Table of Contents

• CITRUS FRUITS

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  in Persia, only the citrus trees and fruits of the genus Citrus L. (family Rutaceae, subfamily Aurantioideae) need be considered.

• CITY COUNCILS

  Ḥosayn Farhūdī

  (anjoman-e šahr) in Persia.

• CIVIL CODE

  Naser Yeganeh

  (qānūn-e madanī) of Persia, a series of regulations controlling all civic and social relations between individuals in the various circumstances of their lives.

• CLASS SYSTEM

  Multiple Authors

  (ṭabaqāt-e ejtemāʿī), a generic term referring to various types of social group, including castes, estates, status groups, and occupational categories.

• CLASS SYSTEM i. In the Avesta

  Prods Oktor Skjærvø

  The evidence for the existence of a highly developed class structure in the community in which the Avestan texts were composed is very slight, and the available information must be culled from sources chronologically as far apart as the Avesta itself and the Pahlavi texts.

• CLASS SYSTEM ii. In the Median and Achaemenid Periods

  Pierre Briant

  There are strong grounds for supposing that, for some purposes at least, Persians still defined their class structure in terms of the ancient Iranian social divisions outlined in parts of the Avesta, where individuals are classified by basic function as priests, warriors, and farmers.

• CLASS SYSTEM iii. In the Parthian and Sasanian Periods

  Mansour Shaki

  The scant and fragmentary information available on the Parthian period does not permit a comprehensive descrip­tion of social structure; in fact, the vast but decentralized empire encompassed a variety of social structures.

• CLASS SYSTEM iv. Classes In Medieval Islamic Persia

  Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi

  A new social stratification and conception of inequality seems to have gradually emerged under the influence of: (1) Islamic ideals of equality and merit; (2) pre-Islamic Persian and Arabian ideals and practices of social inequality; and above all (3) rivalries among social groups over wealth, prestige, and power.

• CLASS SYSTEM v. Classes in the Qajar Period

  Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi

  During the Qajar period there continued to be a fundamental division between a narrow stratum of courtiers, state officials, tribal leaders, religious notables, landlords and great merchants at the top and the vast majority of peasants, tribespeople, and laborers in agriculture, traditional industries, and services at the bottom.

• CLASS SYSTEM vi. Classes in the Pahlavi Period

  Ahmad Ashraf and Ali Banuazizi

  Under Pahlavi rule (1304-58 Š./1925-79) Persia be­came a powerful centralized state with a sprawling public sector that by 1355 Š./1976 employed one-third of the urban work force.

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• CLAVIJO, RUY GONZÁLEZ DE

  Beatrice Forbes Manz and Margaret L. Dunaway

  (d. 2 April 1412), ambassador from King Henry III of Castile and Leon to Tīmūr in the years 805-08/1403-06 and author of an important travel account.

• CLEANSING

  Multiple Authors

  This article treats cleansing practices in Zoroastrianism and in Islamic Persia.

• CLEANSING i. In Zoroastrianism

  Mary Boyce

  Cleansing is conceived as a cosmic and individual activity is an essential element in Zoroastrianism, which teaches that the assault of the Evil Spirit, Angra Mainyu, brings defilement on all the good creations of Ahura Mazdā and that they, in their struggle for salvation, must ceaselessly strive to rid themselves of it.

• CLEANSING ii. In Islamic Persia

  Hamid Algar

  The identification of unclean objects (najāsāt) and of the factors or agents that, within certain limits, may cleanse them (moṭahherāt) depends more on the interpretation of prophetic tradition and on juristic deduc­tion than it does on clear Koranic injunctions.

• CLEARCHUS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (b. ca. 390 or 410 BCE, the latter date based on Memnon’s report of his age as fifty-eight years at his death in 352), tyrant of Pontic Heracleia (modern Ereğli) in 363-52 BCE.

• CLEARCHUS OF SPARTA

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (b. Sparta ca. 450 BCE, d. Babylon 401 BCE), son of Rhamphias, Greek general in the service of Cyrus the Younger.

• CLEITARCHUS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (Gk. Kleítarchos), Greek histo­rian of the 4th century BCE, son of the historian Dinon of Colophon and author of a history of the exploits of Alexander the Great.

• CLEMEN, CARL CHRISTIAN

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (1865-1940), Ger­man Protestant theologian and historian of religions who compiled the classical passages on Iranian reli­gion.

