Table of Contents

• COMPUTERS in Persia

  Moḥammad-Reżā Moḥammadīfar

  electronic data-processing equipment, in Persia.

• CONCESSIONS

  Willem Floor, Mansoureh Ettehadieh [neẓām māfī]

  (emtīāzāt), grants by a state to citizens, aliens, or other states of rights to carry out specific economic activities and of capitulatory rights on its territory.

• CONCOBAR

  Cross-Reference

  See KANGĀVAR.

• CONFEDERATION OF IRANIAN STUDENTS, NATIONAL UNION

  Afshin Matin-Asgari

  (Konfederāsīūn-e jahānī-e moḥaṣṣelīn wa dānešjūyān-e īrānī etteḥādīya-ye mellī), an organization purporting to be the political and corporate (ṣenfī) representative of Persian students abroad, as well as in Persia, during the 1960s and 1970s.

• CONFEDERATIONS, TRIBAL

  Richard Tapper

  tribal groups commonly comprise several levels of organization, from a nomad camp to (sometimes) a nation-state, with different criteria defining membership of groups at each level.

• CONFESSIONS

  Jes P. Asmussen

  i. In the Zoroastrian faith. ii. In Manicheism.

• CONGRATULATIONS

  Žāla Āmūzgār

  the custom of conveying congratulations on such happy occasions as the birth of a child, a birthday anniversary, a marriage, a coronation, or a national or religious festival.

• CONIFERAE

  Cross-Reference

  See DERAḴT.

• CONJUNCTIONS

  Cross-Reference

  See QERĀN.

• CONON OF ATHENS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  (b. before 444 BCE., d. after 392 BCE),  a leading Athenian admiral during the Peloponnesian and Corinthian wars.

• CONSERVATION

  Cross-Reference

  See ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION.

• CONSERVATION AND RESTORATION OF PERSIAN MONUMENTS

  Eugenio Galdieri and Kerāmat-Allāh Afsar

  in almost every historical period some restoration of Persian monuments has been undertaken either by state authorities or through the efforts of charitable individuals.

• CONSPIRACY THEORIES

  Ahmad Ashraf

  a complex of beliefs attributing the course of Persian history and politics to the machinations of hostile foreign powers and secret organizations.

• CONSTANTIUS II

  Cross-reference

  See SHAPUR II.

• CONSTELLATIONS

  D. N. MacKenzie

  Nowhere in the Gathas of Zoroaster or the Old Persian inscriptions of the Achaemenids are even individual stars mentioned. The first and only two constellations to be named in Old Iranian sources are Ursa Major and the Pleiades, in the Younger Avesta. The next possible mentions of constellations are of two kinds, both dating from late Middle Persian times but only actually attested in works or manuscripts from the Islamic period.

  This Article Has Images/Tables.

• CONSTITUTION OF THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC

  Said Amir Arjomand

  After the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy in 1979, Persia was declared an Islamic republic. Until that time there had been virtually no discussion, outside religious circles, of the conception of welāyat-e faqīh (lit. “mandate of the jurist”) propounded by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. During the revolutionary turmoil of 1978-79, only the vaguer notion of “Islamic government” was current.

• CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF AFGHANISTAN

  M. Ḥassan Kākaṛ

  When Amir ʿAbd-al-Raḥmān Khan (r. 1297-1319/1880-1901) acceded to power, he established a centralized monarchy in Afghanistan for the first time.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION

  Multiple Authors

  (Enqelāb-e mašrūṭa) of 1323-29/1905-11, during which a parliament and constitutional monarchy were established in Persia.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION i. Intellectual background

  Abbas Amanat

  The establishment of a constitutional regime in Persia was the chief objective of the Revolution of 1323-29/1905-11.

• CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION ii. Events

  Vanessa Martin

  After 1308/1890 the Persian government found itself in increasing financial difficulties, as inflation produced a sharp decline in the value of the land tax and the silver qerān lost value against the pound sterling with the rapid fall of international silver prices at the end of the 19th century.