legal framework for the extension of modern education into rural and tribal areas. Until the 1950s, however, the Persian government did not possess the resources  to implement these laws; in addition, landowners and tribal khans resisted such efforts.

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  • EDUCATION xiv. SPECIAL SCHOOLS

    Samineh Baghchehban-Pirnazar

    Until 1968 responsibility for children with special educational needs had fallen on the individual schools. In that year the National Organization for Special Education  was established as a general directorate under a deputy minister of education.

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  • EDUCATION xv. FOREIGN AND MINORITY SCHOOLS IN PERSIA

    EIr

    Modern education was introduced to Persia in the 19th century by European and American religious institutions and military advisers.

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  • EDUCATION xvi. SCHOOL TEXTBOOKS

    Aḥmad Bīrašk and EIr

    No standardized schoolbooks existed in Persia before the advent of the modern educational system. The first were written by European teachers at the Dār al-fonūn in the mid-19th century.

  • EDUCATION xvii. HIGHER EDUCATION

    David Menashri

    Initially Reżā Shah’s government, like the Qajar government before it, encouraged aspiring professionals to study abroad, but, while urging them to absorb practical elements of Western culture, he also warned them to reject “harmful” influences and preserve their own national identity.

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  • EDUCATION xix. TEACHERS’-TRAINING COLLEGES

    Majd-al-Dīn Keyvānī

    Dānešgāh-e tarbīat-e moʿallem, the oldest institution for educating teachers in Persia, was founded  in Tehran in 1336/1918. It has gone through various phases and changes of name since.

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  • EDUCATION xviii. TEACHERS’-TRAINING SCHOOLS

    Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾ ī

    In March 1934 an act establishing lower and advanced schools for teachers’ training under the Ministry of Education (Wezārat-e maʿāref) was adopted by the Majles, and an operating charter for such schools was ratified in July of the same year.

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  • EDUCATION xx. ADULT EDUCATION

    Šahlā Kāẓemīpūr

    The Ministry of Education (Wezārat-e maʿāref) established adult-literacy classes in state schools considered suitable. They were to last two years and to consist of ninety-six two-hour classes each year, free of charge. Reading and writing Persian, arithmetic, and elementary history, geography, and civics were to be taught.

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  • EDUCATION xxi. EDUCATION ABROAD

    Afshin Matin-Asgari

    A survey of 350 students abroad between 1811 and 1920 indicates that more than 50 percent of the total studied in France, about 15 percent in Russia, and 5-10 percent in Germany, England, Switzerland, Istanbul, and Beirut. A small number studied in Egypt, India, and the United States.

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  • EDUCATION xxii. PHYSICAL EDUCATION

    Cross-Reference

    See PHYSICAL EDUCATION.

  • EDUCATION xxiii. MILITARY EDUCATION

    Cross-reference

    See MILITARY EDUCATION.

  • EDUCATION xxiv. EDUCATION IN POSTREVOLUTIONARY PERSIA, 1979-95

    Golnar Mehran

    The history of education in the Islamic Republic falls into two phases: from the revolution to the cease-fire between Persia and Iraq in 1367 Š./1988 (the revolutionary period), when Islamic ideology predominated, and the subsequent period of reconstruction and privatization.

  • EDUCATION xxv. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE QAJAR PERIOD

    Afsaneh Najmabadi

    The premodern conception of women’s education was varied. In some medieval books of ethical instruction and counsel teaching women to read was recommended, whereas other authors warned against it.

  • EDUCATION xxvi. WOMEN’S EDUCATION IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD AND AFTER

    EIr

    In the 1920s and 1930s women’s public education in Persia was established and grew rapidly.  In 1926-27 the enrollment of females in primary schools was about 17,000, 21 percent of total enrollment at that level.

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  • EDUCATION xxvii. IN AFGHANISTAN

    M. Mobin Shorish

    By the end of the 19th century, mosque schools (maktabs) and madrasas had lost their vitality, rigor, and scope. Internecine struggles among the ruling Abdālī  and subsequently among the Moḥammadzai clan ensured that no trace of regular and systematic education remained in the country.

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  • EDUCATION xxviii. IN TAJIKISTAN

    Habib Borjian

    Modern education in Tajikistan developed as the country emerged as a Soviet socialist republic, under the Soviet policy of standardization, with language as virtually the only variable. In Tajikistan, as in other Central Asian republics, this policy brought about nearly universal literacy.

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  • EFTEḴĀR DAWLATĀBĀDĪ, ʿABD-AL-WAHHĀB BOḴĀRĪ

    S. Moinul Haq

    (b. Ahmadnagar; d. Dawlatābād, 1776), Deccani biographer and poet in Urdu and Persian.

  • EFTEḴĀRĪĀN

    François de Blois

    a family of officials and poets from Qazvīn, reputed descendants of the caliph Abū Bakr, who flourished under the early Il-khans in the 13th century.

  • EGGPLANT

    Cross-Reference

    See BĀDENJĀN.

  • EḠLAMEŠ

    Cross-Reference

    See SAYF-AL-DĪN ʿEMĀD-AL-DĪN EḠLAMEŠ.

  • EGLANTINE

    Cross-Reference

    See NASTARAN.

  • EGYPT

    Multiple Authors

    relations with Persia and Afghanistan.

  • EGYPT i. Persians in Egypt in the Achaemenid period

    Edda Bresciani

    The last pharaoh of the Twenty-Sixth dynasty, Psamtik III, was defeated by Cambyses II in the battle of Pelusium in the eastern Nile delta in 525 B.C.E.; Egypt was then joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid empire.

  • EGYPT ii. Egyptian influence on Persia in the Pre-Islamic period

    Philip Huyse

    In the fields of artistic work, architecture and sculpture, the Persians do not seem to have had any lasting impact on Egyptian tradition, during either both Achaemenid occupations of Egypt, or the short-lived presence of the later Sasanians.