• CLEMENT of Alexandria

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  (Titus Flavius Clemens, probably b. Athens ca. 150 C.E., d. Cappadocia ca. 215), Greek convert to Christianity who became the leading theologian of his time, a polemicist particularly noted for his attempts to reconcile Greco-Roman thought with Christian teachings.

• CLEMENT, PSEUDO-

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  the unknown author of a work of fiction falsely ascribed to Pope Clement I (88-­97 CE) and now generally known as the Pseudo­-Clementines, which contains passages reflecting myths and teachings of Persian origin.

• CLIBANARIUS

  Cross-reference

  in Roman sources a designation for a Parthian armored cavalryman. See ASB; ASB-SAVĀRĪ.

• CLIMATE

  Eckart Ehlers

  both the climate of Persia as a whole and the differences in weather among its various re­gions are determined primarily by its location within the arid belt of the eastern hemisphere.

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• CLIME

  Aḥmad Tafażżolī

  (kešvar), ancient division of the earth’s surface.

• CLOCKS

  Willem Floor

  devices for measuring and registering time.

• CLOQUET, LOUIS-ANDRÉ-ERNEST

  Lutz Richter-Bernburg

  (1818-1855), French anatomist and French minister to the court at Tehran 1846-55, serving as personal physician to Moḥammad Shah (r. 1834-48) and Nāṣer-al-Dīn Shah Qājār (r. 1848-96).

• CLOTHING

  Multiple Authors

  (Ar. and Pers. lebās, Pers. pūšāk, jāma, raḵt). The articles in this series are devoted to clothing of the Iranian peoples in successive historical periods and of various regions and ethnic groups in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Iran.

• CLOTHING i. General remarks

  EIr

  Of the twenty-seven subsequent articles in this series eleven are devoted to clothing of the Iranian peoples in successive historical periods and fourteen to modern clothing of various regions and ethnic groups in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and Persia. The remaining two are compilations of terminology for various types of garment in these settings.

• CLOTHING ii. In the Median and Achaemenid periods

  Shapur Shahbazi

  Information on the dress worn by the peoples of the Median and Achaemenid empires is mainly related to male costume.

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• CLOTHING iii. In the Arsacid period

  Trudi Kawami

  The Parthian period (ca. 250 b.c.e.-224 c.e.), when the Arsacid dynasty ruled, or claimed to rule, Persia, was the period in which trousers and sleeved coats became common garb throughout the Near East.

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• CLOTHING iv. In the Sasanian period

  Elsie H. Peck

  Investigation of female dress in the Sasanian period (224-651 c.e.) is hampered by the small number of preserved representations of women relative to those of men.

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• CLOTHING v. In Pre-Islamic Eastern Iran

  Gerd Gropp

  Modern knowledge of the dress of the eastern Iranian peoples is derived from literary and archeological sources, which can be compared, though with caution. Although there were regional differences, as well as a broad change over time, on the whole the costume remained fairly uniform.

• CLOTHING vi. Of the Sogdians

  Aleksandr Naymark

  The very few representations of Sogdian people that survive from before the 5th century c.e. do not allow any conclusion more specific about their clothing than that it was part of the general historical complex of Middle Eastern dress, specifically the category associ­ated with the Central Asian steppes.

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• CLOTHING vii. Of the Iranian Tribes on the Pontic Steppes and in the Caucaus

  S. A. Yatsenko

  The main attention of those who have studied the Iranians of the eastern European steppes has been focused on the headdress and the caftan of the aristoc­racy.

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• CLOTHING viii. In Persia from the Arab conquest to the Mongol invasion

  Elsie H. Peck

  Investiga­tion of costume in the Omayyad period is hampered by the scarcity of surviving representations; furthermore, many of those that do survive are purely symbolic and do not reflect what was actually worn.

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• CLOTHING ix. In the Mongol and Timurid periods

  Eleanor Sims

  It is difficult to discuss clothing in Persia in the Il-­khanid and Timurid periods with any certainty because very few garments, in fact, very few textiles, actually survive from these periods.

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• CLOTHING x. In the Safavid and Qajar periods

  Layla S. Diba

  In the late 15th century the poet Neẓām-al-Dīn Maḥmūd Qārī (Neẓām Qārī) of Yazd devoted an entire collection of poems to the subject of dress, the Dīvān-­e albesa.

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• CLOTHING xi. In the Pahlavi and post-Pahlavi periods

  ʿAlī-Akbar Saʿīdī Sīrjānī

  The clothing of Persians during the early years of the Pahlavi dynasty was generally similar to that of the Qajar period, reflecting differences among tribes, villages, and regions, as well as among classes.

