Table of Contents

• AĒŠMA

  J. P. Asmussen

  “wrath” in Younger Avestan, both metaphysically, as a distinct demon, and psychologically as the function and quality of that demon realized in man.

• ĀFARĪN LĀHŪRĪ

  Z. Ahmad and W. Kirmani

  Punjabi Persian poet (b. ca. 1070/1660, d. 1154/1741).

• ĀFARĪN-NĀMA

  J. Matīnī

  a poem in the motaqāreb meter by the 4th/10th century poet Abū Šakūr Balḵī.

• AFḠĀNĪ, JAMĀL-AL-DĪN

  N. R. Keddie

  Outstanding ideologist and political activist of the late 19th century Muslim world, whose influence has continued strong in many Muslim countries (1254-1314/1838 or 39-97).

• AFGHAN

  Ch. M. Kieffer

  (afḡān), in current political usage, any citizen of Afghanistan, whatever his ethnic, tribal, or religious affiliation. According to the 1977 constitution of the Republic of Afghanistan (1973-78), all Afghans are equal in rights and obligations before the law.

• AFGHANI

  ʿA. Ḥabībī

  (afḡānī), the unit of currency in modern Afghanistan. 

• AFGHANISTAN

  Multiple Authors

  (Islamic Republic of Afghanistan), landlocked country located in Central Asia and bordered by Iran to the west, Pakistan to the south and east, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan to the north, and China to the far northeast.

• AFGHANISTAN i. Geography

  J. F. Shroder, Jr.

  Afghanistan has an extreme continental, arid climate which is characterized by desert, steppe, and highland temperature and precipitation regimes.

• AFGHANISTAN ii. Flora

  M. Šafīq Yūnos

  Climate studies have shown the importance of precipitation and altitude as conditioning factors for the diversity of Afghanistan’s flora.

• AFGHANISTAN iii. Fauna

  K. Habibi

  The Hindu Kush mountains have been a barrier to a westward dispersal of most elements of the Indian fauna realm, and as a result most of the fauna is typically Palearctic. 

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