Table of Contents

• ČALABĪ, ʿĀREF

  Cross-Reference

  See ČELEBĪ, ʿĀREF.

• ČALABĪĀNLŪ

  Pierre Oberling

  a Turkicized tribe dwelling, for the most part, in the dehestān of Garmādūz in Aras­bārān region of northern Azerbaijan.

• ČĀLDERĀN

  Michael J. McCaffrey

  battle of, an engagement fought near Ḵᵛoy in northwestern Azerbaijan on 23 August 1514, resulting in a decisive victory for the Ottoman forces under Sultan Salīm I over the Safavids led by Shah Esmāʿīl I. No single event prompted Salīm’s decision to wage war. It was the direct and inevitable result of the establishment of the Safavid state.

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• CALENDARS

  Antonio Panaino, Reza Abdollahy, Daniel Balland

  i. Pre-Islamic calendars. ii. In the Islamic period. iii. Afghan calendars. iv. Other modern calendars. Although evidence of calendrical traditions in Iran can be traced back to the 2nd millennium B.C., before the lifetime of Zoroaster, the earliest calendar that is fully preserved dates from the Achaemenid period. The Old Persian calendar was lunisolar, like that of the Babylonians, with twelve months of thirty days each.

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• ČĀLI

  Cross-Reference

  See ČĀL.

• CALIPHS AND THE CALIPHATE

  Hamid Algar

  as viewed by the Shiʿites of Persia.

• CALLIAS, PEACE OF

  Ernst Badian

  peace made by Xerxes and/or Artaxerxes I with Athens and her confederacy in the 5th century B.C.

• CALLIGRAPHY

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  (ḵaṭṭāṭī, ḵᵛošnevīsī), the writing system in use in Persia since early Islamic times, which grew out of the Arabic alphabet. Comparison of some of the scripts that developed on Persian ground, particularly Persian-style Kufic, with the Pahlavi and Avestan scripts reveals a number of similarities between them.

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• CALLIGRAPHY (continued)

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  VII. Calligraphy outside Persia. This article treats regional styles of calligraphy as found in Afghanistan, India and Pakistan, Asia Minor and Turkey, Transoxiana and Turkey, and Caucasia.

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• CALLISTHENES

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  the name of a Greek historian of the period of Alexander the Great.

• CALMEYER, Peter

  W. Kleiss and A. Shapur Shahbazi

  German archaeologist and Iranologist (b. 5 September 1930 in Halle, d. 22 November 1995 in Berlin).

• ČĀLŪS

  Bernard Hourcade

  a small town in western Māzandarān (šahrestān of Nowšahr, baḵš of Čālūs) located about 8 km from the Caspian coast at an elevation of 7 m.

• CAMA ORIENTAL INSTITUTE

  M. F. Kanga, Kaikhusroo M. JamaspAsa

  (K. R. Cama Oriental Institute), a research institute in Bombay established in memory of the Parsi orientalist, teacher, and social reformer Kharshedji Rustomji Cama, inaugurated 18 December 1916.

• CAMA, KHARSHEDJI RUSTAMH

  James R. Russell

  (1831-1909), Parsi Zoroastrian scholar and community leader. Cama worked for the organization of Parsi madres­sas (madrasas), and his consultation was sought also in the establishment of Hindu and Muslim schools. He was associated with the University of Bombay and helped establish the courses in Avestan and Pahlavi. He wrote extensively in Gujarati on Zoroastrianism.

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• CAMBADENE

  A. Shapur Shahbazi

  the name of a region (dahyāuš) in ancient Media and present Persian Kurdistan.

• CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF IRAN

  Hubert S. G. Darke

  a survey of the history and historical geography of the land which is present-day Iran, as well as other territories inhabited by peoples of Iranian descent, from prehistoric times up to the present in seven volumes (vol. III being a double volume), of which the first volume was published in 1968 and the last in 1989.

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• CAMBYSENE

  Marie Louise Chaumont

  name of a region mentioned for the first time in Strabo’s Geography as one of the northernmost provinces of Armenia, bordering on the Caucasus mountains, and also as a rugged and waterless region through which a road connecting Albania and Iberia passed.

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• CAMBYSES

  Muhammad A. Dandamayev

  (OPers. Kambūǰiya-, Elamite Kanbuziya, Akkadian Kambuziya, Aram. Knbwzy), the name of two kings of the Achaemenid dynasty.

• ČAMČAMĀL

  Abdollah Mardukh

  (Kurdish čam “river” and Čamāl/Jamāl, personal name; in the sources also writ­ten Jamjamāl), a fertile dehestān of Ṣaḥna baḵš in Kermānšāhān (Bāḵtarān) province located to the south and west of Ṣaḥna on the Kermānšāh-Hamadān road and watered by Gāmāsb and Dīnavar rivers.

• CAMEL

  Richard W. Bulliet, Moḥammad-Nāṣer Ḡolāmreżaʾī, Eqbāl Yaḡmāʾī, Mahmoud Omidsalar

  (šotor). Artifacts from ancient Iran indicate that only the Bactrian camel was part of the native fauna of greater Iran, though it was probably not numerous. Possibly the earliest evidence is a painted image on a ceramic shard from Tepe Sialk, probably datable between 3000 and 2500 B.C.

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• CAMEL THORN

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  (Alhagi Adans. spp.), common name for wild thorny suffrutescent plants of the Papilionaceae family, called šotor-ḵār and ḵār-e šotor (lit. “camel’s thorn”) in Persian.

• CAMERON, GEORGE GLENN

  Gernot L. Windfuhr

  philologist and his­torian, b. 30 July 1905 in Washington, Pennsylvania, d. 14 September 1979 in Ann Arbor, Michigan.