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• CLOTHING xiii. Clothing in Afghanistan

  Nancy Hatch Dupree

  Traditional clothing reflects these geographic and residential variations and also serves to express individual and group identity, social and economic status, stages of the life-cycle, and changing sociopolitical trends, which ultimately lead to new styles, as well as to exchanges of clothing types.

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• CLOTHING xiv. Clothing of the Hazāra tribes

  Klaus Ferdinand

  Much of the information given here is based on the author’s ethnographic work among the Hazāra in 1953-55 and in the Danish National Museum collection in 1948 and 1953-54.

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• CLOTHING xv. Clothing of Tajikistan

  Guzel’ Maĭtdinova

  The most common traditional garment is a straight dress, widening at the bottom, worn over trousers. The long, full sleeves generally cover the hands, though in some mountain regions sleeves are closely fitted to the wrists.

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• CLOTHING xvi. Kurdish clothing in Persia

  Shirin Mohseni and Peter Andrews

  Kurds can easily be recognized by their dress, which has quite distinctive features, though there are sig­nificant variations among regions and social classes.

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• CLOTHING xvii. Clothing of the Kurdish Jews

  Ora Shwartz-Beeri

  The following description of the clothing worn since the beginning of this century by the Jews of Persian and Iraqi Kurdistan is based on field observations and interviews among the immigrant community in Israel and on a visit to northern Persia in 1974-79.

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• CLOTHING xviii. Clothing of the Baluch in Persia

  Iran Ala Firouz and Mehremonīr Jahānbānī

  This region is particularly noted for a distinctive type of richly embroidered women’s cos­tume. The embroidery, traditionally produced in cottage in­dustries, is even now, despite inevitable changes, particularly in the color combinations of the needle­work, one of the popular handicrafts for which an active market exists.

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• CLOTHING xix. Clothing of the Baluch in Pakistan and Afghanistan

  Pamela Hunte

  In contrast to the stark landscape of much of Paki­stan and Afghanistan, the clothing of the Baluch is distinguished by colorful embroidery patterns that serve as ethnic markers, helping to differentiate Baluch from Pashtuns (Pathans), Punjabis, Sindhis, and other ethnic groups in these highly pluralistic areas.

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• CLOTHING xx. Clothing of Khorasan

  Ḥosayn-ʿAlī Beyhaqī

  Owing to different climatic regions and the existence of various tribes in Khorasan, the province is distin­guished by a broad variety of clothing styles, recog­nizable in design, color, and decoration. 

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• CLOTHING xxi. Turkic and Kurdish clothing of Azerbaijan

  P. A. Andrews And M. Andrews

  In Azerbaijan as a whole, including both Persian and Soviet territories, the traditional costume, now worn largely in a tribal context, retains the form of garments much as they were at the end of the 19th century.

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• CLOTHING xxii. Clothing of the Caspian area

  Christian Bromberger

  In several aspects the traditional dress (Gīlaki lebās; Ṭāleši ḵalā) of Gīlān and Māzandarān bears a struc­tural resemblance to that of other rural regions of Persia. It is constructed in successive layers, often of similar pieces superimposed, like women’s skirts or men’s shirts in winter. 

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• CLOTHING xxiii. Clothing of the Persian Gulf area

  R. Shahnaz Nadjmabadi

  The people on the shores of the Persian Gulf are divided among three provinces, each with a distinctive style of dress: Ḵūzestān, Būšehr, and Hormozgān. The last is the main focus here. Women’s clothing consists of four basic parts: head covering, dress, trousers, and shoes. The normal head covering is a rectangular black scarf of thin silk (maknā) wrapped round the head and fastened on top with a metal pin (čollāba).

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• CLOTHING xxiv. Clothing of the Qašqāʾī tribes

  Lois Beck

  In the 19-20th centuries the Qašqāʾī constituted a tribal confederacy of people of ethnolinguistically diverse origin; they were predominantly nomadic pastoralists who migrated seasonally between the low­lands and the highlands in the southern Zagros mountains. They created their own distinctive dress from market-derived goods and the work of village and urban craft specialists.

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• CLOTHING xxv. Clothing of the Baḵtīārīs and other Lori speaking tribes

  Jean-Pierre Digard

  Members of the Lori-speaking ethnic groups, including the Lors themselves, the Baḵtīārīs, and the Boīr-Aḥmadīs are characterized by similar styles of dress, with variations reflecting differences in tribe and social class of the wearer, variations that can have strong symbolic meaning, particularly among the Baḵtīārīs.

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