  • EGYPT iii. Relations in the Seleucid and Parthian periods

    Heinz Heinen

    It remains difficult to ascertain the proportion of ethnic Persians who survived the transition from Achaemenid to Hellenistic rule in Egypt or who came to that country after the conquest by Alexander.

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  • EGYPT iv. Relations in the Sasanian period

    Ruth Altheim-Stiehl

    The occupation of Egypt, beginning in 619 or 618, was one of the triumphs in the last Sasanian war against Byzantium. Ḵosrow II Parvēz had begun this war in retaliation for the assassination of the Byzantine emperor Mauricius.

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  • EGYPT v. Political And Commercial Relations In The Islamic Period

    Cross-reference

    See under FATIMIDS; AYYUBIDS; IL-KHANIDS DYNASTY.

  • EGYPT vi. Artistic relations with Persia in the Islamic period

    Jonathan M. Bloom

    Although direct evidence of artistic links between Persia and Egypt before the Mongol invasion of the Near East in the 13th century is limited, surviving works of art suggest that transfer of artistic ideas resulted from the movement of artisans and their works.

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  • EGYPT vii. Political and religious relations with Persia in the modern period

    Shahrough Akhavi

    The beginnings of modern diplomatic relations between Egypt and Persia may be dated from 1847, when Mīrzā Taqī Khan Amīr(-e) Kabīr signed the second treaty of Erzurum with the Ottomans.

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  • EGYPT viii. Egyptian cultural influence in Persia, modern times

    EIr

    Egypt, together with Turkey and the Caucasus, was one of the major sources of cultural and political influences in Persia during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

  • EGYPT ix. Iran’s cultural influence in the Islamic period

    Moḥammad el Saʿīd ʿAbd al-Moʾmen

    During the 16th-18th centuries, when Egypt was a province of the Ottoman empire, Persian literature was widely studied IN THE EMPIRE, and the Persian language was one of the administrative languages. 

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  • EGYPT x. Relations with Afghanistan

    Ludwig W. Adamec

    Both Egypt and Afghanistan came under British hegemony in the latter part of the 19th century; therefore no official relations existed between them.

  • EGYPT xi. Persian Journalism in Egypt

    Nassereddin Parvin

    A number of Persian journals were published in Egypt, after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869.

  • EHRBEDESTĀN

    Cross-Reference

    See HERBEDESTĀN.

  • ĒHRPAT

    Cross-Reference

    See HERBED.

  • EḤSĀN-AL-ʿOLŪM

    Cross-Reference

    See FARĀBĪ.

  • EḤSĀN-ALLĀH KHAN DŪSTDĀR

    Cosroe Chaqueri

    (ʿAlī-ābādī; b. Sārī, Māzandarān, 1883, d. Baku, ca. 1938), second most prominent figure in the the Soviet Socialist Republic of Iran (Ḥokūmat-e jomhūrī-e šūrawī-e Īrān), the radicalized second phase of the Jangalī movement in the years 1920-21.

  • EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA

    Īraj Afšār

    (1839-92), first son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār and maternal grandson of Moḥammad-ʿAlī Mīrzā Dawlatšāh.

  • EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA, ḴĀNLAR KHAN

    Kambiz Eslami

    (d. Tehran, April 1862), seventeenth son of ʿAbbās Mīrzā and governor of several regions in Persia during the reigns of Moḥammad Shah and Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qajar.

  • EḤTEŠĀM-AL-DAWLA, ḴĀNLAR KHAN

    Iraj Afšār

    (1818-88), also known as Eḥtešām-al-Molk and Moʿtamed-al-Dawla, second son of Farhād Mīrzā Moʿtamed-al-Dawla Qājār.

  • EḤTEŠĀM-AL-SALṬANA

    Mehrdad Amanat

    (1863-1936), Mīrzā Maḥmūd Khan ʿAlāmīr Qajar, governor, diplomat, and speaker of the Persian Parliament.

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  • EḤTĪĀJ

    Nassereddin Parvin

    weekly newspaper published in Tabrīz by ʿAlīqolī Khan Tabrīzī, known as Ṣafarov, who had distributed political šab-nāmas (lit. "night letters") in 1892.

  • EḤYĀ-YEʿOLŪM-AL-DĪN

    Cross-Reference

    See ḠAZĀLĪ ii.

  • EILERS, WILHELM

    Rüdiger Schmitt

    In 1958 Eilers was appointed to the professorship in Oriental philology at the University of Würzburg. Although he was offered in 1962 the professorship in ancient Near Eastern studies at the University of Vienna, he stayed in Würzburg and taught there until his retirement in 1974.

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  • EJĀZA

    Devin J. Stewart

    "lit. permission, license, authorization"; a term describing a variety of academic certificates ranging in length from a few lines to many fascicles.

  • EJMĀʿ

    Devin J. Stewart

    lit. "consensus"; a technical term in Islamic jurisprudence (oṣūl al-feqh).

  • EJMIATSIN

    S. Peter Cowe

    currently designation of three separate but interrelated entities: the cathedral and monastic complex which forms the residence of the supreme patriarch and catholicos of all the Armenians, the city in which this complex is located, and the district of which the latter is the administrative center.

  • EJTEHĀD

    Aron Zysow

    in Shiʿism, an Arabic verbal noun having the literal sense of "exerting effort."

  • EJTEMĀʿĪŪN, FERQA-YE

    Janet Afary

    (FEAM; lit., "Social-Democratic party"), an organization founded in 1905 by Persian emigrants in Transcaucasia with the help of local revolutionaries.

  • EKBĀTĀN

    Cross-Reference

    See ECBATANA.