• CAMPBELL, JOHN

  Kamran Ekbal

  (1799-1870), British envoy to Persia, 1830-35.

• CAMPHOR

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  a strong-smelling volatile white solid essential oil obtained from two genera of the camphor tree and used from ancient times in Persia as an aromatic with antiseptic and insect-repelling properties.

• ČAMRŪŠ

  Alan V. Williams

  a mythical bird that in the Pahlavi books, of all birds of land and sky, is second only to the Sēn bird in worth.

• CANADA i. Iranian Studies in

  Colin Paul Mitchell

  several factors in the last half-century have led to a rapid expansion of Iranian studies in Canada in the fields of history, literature, language, philosophy, religion, art history, and archaeology.

• CANADA v. Iranian Community in Canada

  M. Mannani, N. Rahimieh, K. Sheibani

  Canada remains among the most popular destinations for Iranians seeking to emigrate, and Iranian immigrants to Canada are the fifth most numerous of any nationality.

• ČANDARBHĀN BARAHMAN

  Cross-Reference

  See ČANDRA BHĀN BARAHMAN.

• CANDLE

  Mahmoud Omidsalar, J. T. P. de Bruijn

  (Pers.-Ar. šamʿ); the Arabic word literally means “beeswax."

• CANDLESTICKS

  Linda Komaroff

  from the late 6th/12th through the early 10th/16th century one of the most common types of implement produced as a luxury metalware in Iran. Their form, decoration, and epigraphic program reflect contemporary trends in Iranian metalwork.

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• ČANDRA BHĀN

  Sharif Husain Qāsemī

  (or Čandarbhān Barahman), Indian poet and writer in Persian (b. Lahore, date unknown, d. Lahore 1073/1662-63).

• ČANDŪ LAʿL ŠĀDĀN

  Sharif Husain Qasemi

  Maharaja, states­man and poet in Persian and Urdu (b. 1175/1761-62, d. 7 Rabīʿ II 1261/15 April 1845 at Hyderabad).

• CANDYS

  Rüdiger Schmitt

  name probably of Iranian origin used by Greek authors for a Persian garment.

• ČANG

  Ḥosayn-ʿAlī Mallāḥ

  “harp," a musical instrument of the free-stringed family.

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• ČANGRANGHĀČA-NĀMA

  Žāla Āmūzgār

  a narrative work in Persian verse by Zartošt or Zarātošt, son of Bahrām-e Paždū, a poet of the 7th/13th century.

• CANNIZZARO, FRANCESCO ADOLFO

  Antonio Panaino

  (b. Messina, 13 July 1867; d. Rome, 24 April 1914), Italian autodidact of Oriental languages and translator of the Vidēvdād.

• ČĀP

  Willem Floor

  “print, printing,” a Persian word probably derived from Hindi chāpnā, “to print.”

• ČĀPĀR

  Willem Floor

  (or čapar < Turk. čapmak “to gallop”), post rider.

• CAPITAL CITIES

  A. Shapur Shahbazi, C. Edmund Bosworth

  these centers played important diplomatic and administrative roles in Iranian history, closely linked to the fortunes of the ruling families.

• CAPITALS

  Wolfram Kleiss

  in architectural terminology, tran­sitional elements between weight-bearing supports (see COLUMNS) and the roofs or vaults supported. The development of the capital began in Assyria, when a tree trunk was inserted in the earth with another trunk or branch laid in the fork to carry the roof construction.

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• CAPPADOCIA

  Michael Weiskopf

  Anatolian Achaemenid satrapy, Hellenistic-era Iranian kingdom, and imperial Roman province. A rolling plateau cut by mountains, Cappadocia in the east contains bare central highlands, in the west a nearly treeless land­scape, and in the north mountainous tracts marked by fertile valleys, especially on the lower Halys river.

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• CAPUCHINS IN PERSIA

  Francis Richard

  from 1626 onward the French Capuchins established a number of missionary posts in the Near East.

• ČĀR BAKR

  G. A. Pugachenkova

  (lit. “four Bakrs”), family necropolis of the powerful Jūybāri shaikhs near the village of Sumitan.

• CARACAL

  Hūšang Aʿlam

  (Felis caracal Schreber = Lynx caracal, Caracal caracal), also called “desert lynx” or “Persian lynx”; in Persian, sīāhgūš, lit. “black-eared.”

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• CARACALLA

  Erich Kettenhofen

  the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, known as Caracalla because of his hooded robe (b. 188, d. 217), who conducted a campaign against the Parthians.

• CARAKA

  Ronald E. Emmerick

  the name of an Indian physician associated with one of the major works on Indian medicine (the Carakasaṃhitā), as well as the name of King Kaniṣka’s physician.

• ČARAND PARAND

  Ḡolām-Ḥosayn Yūsofī

  (Čarand o parand), literally “fiddle-faddle,” the title of satirical pieces of social and political criticism in the form of short narratives, brief announcements, telegrams, news reports, etc., by ʿAlī-Akbar Dehḵodā.

• CARAVAN

  Bert G. Fragner

  a form of collective transport of men and goods.

• CARAVANSARY

  Moḥammad-Yūsuf Kīānī and Wolfram Kleiss

  a building that served as the inn of the Orient, providing accommodation for commercial, pilgrim, postal, and especially official travelers. The term kārvān-sarā was commonly used in Iran and is preserved in several place names. The normal caravansary consisted of a square or rectangular plan centered around a courtyard with only one entrance and arrangements for defense if necessary.

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• CARD GAMES

  Mahdi Roschanzamir

  (ganjafa-bāzī, waraq-bāzī), card games were invented in China in the 7th-8th centuries and via India were brought to Persia, whence they reached the Arab world and Europe.